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conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_the_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_and_northern_Europe,_1940_and_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_and_northern_Europe,_1940_and_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Western and northern Europe, 1940 and 1941</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Western_and_northern_Europe,_1940_and_1941-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Western and northern Europe, 1940 and 1941 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Western_and_northern_Europe,_1940_and_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Norwegian_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norwegian_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Norwegian campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norwegian_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Battle_of_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Battle_of_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Battle of France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Battle_of_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_war_at_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_war_at_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The war at sea</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_war_at_sea-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The war at sea subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_war_at_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opening_moves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_moves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Opening moves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_moves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_the_Atlantic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_the_Atlantic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Battle of the Atlantic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_the_Atlantic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_'Happy_Time'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_'Happy_Time'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>First 'Happy Time'</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_'Happy_Time'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_'Happy_Time'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_'Happy_Time'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Second 'Happy Time'</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_'Happy_Time'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_against_the_U-boats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_against_the_U-boats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Success against the U-boats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_against_the_U-boats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arctic_convoys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arctic_convoys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Arctic convoys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arctic_convoys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The Mediterranean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Taranto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Taranto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Battle of Taranto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Taranto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Cape_Matapan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Cape_Matapan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Battle of Cape Matapan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Cape_Matapan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yugoslavia,_Greece,_and_Crete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yugoslavia,_Greece,_and_Crete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yugoslavia,_Greece,_and_Crete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>Malta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large-scale_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large-scale_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.5</span> <span>Large-scale invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large-scale_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aegean_sweep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aegean_sweep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.6</span> <span>Aegean sweep</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aegean_sweep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Overlord_and_the_Normandy_landings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Overlord_and_the_Normandy_landings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Operation Overlord and the Normandy landings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Overlord_and_the_Normandy_landings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>The East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean_disaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean_disaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Indian Ocean disaster</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean_disaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean_retreat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean_retreat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Indian Ocean retreat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean_retreat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean_strike" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean_strike"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Indian Ocean strike</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean_strike-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blockade_of_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blockade_of_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.4</span> <span>Blockade of Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blockade_of_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_North_African_desert,_Middle_East,_and_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_North_African_desert,_Middle_East,_and_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The North African desert, Middle East, and Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_North_African_desert,_Middle_East,_and_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The North African desert, Middle East, and Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_North_African_desert,_Middle_East,_and_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>The Offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq,_Syria_and_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq,_Syria_and_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Iraq, Syria and Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq,_Syria_and_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethiopia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethiopia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Ethiopia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethiopia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_in_the_Western_Desert" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_in_the_Western_Desert"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>War in the Western Desert</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_in_the_Western_Desert-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Torch_and_El_Alamein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Torch_and_El_Alamein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Operation Torch and El Alamein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Torch_and_El_Alamein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_for_Tunisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_for_Tunisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Battle for Tunisia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_for_Tunisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Italian_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Italian_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Italian campaign</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Italian_campaign-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Italian campaign subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Italian_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_Sicily" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_Sicily"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Invasion of Sicily</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_Sicily-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surrender_of_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surrender_of_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Surrender of Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surrender_of_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Winter_Line,_Anzio_and_the_Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Winter_Line,_Anzio_and_the_Battle_of_Monte_Cassino"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>The Winter Line, Anzio and the Battle of Monte Cassino</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Winter_Line,_Anzio_and_the_Battle_of_Monte_Cassino-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakthrough_to_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakthrough_to_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Breakthrough to Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakthrough_to_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Gothic_Line_and_victory_in_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Gothic_Line_and_victory_in_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>The Gothic Line and victory in Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Gothic_Line_and_victory_in_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_liberation_of_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_liberation_of_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>The liberation of Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_liberation_of_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The liberation of Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_liberation_of_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Operation_Overlord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Overlord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Operation Overlord</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Overlord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breakout_from_Normandy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakout_from_Normandy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Breakout from Normandy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakout_from_Normandy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Riviera_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Riviera_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Riviera invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Riviera_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Market_Garden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Market_Garden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Operation Market Garden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Market_Garden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Walcheren" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walcheren"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Walcheren</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walcheren-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_the_Bulge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_the_Bulge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Battle of the Bulge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_the_Bulge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crossing_the_Rhine_and_final_surrender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crossing_the_Rhine_and_final_surrender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Crossing the Rhine and final surrender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crossing_the_Rhine_and_final_surrender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Far_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Far_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The Far East</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Far_East-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Far East subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Far_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disaster_in_Malaya_and_Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disaster_in_Malaya_and_Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Disaster in Malaya and Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disaster_in_Malaya_and_Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burma_Campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burma_Campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Burma Campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burma_Campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forced_out_of_Burma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_out_of_Burma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Forced out of Burma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forced_out_of_Burma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forgotten_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forgotten_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Forgotten army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forgotten_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kohima_and_Imphal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kohima_and_Imphal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Kohima and Imphal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kohima_and_Imphal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burma_retaken" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burma_retaken"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.4</span> <span>Burma retaken</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burma_retaken-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.5</span> <span>Malaya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Okinawa_and_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Okinawa_and_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Okinawa and Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Okinawa_and_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_air_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_air_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>The air war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_air_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The air war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_air_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Britain:_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Britain:_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Battle of Britain: 1940</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Britain:_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategic_bombing_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategic_bombing_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Strategic bombing theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategic_bombing_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_RAF" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_RAF"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Expansion of the RAF</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_RAF-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combined_bomber_offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combined_bomber_offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Combined bomber offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combined_bomber_offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Airfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Airfields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_on_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_on_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>War on land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_on_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_at_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_at_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>War at sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_at_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_in_the_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_in_the_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>War in the air</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_in_the_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="التاريخ العسكري للمملكة المتحدة خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ العسكري للمملكة المتحدة خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%9E_%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Вялікабрытанія ў Другой сусветнай вайне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікабрытанія ў Другой сусветнай вайне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B2_%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Великобритания във Втората световна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Великобритания във Втората световна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_Unido_en_la_Segunda_Guerra_Mundial" title="Reino Unido en la Segunda Guerra Mundial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino Unido en la Segunda Guerra Mundial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_militaire_du_Royaume-Uni_pendant_la_Seconde_Guerre_mondiale" title="Histoire militaire du Royaume-Uni pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire militaire du Royaume-Uni pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C2%EC%B0%A8_%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84_%EB%8C%80%EC%A0%84_%EA%B8%B0%EA%B0%84_%EC%98%81%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EA%B5%B0%EC%82%AC%EC%82%AC" title="제2차 세계 대전 기간 영국의 군사사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제2차 세계 대전 기간 영국의 군사사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_Unito_nella_seconda_guerra_mondiale" title="Regno Unito nella seconda guerra mondiale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno Unito nella seconda guerra mondiale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_Unido_na_Segunda_Guerra_Mundial" title="Reino Unido na Segunda Guerra Mundial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reino Unido na Segunda Guerra Mundial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_militar%C4%83_a_Regatului_Unit_%C3%AEn_timpul_celui_de-al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial" title="Istoria militară a Regatului Unit în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria militară a Regatului Unit în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Великобритания во Второй мировой войне – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Великобритания во Второй мировой войне" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._D%C3%BCnya_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1%27nda_Birle%C5%9Fik_Krall%C4%B1k" title="II. Dünya Savaşı'nda Birleşik Krallık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="II. Dünya Savaşı'nda Birleşik Krallık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Велика Британія в Другій світовій війні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Велика Британія в Другій світовій війні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2012319#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1939–1945</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Back_Them_Up!_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg/220px-Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg/330px-Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg/440px-Back_Them_Up%21_Art.IWMPST16866.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="725" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">British Second World War <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> poster</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monarch(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leader(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar Britain</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Post-war_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" title="Post-war Britain (1945–1979)">Postwar Britain</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="class-skin-invert-image"><img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>military history of the United Kingdom in World War II</b> covers the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>, starting on 3 September 1939 with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)">declaration of war by the United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="French declaration of war on Germany (1939)">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">followed by</a> the UK's <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown colonies">Crown colonies</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_protectorates" class="mw-redirect" title="British protectorates">protectorates</a> on <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in response to the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> by Germany. There was little, however, the Anglo-French alliance could do or did do to help Poland. The <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a> culminated in April 1940 with the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">German invasion of Denmark and Norway</a>. <a href="/wiki/Norway_Debate" title="Norway Debate">Winston Churchill became prime minister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Churchill_war_ministry" title="Churchill war ministry">head of a coalition government</a> in May 1940. The defeat of other European countries followed – <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France</a> – alongside the <a href="/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_(World_War_II)" title="British Expeditionary Force (World War II)">British Expeditionary Force</a> which led to the <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a> in June 1940. </p><p><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">Britain and its Empire continued the war</a> against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to advise and support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort. Germany's <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion">planned invasion of the UK</a> was averted by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> denying the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> air superiority in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a>, and by its marked inferiority in naval power. Subsequently, urban areas in Britain suffered heavy bombing during <a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">the Blitz</a> in late 1940 and early 1941. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> sought to <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)">blockade Germany</a> and protect merchant ships in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">Army</a> counter-attacked in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North-African</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East-African campaigns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Campaign (World War II)">in the Balkans</a>. </p><p>The United Kingdom and allied countries signed the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_St_James%27s_Palace" title="Declaration of St James's Palace">Declaration of St James's Palace</a> in June 1941 committing to no separate peace with Germany and setting out principles to serve as the basis of a future peace. Churchill agreed an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_Agreement" title="Anglo-Soviet Agreement">alliance with the Soviet Union</a> in July and began sending supplies to the USSR. By August, Churchill and American President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> had drafted the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a> to define goals for the post-war world. In December, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Japanese_expansion_(1941%E2%80%931942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese expansion (1941–1942)">offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific</a> including an <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor</a>. Britain and America declared war on Japan, opening the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Alliance_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Alliance (World War II)">Grand Alliance</a> of the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union was formed and Britain and America agreed a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> grand strategy for the war. The <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a> drafted by Roosevelt and Churchill in Washington in December 1941 formalised the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>. The UK, the US and their Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the Asia-Pacific war during the first six months of 1942. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany became the largest theatre of war ever to take place. </p><p>There were eventual hard-fought victories in 1943 in the North-African campaign, led by General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a>, and in the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italian campaign</a>. British forces played major roles in the production of <a href="/wiki/Ultra_(cryptography)" title="Ultra (cryptography)">Ultra</a> signals intelligence, the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">strategic bombing</a> of Germany, and the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a> of June 1944. The <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Europe">liberation of Europe</a> followed on 8 May 1945, achieved by the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and other Allied countries. The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign of the War. </p><p>The Pacific War, fought primarily between <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>, the United States and Japan, was geographically the largest theater of the war. In the <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asian theatre">South-East Asian theatre</a>, the British <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Fleet">Eastern Fleet</a> conducted strikes in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. The British Army led the <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a> to drive Japan out of the British colony. Involving a million troops at its peak, drawn primarily from <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a>, the campaign was finally successful in mid-1945. The <a href="/wiki/British_Pacific_Fleet" title="British Pacific Fleet">British Pacific Fleet</a> took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a> and the final naval strikes on Japan. British scientists <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">contributed to the Manhattan Project</a> to design a nuclear weapon. The decision to use these weapons was made by the Anglo-American <a href="/wiki/Combined_Policy_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Policy Committee">Combined Policy Committee</a> and led to the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a>, which was announced on 15 August 1945 and signed on 2 September 1945. </p><p>For the domestic history see <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom home front during World War II</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Statement_Relating_to_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement Relating to Defence">Statement Relating to Defence</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_Second_World_War" title="British Army during the Second World War">British Army during the Second World War</a></div> <p>Although the UK had increased military spending and funding prior to 1939 in response to the increasing strength of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany under the Nazi Party</a>, its forces were still weak by comparison, especially the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>. Only the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> – at the time still the largest in the world<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – was of a greater strength than its German counterpart. The British Army only had nine <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a> available for war, whereas Germany had seventy-eight and France eighty-six.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system from its empire."<sup id="cite_ref-Edgerton2012_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgerton2012-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After becoming Prime Minister in 1940, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> engaged industry, scientists and engineers to advise and support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-Edgerton2012_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgerton2012-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the scientific work that led to <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">technology that determined the outcome of the war</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, was done before 1940,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and shared with the Americans that year through the <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a> which led to extensive <a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied technological cooperation</a>. Several technologies invented in Britain proved critical to the military and were widely manufactured by the Allies during the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, however, was undertaken during the war beginning in 1942, to which the <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a> included the <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a> work since 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the clause of the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a> that specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent, the atomic bombing of Japan was recorded as a decision of the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Policy_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Policy Committee">Combined Policy Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964372_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964372-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beginning_of_the_conflict">Beginning of the conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Beginning of the conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anticipating a German attack, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Navy" title="Polish Navy">Polish Navy</a> implemented the <a href="/wiki/Peking_Plan" title="Peking Plan">Peking Plan</a> in late August and early September 1939, moving three modern destroyers, <a href="/wiki/ORP_Burza" title="ORP Burza"><i>Burza</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/ORP_B%C5%82yskawica" title="ORP Błyskawica"><i>Błyskawica</i></a>, and <a href="/wiki/ORP_Grom_(1936)" title="ORP Grom (1936)"><i>Grom</i></a> to Britain; the ships served alongside (and under the command of) the Royal Navy for the remainder of the war. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg/170px-Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg/255px-Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg/340px-Declaration_of_war_naval_message.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2049" data-file-height="1562" /></a><figcaption> The message sent to ships of the Royal Navy informing them of the outbreak of war.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 3 September, the UK and <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> declared war on Germany as obliged by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Polish_military_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Polish military alliance">Anglo-Polish military alliance</a>. The declaration was made 24 hours after the UK had issued an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw all German forces from <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Poland">fall of Poland</a>, the Royal Navy was strengthened by the arrival of two Polish submarines <a href="/wiki/ORP_Orze%C5%82_(1938)" title="ORP Orzeł (1938)"><i>Orzeł</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/ORP_Wilk_(1929)" title="ORP Wilk (1929)"><i>Wilk</i></a>. The Polish Navy in the United Kingdom was then supplemented with leased British ships. </p><p>The British Army immediately began dispatching the <a href="/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_(World_War_II)" title="British Expeditionary Force (World War II)">British Expeditionary Force</a> (BEF) to support France. At first only regular troops from the pre-war Army made up its numbers. In 1940, however, men of the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_Army_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial Army (United Kingdom)">Territorial Army</a> (TA) divisions being mobilized in the UK were sent. In the end, the BEF had <a href="/wiki/I_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="I Corps (United Kingdom)">I</a>, <a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="II Corps (United Kingdom)">II</a> and <a href="/wiki/III_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="III Corps (United Kingdom)">III Corps</a> under its command, controlling 200,000 men. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> (RAF) also sent significant forces to France at the start of hostilities. Some were <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> cooperation squadrons to help with matters like reconnaissance for the French Army. Others were <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricane</a> squadrons from <a href="/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command" title="RAF Fighter Command">RAF Fighter Command</a>. Separately, <a href="/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command" title="RAF Bomber Command">Bomber Command</a> sent the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Air_Striking_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Air Striking Force">Advanced Air Striking Force</a>, composed of squadrons flying the <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Battle" title="Fairey Battle">Fairey Battle</a> and other machines that did not have the range to reach Germany from the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>, the RAF carried out small bombing raids and a large number of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> leaflet raids (code-named "Nickels") and the Royal Navy imposed a coastal blockade on Germany. </p><p>The British army began the war with a paper force of 900,000 men 232,000 active regulars, 185,000 regular reserves, 34,000 in the militia, 428,000 in the <a href="/wiki/Army_Reserve_(United_Kingdom)" title="Army Reserve (United Kingdom)">territorial army</a> and 21,000 in the territorial army reserve however of the many non active regular formations a total manpower amount of 480,000 was available in September 1939 thus the actual force was 700,000 and this figure includes those who were in training or filling non-combat roles at the outbreak of hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_and_northern_Europe,_1940_and_1941"><span id="Western_and_northern_Europe.2C_1940_and_1941"></span>Western and northern Europe, 1940 and 1941</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Western and northern Europe, 1940 and 1941"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norwegian_campaign">Norwegian campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Norwegian campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruinsofnamsos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ruinsofnamsos.jpg/220px-Ruinsofnamsos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ruinsofnamsos.jpg/330px-Ruinsofnamsos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ruinsofnamsos.jpg/440px-Ruinsofnamsos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>British troops during the <a href="/wiki/Namsos_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Namsos Campaign">Namsos Campaign</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> loomed large in German strategy because of the great <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> deposits in northern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and the long seacoast that would preclude a blockade of the sort that hurt Germany in the First World War. Predicting correctly that the UK would make a preemptive move against neutral Norway to stop the flow of ore from <a href="/wiki/Narvik_(town)" title="Narvik (town)">Narvik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> ordered an invasion to begin on 9 April 1940. The <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> succeeded in their mission, landing a large force at vital strategic points in Norway. British land forces were quickly sent to Norway, landing in the centre at <a href="/wiki/%C3%85ndalsnes" title="Åndalsnes">Åndalsnes</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Namsos_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Namsos Campaign">Namsos</a> and in the north of the country at Narvik. The <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> deterred landings farther south.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British troops made amphibious landings at <a href="/wiki/Namsos_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Namsos Campaign">Namsos</a> during April 1940 in an effort to stop the Germans advancing North. The British Forces' attacks south were stopped and they were soon surrounded in the <a href="/wiki/Namsos_(town)" title="Namsos (town)">town of Namsos</a>. The British were faced with attacks from the Luftwaffe and increasing difficulty with landing fresh troops and supplies from the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Carton_de_Wiart" title="Adrian Carton de Wiart">General De Wiart</a> was given orders to evacuate his forces on 28 April. All British troops were evacuated by 4 May 1940. </p><p>In central Norway, Royal Navy aircraft-carriers and RAF fighter squadrons could not keep the established bases secure, and the British had to evacuate them. In the north, the Germans were <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Narvik" title="Battles of Narvik">driven out of Narvik</a> after they had captured it. However, as Luftwaffe aircraft came into range with the German advances, it was again found to be impossible to sustain bases in the face of aerial threat. British forces in Narvik were withdrawn as well.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a consequence of the loss of Norway and Denmark, the Royal Navy commenced a pre-emptive <a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_the_Faroe_Islands_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="British occupation of the Faroe Islands in World War II">occupation of the Faroe Islands</a> on 12 April 1940. </p><p>On 10 May 1940, the Royal Navy <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Iceland" title="Invasion of Iceland">occupied Iceland</a> to install naval and air bases on this Atlantic island.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Battle_of_France">The Battle of France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Battle of France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_France_1940_F4799.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Troops on their way to the port at <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a> during the evacuation from France, June 1940.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg/220px-Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg/330px-Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg/440px-Dunkirk_26-29_May_1940_NYP68075.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1745" /></a><figcaption>British troops line up on the beach at Dunkirk to await evacuation, 26–29 May 1940.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, the British Expeditionary Force was sent to the Franco-Belgian border in mid-September. The first deployment was completed by 11 October 1939 at which point 158,000 men had been transported to France.<sup id="cite_ref-atkin1990_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atkin1990-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next few months, troops, materials and vehicles continued to arrive in France and Belgium and by 13 March 1940 the BEF had doubled in size to 316,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This period leading up to 10 May 1940 was known as the <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>, as there was little combat apart from minor clashes of <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> patrols. The Allied generals believed that time was on their side, and hoped to weaken Germany by <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> before going on the offensive.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 10 May the stalemated Phoney War ended with a sweeping German invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a>. German troops entered France through the <a href="/wiki/Ardennes" title="Ardennes">Ardennes</a> on 13 May. Most Allied forces were in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, anticipating a re-run of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a>. The push by the German Army Group A towards the coast combined with the approach of Army Group B from the northeast left the BEF surrounded on three sides and cut off from their supply depots by 21 May. The British forces attempted to stop the offensive and launched counter-attacks including at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1940)" title="Battle of Arras (1940)">Arras</a> on 21 May. The BEF was unable to repel the Germans and it became clear that the <a href="/wiki/Channel_ports" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel ports">Channel ports</a> were threatened. Fresh troops were rushed from England to defend <a href="/wiki/Boulogne" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulogne">Boulogne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>, but after hard fighting, both ports were in German hands by 26 May (see <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boulogne_(1940)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Boulogne (1940)">Battle of Boulogne (1940)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1940)" title="Siege of Calais (1940)">Siege of Calais (1940)</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gort ordered that the BEF should withdraw to <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>, the only viable port remaining, to facilitate evacuation. In total, 338,226 troops were pulled off the beaches, of which 230,000 were British. However, almost all the army's equipment had been abandoned in France — many soldiers were unable to bring even their rifles.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite failing to destroy the BEF, the Germans had succeeded in cutting off British formations from reaching the evacuation at Dunkirk. They were; the Saar Force, chiefly composed of the <a href="/wiki/51st_(Highland)_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="51st (Highland) Infantry Division">51st (Highland) Infantry Division</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Armoured_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="1st Armoured Division (United Kingdom)">1st Armoured Division</a>, and an improvised force called <a href="/wiki/Beauman_Division" title="Beauman Division">Beauman Division</a>. Churchill and the Chiefs-of-Staff originally decided to form a "Second BEF" that would help defend the rest of France but <a href="/wiki/Alan_Brooke,_1st_Viscount_Alanbrooke" title="Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke">General Alan Brooke</a> managed to persuade them that the remaining forces faced annihilation if they tried to fight on.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Churchill ordered that all British troops should be evacuated from France without delay. From 15 to 25 June 191,870 allied troops (144,171 of them British) and a large amount of their equipment were rescued from eight major sea ports on the southwest coast of France in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Aerial" title="Operation Aerial">Operation Aerial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only serious setback was the bombing of the troopship <a href="/wiki/RMS_Lancastria" title="RMS Lancastria"><i>Lancastria</i></a> off <a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire" class="mw-redirect" title="St Nazaire">St Nazaire</a>, resulting in the deaths of about 4,000 of those on board; the exact number has never been established.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the Germans' <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a> tactics and superior German communications, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> was shorter than virtually all prewar Allied thought could have conceived, with France surrendering after six weeks. The UK and its Empire were left to stand alone.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When France fell the position changed drastically. A combination of the French, German and Italian navies could potentially deny the UK command of the Atlantic and starve the country into submission. Unable to discover whether the terms of the French surrender would permit Germany the use of French warships, it was decided that their use must be denied to the enemy. Those that had taken refuge in British ports were simply taken over (many volunteered to join the British). See below for details of how the British neutralized the <a href="/wiki/French_Mediterranean_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mediterranean Fleet">French Mediterranean Fleet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Battle of France, the British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a> resigned, to be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, who had opposed negotiation with Hitler all along. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_war_at_sea">The war at sea</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The war at sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Royal Navy was far more powerful than the German <i><a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its main roles were to keep: </p> <ul><li>the North Atlantic open, despite German submarines</li> <li>the Mediterranean open to the Allies and closed to the Germans and Italians</li> <li>routes open through the Indian Ocean to India and Australia</li></ul> <p>The Japanese Navy was stronger than the German naval forces, however, and in the Pacific it confronted primarily the United States Navy while dealing sharp blows to the Royal Navy in 1941–42 in the area from Singapore to Ceylon.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opening_moves">Opening moves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Opening moves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg/220px-Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg/330px-Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg/440px-Admiral_Graf_Spee_Flames.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><i>Admiral Graf Spee</i> in flames after being scuttled in the <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_la_Plata" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio de la Plata">Rio de la Plata</a> Estuary off Montevideo, Uruguay.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the start of the war the British and French expected to have command of the seas, as they believed their navies were superior to those of Germany and Italy. The British and French immediately began a <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939-1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blockade of Germany (1939-1945)">blockade of Germany</a>, which had little effect on German industry. The <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">German navy</a> began to attack British shipping with both surface ships and <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a>, sinking <a href="/wiki/SS_Athenia_(1922)" title="SS Athenia (1922)">SS <i>Athenia</i></a> within hours of the declaration of war. The German cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Graf_Spee" title="German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee"><i>Admiral Graf Spee</i></a> was cornered in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Plate" title="Battle of the River Plate">Battle of the River Plate</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Navy" title="Royal New Zealand Navy">New Zealand</a> navies and its captain scuttled her.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_the_Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Battle of the Atlantic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic_(1939-1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)">Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)</a></div> <p>The Battle of the Atlantic was the contest between merchant ships, usually in convoys, and the German submarine force. The battle ebbed and flowed, until the Allies gained a decisive advantage in 1943 using destroyers, destroyer escorts, air surveillance, new depth charges, and <a href="/wiki/Ultra_(cryptography)" title="Ultra (cryptography)">Ultra</a> intelligence that revealed the location of German <a href="/wiki/Wolfpack_(naval_tactic)" title="Wolfpack (naval tactic)">wolfpacks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_'Happy_Time'"><span id="First_.27Happy_Time.27"></span>First 'Happy Time'</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First 'Happy Time'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg/220px-Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg/330px-Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg/440px-Gunners_with_4_inch_rounds_HMS_Vivien_1940_IWM_A_1770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Gunners of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Vivien_(L33)" title="HMS Vivien (L33)">HMS <i>Vivien</i></a> displaying anti-aircraft rounds, 11 November 1940.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">fall of France</a> in June 1940, ports such as <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest, France</a> were quickly turned into large submarine bases from which British trade could be attacked. This resulted in a huge rise in sinkings of British shipping. The period between the fall of France and the British containment of the threat was referred to as the <a href="/wiki/First_Happy_Time" title="First Happy Time">First Happy Time</a> by the <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a> commanders. </p><p>By 1941, the United States and Canada (a British Dominion) were taking an increasing part in the war. British forces had <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Iceland" title="Invasion of Iceland">occupied Iceland</a> shortly after Denmark fell to the Germans in 1940, the US was persuaded to provide forces to relieve British troops on the island. American warships began escorting convoys to <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, and had several hostile encounters with <a href="/wiki/U-boats" class="mw-redirect" title="U-boats">U-boats</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> also helped escort the main Atlantic convoys. </p><p>More American help came in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Destroyers_for_Bases_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Destroyers for Bases Agreement">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</a> in September 1940. Fifty old American destroyers were handed over to the Royal Navy in exchange for <a href="/wiki/99-year_lease" title="99-year lease">99-year leases</a> on certain British bases in the western hemisphere. Although plagued with mechanical problems, these old ships performed anti-submarine patrols in 1941–42.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, personnel training in the RN improved as the realities of the battle became obvious. For instance, the training regime of Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_O._Stephenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert O. Stephenson">Gilbert O. Stephenson</a> is credited in improving personnel standards to a significant degree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_'Happy_Time'"><span id="Second_.27Happy_Time.27"></span>Second 'Happy Time'</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Second 'Happy Time'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Happy_Time" title="Second Happy Time">Second Happy Time</a></div> <p>The Japanese declarations of war in December 1941 made it a global war. German <a href="/wiki/U-boats" class="mw-redirect" title="U-boats">U-boats</a> conducted a highly successful campaign against traffic along the American east coast. A proportion of the ships sunk were en route to assembly points for convoys to the UK. German sailors called this the "<a href="/wiki/Second_happy_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Second happy time">second happy time</a>". It came to an end when a convoy system operated along the coast and adequate anti-submarine measures were employed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Success_against_the_U-boats">Success against the U-boats</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Success against the U-boats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg/220px-HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg/330px-HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg/440px-HMS_Kite_depth_charge_attack_1944_IWM_A_21989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Kite_(U87)" title="HMS Kite (U87)">HMS <i>Kite</i></a> conducting a depth charge attack, 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>The institution of an interlocking convoy system on the American coast and in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> in mid-1942 created an enormous drop in attacks in those areas. Attention shifted back to the Atlantic convoys. Matters were serious, but not critical throughout much of 1942. </p><p>The winter weather provided a respite in early 1943, but in the spring, large "wolf packs" of U-boats attacked convoys and scored big successes without taking large losses in return. However, in May 1943 a sudden turnaround happened. Two convoys were attacked by large wolf packs and suffered losses. Yet unlike earlier in the year the attacking submarines were also mauled. After those battles merchant ship losses plummeted and <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a> losses rocketed, forcing <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a> to withdraw his forces from the Atlantic. They were never again to pose the same threat. What had changed was a sudden convergence of technologies. The large gap in the middle of the Atlantic that had been unreachable by aircraft was closed by long range <a href="/wiki/B-24_Liberator" class="mw-redirect" title="B-24 Liberator">B-24 Liberator</a> aircraft. Centimetric <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> came into service, greatly improving detection and nullifying German radar warning equipment. The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Leigh_Light" title="Leigh Light">Leigh Light</a> enabled accurate attacks on U-boats re-charging their batteries on the surface at night. With convoys securely protected there were enough resources to allow escort carrier groups to aggressively hunt U-boats.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arctic_convoys">Arctic convoys</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Arctic convoys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arctic_convoys_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic convoys of World War II">Arctic convoys of World War II</a></div> <p>The Arctic convoys travelled from the US and the UK to the northern ports of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> – <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a>. </p><p>85 Allied merchant vessels and 16 Royal Navy warships were lost. The Germans committed significant naval and air assets and lost one <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruiser</a>, at least 30 <a href="/wiki/U-boats" class="mw-redirect" title="U-boats">U-boats</a>, and a large number of aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly during the winter of 1941–2, meaningful material aid was provided to the Soviet Union via the Arctic route.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Mediterranean">The Mediterranean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Mediterranean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg/220px-Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg/330px-Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg/440px-Bombs_falling_astern_of_HMS_Ark_Royal_A2298.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Ark_Royal_(91)" title="HMS Ark Royal (91)">HMS <i>Ark Royal</i></a> under attack from Italian aircraft during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Spartivento" title="Battle of Cape Spartivento">Battle of Cape Spartivento</a>, 27 November 1940.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Royal Navy battled the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Navy" title="Italian Navy">Italian Navy</a> for three years for control of the Mediterranean. The Germans also took part in the campaign, primarily by sending U-boats into the Mediterranean, but latterly by controlling the few remaining Axis naval forces after the Italian surrender. </p><p>At the outset of the war, the area was numerically dominated by the British and <a href="/wiki/French_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="French navy">French</a> navies, and Italy was initially a neutral power astride communications in the centre of the area. The situation changed vastly with the fall of France and the declaration of war by Italy. While the <a href="/wiki/British_Mediterranean_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="British Mediterranean Fleet">British Mediterranean Fleet</a> based at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> controlled the eastern end of the Mediterranean, there was a need to replace French naval power in the west. To do this <a href="/wiki/Force_H" title="Force H">Force H</a> was formed at <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>. The British Government was still concerned that the remaining French ships would be used by the Axis powers. Consequently, they took steps to neutralise it. </p><p>At Alexandria, relations between the French and British commanders, Admirals <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-%C3%89mile_Godfroy" title="René-Émile Godfroy">René-Émile Godfroy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cunningham,_1st_Viscount_Cunningham_of_Hyndhope" title="Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope">Andrew Cunningham</a>, were good. The French squadron there was impounded in the port. In the western basin things did not go so smoothly. The bulk of the French fleet was at <a href="/wiki/Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect" title="Mers-el-Kebir">Mers-el-Kebir</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. Force H steamed there to confront the French with terms. Those terms were all rejected and so the French fleet was attacked and heavily damaged by Force H. The <a href="/wiki/Vichy_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy French">Vichy French</a> government broke off all ties with the British as a result. (See <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_French_Fleet_at_Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir">destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Taranto">Battle of Taranto</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Battle of Taranto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto" title="Battle of Taranto">Battle of Taranto</a></div> <p>The Italian battle fleet dominated the centre of the Mediterranean and so the Royal Navy hatched a plan to cripple it. On 11 November 1940, the Royal Navy crippled or destroyed three Italian <a href="/wiki/Battleships" class="mw-redirect" title="Battleships">battleships</a> in port by using <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">carrier</a> borne aircraft, the obsolescent <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Swordfish" title="Fairey Swordfish">Fairey Swordfish</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto" title="Battle of Taranto">Battle of Taranto</a>. As a result, the Italian fleet was withdrawn from <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a> and never again based in such a forward position. The Japanese used lessons from this battle in planning their <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> on 7 December 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Cape_Matapan">Battle of Cape Matapan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Battle of Cape Matapan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Matapan" title="Battle of Cape Matapan">Battle of Cape Matapan</a></div> <p>The first fleet action of the war in the Mediterranean was the Battle of Cape Matapan. It was a decisive Allied victory, fought off the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peloponnesus">Peloponnesus</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> from 27 March to 29 March 1941 in which Royal Navy and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy" title="Royal Australian Navy">Royal Australian Navy</a> forces, under the command of the British Admiral Cunningham, intercepted those of the Italian <i><a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a></i>, under Admiral <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Iachino" title="Angelo Iachino">Angelo Iachino</a>. The Allies sank the <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cruiser" title="Heavy cruiser">heavy cruisers</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_cruiser_Fiume" title="Italian cruiser Fiume"><i>Fiume</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_cruiser_Zara" title="Italian cruiser Zara"><i>Zara</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_cruiser_Pola" title="Italian cruiser Pola"><i>Pola</i></a> and the <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a> <i>Vittorio Alfieri</i> and <i>Giosue Carducci</i>, and damaged the battleship <a href="/wiki/Italian_battleship_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto"><i>Vittorio Veneto</i></a>. The British lost one torpedo plane and suffered light damage to some ships.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yugoslavia,_Greece,_and_Crete"><span id="Yugoslavia.2C_Greece.2C_and_Crete"></span>Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greco-Italian War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Greece">Battle of Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balkans_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkans Campaign (World War II)">Balkans Campaign (World War II)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26,_Balkan,_Griechenland,_britischer_Panzer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg/300px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg/450px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg/600px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-161-0317-26%2C_Balkan%2C_Griechenland%2C_britischer_Panzer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Destroyed British cruiser tank in Greece.</figcaption></figure> <p>Germany launched its <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">invasion of Yugoslavia</a> on 6 April 1941, winning a quick victory but delaying the much larger planned invasion of Russia (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Greece">Battle of Greece</a> (also known as to the Wehrmacht as "Operation Marita", or <i>Unternehmen Marita</i>) pitted Greek and <a href="/wiki/British_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commonwealth">British Commonwealth</a> forces against German, Italian and Bulgarian forces. On 2 March 1941, the British launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lustre" title="Operation Lustre">Operation Lustre</a>, the transportation of troops and equipment to Greece. Twenty-six troopships arrived at the port of <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a> and more than 62,000 Commonwealth troops landed in Greece. The Commonwealth forces comprised the <a href="/wiki/6th_Australian_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="6th Australian Division">6th Australian Division</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_2nd_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand 2nd Division">New Zealand 2nd Division</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/British_1st_Armoured_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="British 1st Armoured Brigade">British 1st Armoured Brigade</a>. On 3 April, during a meeting of British, Yugoslav, and Greek military representatives, the Yugoslavs promised to block the <a href="/wiki/Struma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Struma River">Strimon valley</a> in case of a German attack across their territory. During this meeting, Papagos laid stress on the importance of a joint Greco-Yugoslavian offensive against the Italians as soon as the Germans launched their offensive against Yugoslavia and Greece. </p><p>In the aftermath of the German invasion of Greece, only the island of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> remained in Allied hands in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> area. The Germans invaded in a combined operation and forced the evacuation of the British forces. Of more than 40,000 Allied soldiers, fewer than 20,000 managed to escape. The evacuation was also costly to the Royal Navy. It lost 4 cruisers and 6 destroyers sunk during the evacuation. Admiral Cunningham was determined that the "navy must not let the army down"; when Army generals feared he would lose too many ships Cunningham remarked "It takes three years to build a ship, it takes three centuries to build a tradition".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malta">Malta</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Malta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Siege of Malta (World War II)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Pedestal,_August_1942_A11200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg/220px-Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg/330px-Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg/440px-Operation_Pedestal%2C_August_1942_A11200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2287" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>Convoy on its way to Malta under heavy air attack during Operation Pedestal, 11 August 1942.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, which lies in the middle of the Mediterranean, proved a standing thorn in the side of the Axis. It lay in a perfect strategic position to intercept Axis supplies destined for North Africa. For a time it looked as if Axis aircraft flying from bases in Italy would starve Malta into submission. The turning point in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">siege of Malta</a> came in August 1942, when the British sent a very heavily defended convoy code named <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pedestal" title="Operation Pedestal">Operation Pedestal</a>. Despite the sinking of about half of the ships sent, the convoy managed to deliver enough food and aviation fuel to enable Malta to hold out until the siege was lifted. With the aid of <a href="/wiki/Ultra_(cryptography)" title="Ultra (cryptography)">Ultra</a>, Malta-based aircraft and submarines sank crucial Axis shipping to North Africa immediately before the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a> of October–November 1942. Following Allied territorial gains in Libya and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">in the Western Mediterranean</a>, the siege was lifted. For the fortitude and courage of the Maltese during the siege, the island was awarded the <a href="/wiki/George_Cross" title="George Cross">George Cross</a> by King George VI in early 1942. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Large-scale_invasions">Large-scale invasions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Large-scale invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late 1942 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>, the first large Allied combined operation, was launched. The British and Americans landed in force invading French North Africa, but far enough west that the Germans were able to invade Tunisia (owned by France) and make it their base of operations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Torch was followed by <a href="/wiki/Operation_Husky" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Husky">Operation Husky</a> the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Avalanche" title="Operation Avalanche">Operation Avalanche</a>, the invasion of southern Italy. Again the naval forces escorted the invasion fleet and heavy cover was provided against Italian interference. In the aftermath of Avalanche, the Italian surrender was announced and the British naval forces escorted the Italian fleet to Malta under the terms of the surrender. The main threat to Allied shipping around Italy during these invasions was not the Italian fleet but German guided weapons which sunk or damaged a number of Allied units.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the surrender of the Italian fleet, naval operations in the Mediterranean became relatively mundane, consisting largely of supporting ground troops by bombardment, anti-submarine missions, covert insertions of agents on enemy coast and convoy escort. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aegean_sweep">Aegean sweep</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Aegean sweep"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The one major exception to mundane missions occurred in late 1944. Due to their garrisons on the various islands of the Aegean, the Germans had maintained control over the Aegean Sea long after they had lost other areas of the Mediterranean to Allied control. In late 1944, that changed as an Allied carrier task force moved into the area. Composed entirely of <a href="/wiki/Escort_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Escort carriers">escort carriers</a>, the task force wreaked havoc with German shipping in the area and re-asserted Allied dominance over the last remaining area of the Mediterranean still controlled by the Germans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Overlord_and_the_Normandy_landings">Operation Overlord and the Normandy landings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Operation Overlord and the Normandy landings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg/250px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg/375px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg/500px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_A23916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5367" data-file-height="3916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Warspite_(03)" title="HMS Warspite (03)">HMS <i>Warspite</i></a> bombarding German defensive positions off Normandy, 6 June 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">The invasion of Normandy</a> was the greatest amphibious assault yet. Over 1,000 fighting ships and some 5,000 other ships were involved. The sheer number of vessels involved meant that nearly all of the major ports of the United Kingdom were at capacity immediately preceding the assault. </p><p>The five assault divisions crossed the channel in five great assault groups, there were two task forces, the Anglo-Canadian Eastern Task Force and the American Western Task Force. Coastal Command secured the western flank of the invasion route against interference by German <a href="/wiki/U-boats" class="mw-redirect" title="U-boats">U-boats</a> from the western French ports. The surface forces assisted by protecting the assault convoys from the small German surface forces in the area. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> saw an enormous minesweeping operation, with hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Minesweepers" class="mw-redirect" title="Minesweepers">minesweepers</a> clearing and maintaining channels. The bombardment forces were on an enormous scale, with eight battleships taking part in the assault. The formidable defences of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a> were difficult to contend with, and many duels between the heavy ships and shore batteries were fought during the invasion. </p><p>On the whole the assault went well, although disaster came nearest to occurring for the Americans at Omaha Beach. There the naval forces provided crucial backup for the assaulting forces, with <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a> coming in very close to the beach to blast the German defences. British losses to enemy attack both during the initial assault and the building of the bridgehead were comparatively small. Virtually no ships were sunk by German naval surface forces as this force was largely destroyed prior to the invasion. </p><p>Two of the ports used by the German light forces were heavily bombed by the Allied air forces. The larger German ships based in France, three destroyers from <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> were defeated in a destroyer action well to the west of the main assault area. Larger problems were caused by U-boats and especially <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mines</a>, but the U-boats were hunted down and the mines swept effectively enough to make the invasion a success. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_East">The East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_Ocean_disaster">Indian Ocean disaster</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean disaster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg/220px-Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg/330px-Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg/440px-Dorsetshire%26Cornwall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption>British heavy cruisers <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dorsetshire_(40)" title="HMS Dorsetshire (40)"><i>Dorsetshire</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Cornwall_(56)" title="HMS Cornwall (56)"><i>Cornwall</i></a> under Japanese air attack and heavily damaged on 5 April 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>Though the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> was a backwater during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there were several vital operations in that area. British convoys running through the western <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> were vital for supplying Allied forces in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. They faced a small but consistent threat from both German and Japanese "surface raiders" and <a href="/wiki/Submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarines">submarines</a>. Tankers sailing from the oil terminals of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> also had to run the same gauntlet. </p><p>The major operations in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> took place in early 1942 and 1944/45. </p><p>British forces in the <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> region were reinforced by the battleship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Prince_of_Wales_(53)" title="HMS Prince of Wales (53)">HMS <i>Prince of Wales</i></a> and battlecruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Repulse_(1916)" title="HMS Repulse (1916)">HMS <i>Repulse</i></a> in December 1941. However, on 10 December those two ships were sunk by Japanese aircraft, with <a href="/wiki/HMS_Prince_of_Wales_(53)" title="HMS Prince of Wales (53)">HMS <i>Prince of Wales</i></a> becoming the first battleship in history to be sunk strictly by airpower while at sea and fighting back. </p><p>Japanese forces captured <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Malaya">Malaya</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Singapore</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> forcing the remaining British warships to withdraw to <a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a>, Ceylon (now <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>), and in February 1942, they were reconstituted into the <a href="/wiki/British_Eastern_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="British Eastern Fleet">British Eastern Fleet</a>. On paper, the fleet looked impressive, boasting five <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> and three aircraft carriers. However, four of the battleships were old and obsolete and one of the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a> was small and virtually useless in a fleet action as the new fleet commander, Admiral <a href="/wiki/James_Somerville" title="James Somerville">James Somerville</a>, noted. </p><p>Following successes over American forces in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a>, the main Japanese carrier force made its one and only <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid" title="Indian Ocean raid">foray into the Indian Ocean</a> in April 1942. <a href="/wiki/Nagumo" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagumo">Nagumo</a> took the main force after the British fleet and a subsidiary raid was made on shipping in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>. The weight and experience of this Japanese force far outweighed that available to the Royal Navy. During these attacks, two British <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cruiser" title="Heavy cruiser">heavy cruisers</a>, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dorsetshire_(40)" title="HMS Dorsetshire (40)">HMS <i>Dorsetshire</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Cornwall_(56)" title="HMS Cornwall (56)">HMS <i>Cornwall</i></a>, the aircraft carrier <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hermes_(95)" title="HMS Hermes (95)">HMS <i>Hermes</i></a>, and the Australian destroyer <a href="/wiki/HMAS_Vampire_(D68)" title="HMAS Vampire (D68)">HMAS <i>Vampire</i></a> were sunk by <a href="/wiki/Aichi_D3A" title="Aichi D3A">Aichi D3A</a> <i>Val</i> dive bombers. </p><p>Fortuitously, or by design, the main British fleet did not make contact with the Japanese and thus remained available for future action. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_Ocean_retreat">Indian Ocean retreat</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean retreat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following those attacks, the British fleet retreated to <a href="/wiki/Kilindini" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilindini">Kilindini</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, as their more forward fleet anchorages could not be adequately protected from Japanese attack. The fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> was then gradually reduced to little more than a convoy escort force as other commitments called for the more powerful ships. </p><p>One exception was <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ironclad" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Ironclad">Operation Ironclad</a>, a campaign launched when it was feared that Vichy French <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> might fall into Japanese hands, to be used as a submarine base. Such a blow would have been devastating to British lines of communication to the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, but the Japanese never contemplated it. The French resisted more than expected, and more operations were needed to capture the island, but it did eventually fall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_Ocean_strike">Indian Ocean strike</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean strike"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg/220px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg/330px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg/440px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A27166.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grumman_Avenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Grumman Avenger">Grumman Avenger</a> from <a href="/wiki/HMS_Indefatigable" title="HMS Indefatigable">HMS <i>Indefatigable</i></a> forming up for raid on a Japanese oil refinery in Sumatra, January 1945.</figcaption></figure> <p>It was only after the war in Europe was coming to an end that large British forces were dispatched to the Indian Ocean again after the neutralisation of the German fleet in late 1943 and early 1944. The success of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> in June meant even more craft from the Home Fleet could be sent, including precious <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">amphibious</a> assault shipping. </p><p>During late 1944, as more British aircraft carriers came into the area, a series of strikes were flown against oil targets in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> to prepare British carriers for the upcoming operations in the Pacific. For the first attack, the United States lent <a href="/wiki/USS_Saratoga_(CV-3)" title="USS Saratoga (CV-3)">USS <i>Saratoga</i></a>. The oil installations were heavily damaged by the attacks, aggravating the Japanese fuel shortages due to the Allied blockade. The final attack was flown as the carriers were heading for <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> to become the British Pacific Fleet. </p><p>After the departure of the main battle forces, the Indian Ocean was left with escort carriers and older battleships as the mainstay of its naval forces. Nevertheless, during those months important operations were launched in the recapture of <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, including landings on <a href="/wiki/Ramree" title="Ramree">Ramree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akyab" class="mw-redirect" title="Akyab">Akyab</a> and near <a href="/wiki/Rangoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangoon">Rangoon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blockade_of_Japan">Blockade of Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Blockade of Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>British forces consistently played a secondary but significant role to American forces in the strangling of Japan's trade. The earliest successes were gained by mine laying. The Japanese <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine#Mine_sweeping" title="Naval mine">minesweeping</a> capability was never great, and when confronted with new types of mines they did not adapt quickly. Japanese shipping was driven from the Burmese coast using this type of warfare. </p><p>British submarines also operated against Japanese shipping, although later in the war. They were based in Ceylon, <a href="/wiki/Fremantle,_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fremantle, Western Australia">Fremantle, Western Australia</a> and finally the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. A major success was the sinking of several Japanese cruisers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_North_African_desert,_Middle_East,_and_Africa"><span id="The_North_African_desert.2C_Middle_East.2C_and_Africa"></span>The North African desert, Middle East, and Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The North African desert, Middle East, and Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean,_Middle_East_and_African_theatres_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II">Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg/220px-6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg/330px-6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg/440px-6_inch_howitzers_Tobruk_Jan_1941_AWM_005610.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>British 6 inch howitzers in action at Tobruk during Operation Compass, 23 January 1941.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 13 September 1940, the Italian Tenth Army crossed the border from the Italian colony of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> into <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, where British troops were protecting the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Italian invasion of Egypt">Italian invasion</a> carried through to <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Barrani" title="Sidi Barrani">Sidi Barrani</a>, approximately 95 km inside Egypt. The Italians then began to <a href="/wiki/Trench#Military_engineering" title="Trench">entrench</a>. At this time there were only 30,000 British available to defend against 250,000 Italian troops. The Italian decision to halt the advance is generally credited to them being unaware of the British strength, and the activity of British naval forces operating in the Mediterranean to interfere with Italian supply lines. There were Royal Navy seaports at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Port_Said" title="Port Said">Port Said</a>. Following the halt of the Italian Tenth Army, the British used the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Force" title="Western Desert Force">Western Desert Force</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Jock_column" title="Jock column">Jock columns</a> to harass their lines in Egypt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Offensive">The Offensive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The Offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 11 November 1940, the Royal Navy crippled or destroyed three Italian battleships in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto" title="Battle of Taranto">Battle of Taranto</a>. </p><p>Then, on 8 December 1940, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Operation Compass</a> began. Planned as an extended raid, a force of British, Indian and Australian troops succeeded in cutting off the Italian troops. Pressing their advantage home, General <a href="/wiki/Richard_O%27Connor" title="Richard O'Connor">Richard O'Connor</a> pressed the attack forwards and succeeded in reaching <a href="/wiki/El_Agheila" title="El Agheila">El Agheila</a> (an advance of 500 miles), capturing tens of thousands of enemy troops. The Italian army was virtually destroyed, and it seemed that the Italians would be swept out of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>. However, at the crucial moment, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> ordered that the advance be stopped and troops dispatched to defend <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. Weeks later the first German troops were arriving in North Africa to reinforce the Italians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq,_Syria_and_Persia"><span id="Iraq.2C_Syria_and_Persia"></span>Iraq, Syria and Persia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Iraq, Syria and Persia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Fordson_Armoured_Car_of_No._2_Armoured_Car_Company_RAF_waits_outside_Baghdad,_while_negotiations_for_an_armistice_take_place_between_British_officials_and_the_rebel_government_during_the_Iraqi_Revolt,_May_194_CM923.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_Fordson_Armoured_Car_of_No._2_Armoured_Car_Company_RAF_waits_outside_Baghdad%2C_while_negotiations_for_an_armistice_take_place_between_British_officials_and_the_rebel_government_during_the_Iraqi_Revolt%2C_May_194_CM923.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_Fordson_Armoured_Car_of_No._2_Armoured_Car_Company_RAF_waits_outside_Baghdad%2C_while_negotiations_for_an_armistice_take_place_between_British_officials_and_the_rebel_government_during_the_Iraqi_Revolt%2C_May_194_CM923.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_Fordson_Armoured_Car_of_No._2_Armoured_Car_Company_RAF_waits_outside_Baghdad%2C_while_negotiations_for_an_armistice_take_place_between_British_officials_and_the_rebel_government_during_the_Iraqi_Revolt%2C_May_194_CM923.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2353" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>An Armoured Car of No. 2 Armoured Car Company RAF waits outside Baghdad, while negotiations for an armistice take place between British officials and the rebel government, May 1941.</figcaption></figure> <p>In May 1941, to add to British troubles in the area, there was a <a href="/wiki/Iraq_coup_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq coup (1941)">coup d'état</a> against the pro-British government in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. A pro-German <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Kaylani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid Ali al-Kaylani">ruler</a> took power in the coup and ordered British forces out of Iraq. There were two main British bases in Iraq, around <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> and at <a href="/wiki/RAF_Habbaniya" title="RAF Habbaniya">Habbaniya</a> north east of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Basra was too well defended for the Iraqis to consider taking. However, Habbaniya was a poorly defended air base, situated in the middle of enemy territory. It had no regular air forces, being only a training centre. Nonetheless, the RAF personnel at the base converted as many of the training aircraft as possible to carry weapons. </p><p>When Iraqi forces came to Habbaniya, they surrounded the base and gave warning that any military activity would be considered as hostile, leading to an attack. However, the RAF training aircraft took off and bombed the Iraqi forces, repelling them from the base. Columns were then set out from Habbaniya, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and Basra to capture Baghdad, and put an end to the coup. They succeeded at relatively low cost, but there was a disturbing development during the campaign. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> aircraft was shot down over Iraq during the advance on Baghdad. The nearest Axis bases were on <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, and so the aircraft had to stage through somewhere to be able to get to Iraq. The only possible place was <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a>-controlled <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. This overtly hostile action could not be tolerated. Consequently, after victory in Iraq, British forces invaded Syria and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> to remove the Vichy officials from power there. Vigorous resistance was put up by the French against British and Australian forces moving into Lebanon from Palestine. However, pressure there eventually overwhelmed, and when this combined with an advance on <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> from Iraq, the French surrendered. </p><p>The final major military operation in the war in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> took place shortly thereafter. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> desperately needed supplies for its war against Germany. Supplies were being sent around the <a href="/wiki/North_Cape,_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="North Cape, Norway">North Cape</a> convoy route to <a href="/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a>, but the capacity of that route was limited and subject to enemy action. Supplies were also sent from the United States to <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a> in Soviet-flagged ships. However, yet more capacity was needed, the obvious answer was to go through <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> of Persia was somewhat pro-German, and so would not allow this. Consequently, British and Soviet forces invaded and occupied Persia. The Shah was deposed (removed from power) and his son put on the throne. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg/220px-KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg/330px-KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/KAR_soldiers_collecting_arms_at_Wolchefit_Pass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Men of the King's African Rifles collecting surrendered arms at <a href="/wiki/Uolchefit" title="Uolchefit">Wolchefit</a> Pass, after the last Italians had ceased resistance in Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign (World War II)</a></div> <p>The Italians declared war on 10 June 1940 and in addition to the well known campaigns in the western desert, a front was opened against them in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. This front was in and around the <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East African</a> colonies: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. </p><p>As in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, British forces were massively outnumbered by their Italian opponents. However, unlike Libya, Ethiopia was isolated from the Italian mainland, and the Italians were thus cut off from resupply. </p><p>The first offensive moves of the <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">campaign</a> fell to the Italians. They attacked in three directions, into <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a>. Only in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">Italian conquest of British Somaliland</a> did they enjoy full success. The British garrison in Somaliland was outnumbered, and after a couple of weeks of fighting had to be evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>. In Sudan and Kenya, the Italians conquered only some small areas around border villages. </p><p>After their offensives petered out, as in Egypt, the Italians adopted a passive attitude and waited for the inevitable British counter-attack. Attention then shifted to the naval sphere. </p><p>The Italians had a small naval squadron based at <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Flotilla" title="Red Sea Flotilla">Red Sea Flotilla</a>. This was a threat to the British convoys heading up the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. It consisted of a few destroyers and submarines. However, the squadron was not used aggressively and mostly acted as a "<a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">fleet in being</a>". As supplies of fuel decreased, its opportunities for action also decreased. The Italians made one major attempt to attack a convoy, and they were roundly defeated in doing so. Following that attack, most of the surface ships of the squadron were sunk, and the submarines that escaped travelled around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> to return to Italy. </p><p>British forces were thin on the ground in East Africa, and the two nations that made the greatest contribution to victory on land were <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">India</a>. South Africa provided much needed airpower and troops. The <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> made up the mainstay of the British ground forces. In the end, two Indian divisions saw combat in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. </p><p>Another important aspect of the campaign to retake Ethiopia was <a href="/wiki/Irregular_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular forces">irregular forces</a>. Major <a href="/wiki/Orde_Wingate" title="Orde Wingate">Orde Wingate</a>, later to gain fame in <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Chindits" title="Chindits">Chindits</a> was a major mover behind the Ethiopian "patriots" as they were referred to by the British. The irregulars, formed into the <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Force" title="Gideon Force">Gideon Force</a>, disrupted Italian supply lines and provided vital intelligence to British forces. </p><p>The regular push to take Ethiopia began once reinforcements arrived from Egypt. The arrival of the first Australian division in North Africa had allowed the release of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_4th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian 4th Infantry Division">Indian 4th Infantry Division</a> to be sent to East Africa. Along with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_5th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian 5th Infantry Division">Indian 5th Infantry Division</a>, it quickly took the offensive from Sudan, the Indian divisions were supported by a thrust from Kenya. An amphibious assault on <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> was staged from Aden. The three thrusts converged on the Ethiopian capital of <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, which fell early in May 1941. </p><p>The Italians made a final stand around the town of <a href="/wiki/Amba_Alagi" title="Amba Alagi">Amba Alagi</a>, before they were finally defeated. Amba Alagi fell in mid-May 1941. The last significant Italian forces surrendered at <a href="/wiki/Gondar" title="Gondar">Gondar</a> in November 1941, receiving full military honors. </p><p>After December 1941, some Italians launched a limited <a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">guerrilla war in Ethiopia</a> and Eritrea that lasted until the middle of 1943 when Italy left the war, (see <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Italy">Armistice with Italy</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_in_the_Western_Desert">War in the Western Desert</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: War in the Western Desert"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg/220px-1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg/330px-1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg/440px-1stAlameinBritDefense.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>British infantry near El Alamein during the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a>, 17 July 1942.</figcaption></figure> <p>After Rommel's first offensive, a reorganisation of British command took place. In November 1941, the <a href="/wiki/British_Eighth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="British Eighth Army">British Eighth Army</a> was activated under Lieutenant General Sir <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cunningham" title="Alan Cunningham">Alan Cunningham</a>. Its first offensive failed disastrously as German Field Marshal <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a> blunted the thrust.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> British operational doctrine failed to encourage the effective use of <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a> – a prerequisite<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for successful modern desert warfare. Cunningham was relieved of command and Major General <a href="/wiki/Neil_Ritchie" title="Neil Ritchie">Neil Ritchie</a> was put in his place.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, a second British offensive in late 1941 turned Rommel's flank and led to the relief of <a href="/wiki/Tobruk" title="Tobruk">Tobruk</a>. Again <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> fell into British hands, this time the advance went as far as <a href="/wiki/El_Agheila" title="El Agheila">El Agheila</a>. However outside events again intervened to impede British efforts; as the British attack reached El Agheila Japan attacked in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>. That meant that reinforcements that had been destined for the Middle East went elsewhere. This was to have disastrous effects. </p><p>Rommel took the offensive again in January 1942. He had been instructed by his high command to only conduct a limited offensive against British positions. However, he disobeyed orders and exploited the British collapse. </p><p>An operation had been planned to take <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, and thus reduce its strangulation of Rommel's supply lines. However, with his new offensive, Rommel was consuming <a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">materiel</a> meant for the Malta attack. It came down to a choice of attacking Malta or supporting Rommel; Rommel's attack won out. At the time Malta seemed neutralised, but this mistake was to come to haunt the Axis later. </p><p>Confusion in British ranks was horrendous as attempts to shore up the position failed time and again. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a>, Rommel not only drove the British out of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, and somewhat into Egypt, but he pushed deep into the protectorate. <a href="/wiki/Tobruk" title="Tobruk">Tobruk</a> fell quickly, and there was no repeat of the epic siege that Rommel's last advance had produced. A prepared defensive line at <a href="/wiki/Mersa_Matruh" title="Mersa Matruh">Mersa Matruh</a> was outflanked, and disaster beckoned. Ritchie was dismissed as Eighth Army commander and <a href="/wiki/Claude_Auchinleck" title="Claude Auchinleck">Claude Auchinleck</a>, the Commander-in-Chief <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Command" title="Middle East Command">Middle East Command</a>, came forward to take command of it himself. After Matruh there was only one more defensive position before <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> itself; <a href="/wiki/El_Alamein" title="El Alamein">El Alamein</a>. </p><p>Auchinlek managed to stop Rommel with the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a>. </p><p>A new command team arrived in the Middle East, with Lieutenant General Sir <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a> assuming command of the Eighth Army. Rommel tried to break through again during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alam_Halfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Alam Halfa">Battle of Alam Halfa</a>, but his thrust was stopped. Montgomery then began preparations for a great breakthrough offensive that would result in the pursuit of Axis forces all the way to <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Torch_and_El_Alamein">Operation Torch and El Alamein</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Operation Torch and El Alamein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein,_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg/220px-Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg/330px-Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg/440px-Sherman_tanks_of_9th_Queen%27s_Royal_Lancers_during_the_Battle_of_El_Alamein%2C_5_November_1942._E18972.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>Sherman tanks of 9th Queen's Royal Lancers during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a>, 5 November 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>8 November 1942 saw the first great amphibious assault of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>, an Anglo-American force landed on the shores of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. However, even in Algeria, despite having a large British content, the allies maintained the illusion that this was an American operation in order to reduce possible resistance by the French. </p><p>After the attack by <a href="/wiki/Force_H" title="Force H">Force H</a> on the French fleet at <a href="/wiki/Mers_el_Kebir" class="mw-redirect" title="Mers el Kebir">Mers el Kebir</a> in 1940, anti-British feeling ran high among the French. This had been exacerbated by later British operations against Vichy-controlled territories at <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, and the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. It was feared that any British attack on French soil would lead to prolonged resistance. Ironically, the attack which saw the greatest resistance was that wholly American landing in Morocco. A full scale naval battle was fought between French and American ships, and ground fighting was also heavy. </p><p>The resistance did not last long. The French surrendered and then shortly afterward joined the Allied cause. One of the main reasons for the quick switch of sides was because the Germans had moved into unoccupied France, ending the Vichy regime, shortly after the North African garrisons had surrendered. </p><p>Once resistance in Algeria and Morocco was over, the campaign became a race. The Germans were pouring men and supplies into <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and the Allies were trying to get sufficient troops into the country quickly enough to stop them before the need for a full-scale campaign to drive them out occurred. </p><p>Just before <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a> was being fought in Egypt. The new commander of the Eighth Army, Lieutenant General Sir <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a>, had the opportunity to conclusively defeat the Panzerarmee Afrika under <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a>, since Rommel was at the end of enormously stretched supply lines, the British were close to their supply bases, and <a href="/wiki/Rommel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rommel">Rommel</a> was about to be attacked from the rear by Torch. </p><p>The Second Battle of <a href="/wiki/El_Alamein" title="El Alamein">El Alamein</a> saw enormous use made of <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>. Rommel's forces had laid large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">mines</a> in the desert, and the terrain of the area prevented his position being outflanked, and British naval forces were not powerful enough to land a significant force directly behind Rommel to cut his supply lines directly at the same time as Operation Torch. Consequently, the German lines had to be attacked directly. However, that did not mean that Montgomery did not try to use feint and deception in the battle. "Dummy tanks" and other deceptions were used liberally to try to fool the Germans where the stroke would fall. </p><p>The main attack went in, but it was turned back by the extensive minefields. Montgomery then shifted the axis of advance to another point to throw the Germans off balance. What had formerly been a spoiling attack was developed into the new major thrust. Through a grinding battle of attrition, the Germans were thrown back. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage,_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg/220px-Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg/330px-Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg/440px-Winston_Churchill_au_th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_Carthage%2C_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman</a> amphitheatre of ancient Carthage to address 3,000 British and American troops, June 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>After El Alamein, Rommel's forces were pursued through the western desert for the last time. <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> was retaken from Axis forces, and then <a href="/wiki/Tripolitania" title="Tripolitania">Tripolitania</a> was won for the first time. Rommel's forces, apart from small rearguard actions to hold up Montgomery's men, did not turn and fight again until they were within the <a href="/wiki/Mareth_Line" title="Mareth Line">Mareth Line</a> defences of southern Tunisia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_for_Tunisia">Battle for Tunisia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Battle for Tunisia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisia Campaign">Tunisia Campaign</a></div> <p>As British forces swept west through Libya and Anglo-American forces closed in from Algeria, the Axis began to pour reinforcements into Tunisia. A new command under Colonel General <a href="/wiki/Jurgen_von_Arnim" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurgen von Arnim">Jurgen von Arnim</a> was set up, von Arnim was a confirmed enemy of Rommel, and so German command relations did not get off to a good start. </p><p>Rommel turned to face Montgomery's forces who had caught up with the Panzerarmee Afrika at last at the <a href="/wiki/Mareth_Line" title="Mareth Line">Mareth Line</a>. The Mareth Line was a series of old French border defences against Italian forces from Libya. Rommel took them over and improved them greatly. It took a major effort for British forces to break through. However, by this time Rommel had left Africa, never to return. </p><p>It was decided that First Army should make the main thrust to destroy Axis formations in Africa. II Corps was moved from the south to north of the front, and the <a href="/wiki/French_XIX_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="French XIX Corps">French XIX Corps</a> took up station on the right wing of the First Army. The Eighth Army was to make a subsidiary thrust along the coast to pin down Axis forces. </p><p>The final offensive began at the end of March 1943, and by May, Axis forces had surrendered. 250,000 men were taken prisoner, a number comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">battle of Stalingrad</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Italian_campaign">The Italian campaign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The Italian campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign (World War II)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> was the name of Allied operations in and around Italy, from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy_as_a_monarchy_and_in_the_World_Wars#Italy_and_the_Second_World_War_(1940-1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars">1943 to the end of the war</a>. Joint Allied Forces Headquarters <a href="/wiki/AFHQ" class="mw-redirect" title="AFHQ">AFHQ</a> was operationally responsible for all Allied land forces in the Mediterranean theatre, and it planned and commanded the invasion of Sicily and the campaign on the Italian mainland until the surrender of German forces in Italy in May 1945. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_Sicily">Invasion of Sicily</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Invasion of Sicily"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></div> <p>On 10 July 1943, Sicily was invaded. The operation, named Operation Husky, was directed from Malta. British forces attacked on the eastern flank of the landing, with the British Eighth Army's XXX Corps coming ashore at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Passero" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Passero">Cape Passero</a> and XIII Corps at <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a>. The Eighth Army's job was to advance up the east coast of Sicily. Originally British forces were to have the main role in the attack on the island but, when their advance slowed, the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_United_States_Army" title="Seventh United States Army">American Seventh Army</a> on the west side of the island swept around the enemy flank instead. The local Sicilians were also reported to have greatly supported the advancing Americans to defeat the fascists. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_Sicily_1943_NA5752.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Universal_Carrier" title="Universal Carrier">Universal carriers</a> of the 2nd Battalion, <a href="/wiki/Wiltshire_Regiment" title="Wiltshire Regiment">Wiltshire Regiment</a> pass through Pedara, Sicily, 9 August 1943.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Eighth Army eventually battered its way past the German defences and enveloped <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna</a>; by this time the Germans and Italians were retreating. By 17 August all the Axis forces had evacuated the island, and <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a> was captured that day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrender_of_Italy">Surrender of Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Surrender of Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Italy">Armistice with Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_Italy_1943_NA6301.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>British Troops coming ashore from landing ships at Reggio, 3 September 1943.</figcaption></figure> <p>After operations in Sicily, the Italian Government was teetering on the brink of collapse. Italian dictator <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> was ousted by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_of_Fascism" title="Grand Council of Fascism">Grand Council of Fascism</a> and, on orders of King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">Victor Emmanuel</a>, Mussolini was taken into custody. Peace feelers were put out to the Allies. However, the invasion of Italy still proceeded. </p><p>On 3 September 1943, the first attacks were made directly across the Straits of Messina by Eighth Army in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Baytown" title="Operation Baytown">Operation Baytown</a>. V and XIII Corps carried out that attack. Montgomery's forces leap-frogged up the toe of Italy over the next few days. A subsidiary landing, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Slapstick" title="Operation Slapstick">Operation Slapstick</a>, was also made on 9 September at the Italian naval base of <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a> by the <a href="/wiki/1st_Airborne_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="1st Airborne Division (United Kingdom)">1st Airborne Division</a>. </p><p>Also on 3 September, King Victor Emmanuel and Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> secretly signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Italy_and_Allied_armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces">armistice with the Allies</a>. On 8 September, the armistice was made public and a government was set up in southern Italy. What was known as the "Badoglio Government" joined the Allies against the Axis. </p><p>The main attack, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Avalanche" title="Operation Avalanche">Operation Avalanche</a>, was delivered on 9 September at <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>. Salerno was chosen for the site of the attack because it was the furthest north that the single-engined fighters based in Sicily could realistically provide cover. Escort carriers also stood off shore to supplement the cover given by land-based aircraft. A subsidiary landing, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Slapstick" title="Operation Slapstick">Operation Slapstick</a>, was also made on the same day at the Italian naval base of <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a> by the British 1st Airborne Division, landed directly into the port from warships. News of the Italian surrender was broadcast as the troop convoys were converging on Salerno. </p><p>The Germans reacted extremely quickly to the Italian surrender. They disarmed the Italian troops near their forces and took up defensive positions near Salerno. Italian troops were disarmed throughout Italy and Italian-controlled areas in what was known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Axis">Operation Axis</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Achse" title="Operation Achse">Operation Achse</a></i>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy#Salerno_landings" title="Allied invasion of Italy">landings at Salerno</a> were made by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Fifth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Fifth Army">U.S. Fifth Army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant general (United States)">Lieutenant General</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_W._Clark" title="Mark W. Clark">Mark Clark</a>. It consisted of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._VI_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. VI Corps">U.S. VI Corps</a> landing on the right flank and the <a href="/wiki/British_X_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="British X Corps">British X Corps</a> landing on the left. Initial resistance was heavy, however heavy naval and air support combined with the approach of Eighth Army from the south eventually forced the Germans to withdraw. By 25 September a line from <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a> was controlled by Allied forces. </p><p>Further relatively rapid advances continued over the next few weeks, but by the end of October, the front was stalled. The Germans had taken up extremely powerful defensive positions on the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Line" title="Winter Line">Winter Line</a>. There the front would remain for the next six months. </p><p>About two months after his ouster, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Oak">Operation Oak</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Unternehmen_Eiche" class="mw-redirect" title="Unternehmen Eiche">Unternehmen Eiche</a></i>). He set up the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> in northern Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Winter_Line,_Anzio_and_the_Battle_of_Monte_Cassino"><span id="The_Winter_Line.2C_Anzio_and_the_Battle_of_Monte_Cassino"></span>The Winter Line, Anzio and the Battle of Monte Cassino</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The Winter Line, Anzio and the Battle of Monte Cassino"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Winter_Line" title="Winter Line">Winter Line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Shingle" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Shingle">Operation Shingle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Battle of Monte Cassino</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg/220px-British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg/330px-British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg/440px-British_4.2_inch_mortar_fining_Cassino_12-05-1944_IWM_NA_14735.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>British 4.2 inch mortar of 307th Battery, 99th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, in action during the Battle of Monte Cassino, 12 May 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>The linchpin of the Winter Line position was the town and monastery of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Cassino" title="Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a>. The extremely powerful position dominated a key route to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and thus it had to be captured. British forces (the <a href="/wiki/46th_Infantry_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="46th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)">46th</a> and <a href="/wiki/56th_(London)_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="56th (London) Division">56th</a> divisions) on the left flank of Fifth Army tried to cross the <a href="/wiki/Garigliano_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Garigliano River">Garigliano River</a> and were also driven back, as was a joint French-American attempt. </p><p>With no sign of a breakthrough it was decided to attempt to outflank the Winter Line with an amphibious landing behind it. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Shingle" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Shingle">Operation Shingle</a> involved <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">landings at Anzio</a> on the West coast on 23 January 1944. The assaulting formations were controlled by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._VI_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. VI Corps">U.S. VI Corps</a>, but as with Salerno, there was a substantial British component to the assault force. The <a href="/wiki/British_1st_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="British 1st Infantry Division">British 1st Infantry Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/2nd_Commando_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Commando Brigade">2nd Commando Brigade</a> formed the left flank of the assault. </p><p>Again, like Salerno, there were serious problems with the landings. The commander, Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/John_P._Lucas" title="John P. Lucas">John P. Lucas</a>, did not exploit as aggressively as he might have done and was relieved for it. Lucas believed that if he had pushed too far, his forces could have been cut off by the Germans, but the whole purpose of the invasion was to attack the German lines behind Monte Cassino and break out into the Italian areas which were undefended. The Germans came even closer than Salerno to breaking up the beachhead. They pushed through the defences to the last line before the sea. Again massive firepower on the Allied side saved the beachhead. </p><p>After the initial attack and after the German counter-attack had been repulsed, the Anzio beachhead settled down to stalemate. The attempt at outflanking the Winter Line had failed. It was May before a breakout from the beachhead could be attempted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakthrough_to_Rome">Breakthrough to Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Breakthrough to Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Men_of_%27D%27_Company,_1st_Battalion,_The_Green_Howards_occupy_a_captured_German_communications_trench_during_the_offensive_at_Anzio,_Italy,_22_May_1944._NA15297.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Men_of_%27D%27_Company%2C_1st_Battalion%2C_The_Green_Howards_occupy_a_captured_German_communications_trench_during_the_offensive_at_Anzio%2C_Italy%2C_22_May_1944._NA15297.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Men_of_%27D%27_Company%2C_1st_Battalion%2C_The_Green_Howards_occupy_a_captured_German_communications_trench_during_the_offensive_at_Anzio%2C_Italy%2C_22_May_1944._NA15297.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Men_of_%27D%27_Company%2C_1st_Battalion%2C_The_Green_Howards_occupy_a_captured_German_communications_trench_during_the_offensive_at_Anzio%2C_Italy%2C_22_May_1944._NA15297.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Men of 'D' Company, 1st Battalion, <a href="/wiki/Green_Howards" title="Green Howards">Green Howards</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/13th_Infantry_Brigade_(United_Kingdom)" title="13th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)">13th Brigade</a> of <a href="/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)">5th Division</a>, occupy a captured German communications trench during the breakout at Anzio, Italy, 22 May 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>By May 1944, U.S. VI Corps had been reinforced to a strength of seven divisions. In the Fourth Battle of Monte Cassino (also known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Diadem" title="Operation Diadem">Operation Diadem</a>), a concerted attack was made at both Anzio and the Winter Line. The German defences finally cracked. </p><p>The front had been reorganised. V Corps was left on the Adriatic, but the rest of Eighth Army was moved over the <a href="/wiki/Apennines" class="mw-redirect" title="Apennines">Apennines</a> to concentrate more forces to take Rome. The front of Fifth Army was thus considerably reduced. X Corps also moved to Eighth Army as the complicated arrangement of British forces under American command was removed. Several battles for Cassino followed, contested by Indian, New Zealand and Polish forces. In the end, Cassino lost its pivotal position as operations elsewhere on the front managed to turn its flanks. These included a brilliant demonstration of mountain warfare by the <a href="/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_(1943-1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="French Expeditionary Corps (1943-1944)">French Expeditionary Corps</a>. </p><p>British forces were not well handled during Diadem. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leese" title="Oliver Leese">Oliver Leese</a>, the commander of Eighth Army, made an enormous mistake by sending the heavily mechanised XIII Corps up the <a href="/wiki/Liri_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Liri Valley">Liri Valley</a> towards Rome. An enormous traffic jam developed. There was also controversy over the handling of American forces. VI Corps had originally been supposed to interpose itself on the route to Rome and cut off the German forces retreating from the Winter Line. However, Clark decided instead to advance on Rome, and ordered only a comparatively token force into a blocking position and ordered the rest of the Corps to head for Rome. The Germans brushed aside the blocking force and thus a major part of their formations escaped encirclement. A total of 25 divisions (roughly a tenth of the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(Wehrmacht)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (Wehrmacht)">Wehrmacht</a>) escaped, and this led to the war in Italy dragging on until 1945. Speculation surrounds this whole episode and many in the Allied command felt that Mark Clark had disobeyed direct orders for his own glory and contributed to the war's extension. If he had cut off those forces as had been planned and ordered, they could have been destroyed in the same way as was achieved in France, and the German resistance in Italy would have collapsed. The Allies could have advanced up the spine of Italy and invaded Austria and southern Germany. This was the plan of the British, one not supported by the Americans, and as such Mark Clark's actions may have been politically motivated, or driven by Washington. It is true that Mark Clark was not punished for his change of route, even though other commanders were for less. </p><p>Rome fell on 5 June, and the pursuit continued well beyond the city, into northern Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Gothic_Line_and_victory_in_Italy">The Gothic Line and victory in Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: The Gothic Line and victory in Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po,_Italy,_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg/220px-A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg/330px-A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg/440px-A_Churchill_tank_halts_near_infantry_of_the_1st_London_Irish_Rifles_near_Tanara_during_the_advance_to_the_River_Po%2C_Italy%2C_23_April_1945._NA24460.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Churchill_tank" title="Churchill tank">Churchill tank</a> halts near infantrymen of the 1st Battalion, <a href="/wiki/London_Irish_Rifles" title="London Irish Rifles">London Irish Rifles</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/167th_(1st_London)_Brigade" title="167th (1st London) Brigade">167th Brigade</a> of <a href="/wiki/56th_(London)_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="56th (London) Division">56th (London) Division</a>, near Tanara, Italy, April 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of August 1944, Allied forces had reached <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pesaro" title="Pesaro">Pesaro</a> on each coast. As with the previous year, the advance then slowed greatly. The composition of the forces in Italy had changed again with the withdrawal of the French forces for the invasion of southern France, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._IV_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. IV Corps">U.S. IV Corps</a> had been activated to replace the French in Fifth Army. Eighth Army was composed of V, X and XIII Corps of the British forces, <a href="/wiki/I_Canadian_Corps" title="I Canadian Corps">Canadian I Corps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_II_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish II Corps">Polish II Corps</a>. However, during this period, XIII Corps was temporarily placed under the command of the U.S. Fifth Army. </p><p>Between August and December, the Eighth Army slowly progressed up the east coast. The Polish II Corps captured the important port-city of <a href="/wiki/Ancona" title="Ancona">Ancona</a>, thus significantly shortening the allied supply line. The original aim had been to break through in the <a href="/wiki/Po_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Po plain">Po plain</a> by the end of 1944, but that was nowhere near possible. December saw the line just south of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Comacchio" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Comacchio">Lake Comacchio</a>, with the Germans holding a salient to the west. Fifth Army was in the high passes of the Apennines. </p><p>After December, operations ground to a halt for the winter. The only major event that took place during this period was the removal of I Canadian Corps from the Italian front to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Canadian_1st_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian 1st Army">Canadian 1st Army</a> in France. The offensive was not renewed until April. The choice for the last offensive was whether the major blow should fall on the Fifth Army or the Eighth Army front. Eventually, it was settled that Eighth Army should make the major attack. A deception plan was hatched to convince the Germans that Fifth Army would launch the major attack, and a major logistical effort was required to move formations to their start lines. </p><p>On 2 April 1945, the attack was launched and the advance was again slow at first. </p><p>By 20 April, <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> was in a salient held by the Germans, and Lake Comacchio was crossed by an amphibious attack. The Germans were close to breaking. In the next ten days, the German forces were either surrounded or pinned against the <a href="/wiki/River_Po" class="mw-redirect" title="River Po">River Po</a>. The Germans were reduced in large part to scattered bands and bereft of heavy equipment. </p><p>On 28 April, Mussolini and a group of fascist Italians were captured by <a href="/wiki/Italian_partisans" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian partisans">Italian partisans</a> while attempting to flee Italy. Mussolini and about fifteen other fascists were executed and their bodies taken to <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> for display. </p><p>On 29 April, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani" title="Rodolfo Graziani">Rodolfo Graziani</a> surrendered the Italian <a href="/wiki/Army_Group_Liguria" class="mw-redirect" title="Army Group Liguria">LXXXXVII Army (<i>Liguria</i>)</a>, the army of Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>. </p><p>The progress in May was rapid. The American forces mopped up in the upper Po Valley and captured <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, the Polish forces captured <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, and the British forces cleared the lower Po and reached the Yugoslav and Austrian borders. </p><p>On 2 May, the German forces in Italy capitulated. This occurred shortly before the main German surrender on 8 May. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_liberation_of_Europe">The liberation of Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: The liberation of Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Overlord">Operation Overlord</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Operation Overlord"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg/220px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg/330px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg/440px-D-day_-_British_Forces_during_the_Invasion_of_Normandy_6_June_1944_B5114.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2253" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>Troops of 3rd Infantry Division on Queen Red beach, Sword Beach, 6 June 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">invasion of Normandy</a>, the largest amphibious assault in history, took place on 6 June 1944. All ground armies, US and British, were under the command of British General Montgomery.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operation involved the landing of five assault divisions from the sea and three assault divisions by parachute and glider. Of those, one airborne and two seaborne divisions were British. The British airborne formation involved was <a href="/wiki/6th_Airborne_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="6th Airborne Division">6th Airborne Division</a>, with the British seaborne divisions being the <a href="/wiki/British_3rd_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="British 3rd Infantry Division">3rd Infantry Division</a> landing at <a href="/wiki/Sword_Beach" title="Sword Beach">Sword Beach</a> and <a href="/wiki/50th_(Northumbrian)_Infantry_Division" title="50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division">50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_8th_Armoured_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="British 8th Armoured Brigade">8th Armoured Brigade</a> on <a href="/wiki/Gold_Beach" title="Gold Beach">Gold Beach</a>. <a href="/wiki/No._48_(Royal_Marine)_Commando" title="No. 48 (Royal Marine) Commando">No.48 Commando</a> landed with the <a href="/wiki/3rd_Canadian_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd Canadian Infantry Division">3rd Canadian Infantry Division</a> at <a href="/wiki/Juno_Beach" title="Juno Beach">Juno</a>; the remaining divisions were provided by the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British formations were assigned to the eastern end of the beachhead. The 6th Airborne Division landed to secure the eastern flank of the assault forces. The first Allied units in action were the glider-borne troops that assaulted <a href="/wiki/Pegasus_Bridge" title="Pegasus Bridge">Pegasus Bridge</a>. Beyond the main formations, various smaller units went ashore. Prominent among those were the <a href="/wiki/British_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commandos">British Commandos</a>. </p><p>The United Kingdom was the main base for the operation and provided the majority of the naval power. Nearly eighty per cent of the bombarding and transporting warships were from the Royal Navy. Airpower for the operation was a more even divide. The United States contributed two air forces to the battle, the Eighth Air Force with strategic bombers, and the Ninth Air Force for tactical airpower. All the home commands of the RAF were involved in the operation. Coastal Command secured the English Channel against German naval vessels. Bomber Command had been engaged in reducing communications targets in France for several months to paralyse the movement of German reinforcements to the battle. It also directly supported the bombardment forces on the morning of the assault. Air Defence of the United Kingdom, the temporarily renamed Fighter Command, provided air superiority over the beachhead. The <a href="/wiki/2nd_Tactical_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Tactical Air Force">2nd Tactical Air Force</a> provided direct support to the Empire formations. </p><p>The operation was a success. Both tactical<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and strategic surprise were achieved. </p><p>Most of the initial objectives for the day were not achieved, but a firm beachhead was established. It was gradually built up until offensive operations could begin in earnest. The first major success was the capture of <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg" title="Cherbourg">Cherbourg</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britsoldiercaen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A soldier holding the arm of an elderly lady in a debris-strewn street, with ruined buildings in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britsoldiercaen.jpg/220px-Britsoldiercaen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britsoldiercaen.jpg/330px-Britsoldiercaen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britsoldiercaen.jpg/440px-Britsoldiercaen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>A British soldier helps an old woman amongst the ruins of Caen after its liberation, 10 July 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the east, the first major British objective was <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a>, an extremely tough nut to crack. The battle for the city turned into a long drawn-out battle. It eventually fell in July. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controversies">Controversies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war Montgomery claimed that the battle for Normandy progressed largely as he had planned the operation at St. Paul's school in Fulham, London, supported by American generals, General Eisenhower, General Bradley and Australian war correspondent Chester Wilmott, amongst others. Eisenhower stated three years after the war in his memoirs, Crusade in Europe, that the plan <i>"was never abandoned, even momentarily, throughout the campaign"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic plan was for the British to draw in, hold, and destroy German armor in the east, not acquiring territory, while the US forces in the lightly defended territory to the west built up their strength and break out in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cobra" title="Operation Cobra">Operation Cobra</a>. </p><p>Montgomery did not overly publicise some of the points of the plan for fear of lowering the morale of British troops, who would take on the brunt of the experienced German armored forces to allow American troops to break out. Montgomery understood that high morale facilitated superior battlefield performance, especially in non-regular soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mix of forces in the British and Canadian ranks indicated this with great emphasis on tanks and vehicles. Prime minister Churchill asked why there was so many vehicles in relation to infantry troops in the British armies, as vehicles required a larger logistical backup, which diverts men away from fighting duties. Montgomery told Churchill every vehicle is needed and that he would not allow him to interrogate his staff on the matter, otherwise he would resign. Churchill wept and left the room.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Montgomery claimed that Eisenhower, although giving approval, did not fully understand the plan in detail as laid down in St. Paul's School.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General Bradley fully understood and confirmed Montgomery's original plan and intentions, writing: </p> <dl><dd>"The British and Canadian armies were to decoy the enemy reserves and draw them to their front on the extreme eastern edge of the Allied beachhead. Thus, while Monty taunted the enemy at Caen, we [the Americans] were to make our break on the long roundabout road to Paris. When reckoned in terms of national pride, this British decoy mission became a sacrificial one, for while we tramped around the outside flank, the British were to sit in place and pin down the Germans. Yet strategically it fitted into a logical division of labors, for it was towards Caen that the enemy reserves would race once the alarm was sounded".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Post war a number of Americans authors argued that Montgomery's generalship was flawed and that the battle had to be fought differently from planned because Montgomery promised more than he could deliver. This was mainly based on that the British forces did not aggressively pursue territory.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Author and military officer Stephen Hart analysed the 21st Army Group in 1992 and finds that Montgomery's emphasis on the reduction of casualties which would maintain morale and a higher fighting performance in non-regular soldiers, which most soldiers were, were the primary influences on his operational conduct. Hart concludes that Montgomery was the most competent British general in Europe for he understood Britain's war aims. His concern with his units' morale was legitimate, recognizing that the British had an infantry manpower problem as emphasis was on armoured vehicles to counter superior German armour. Both factors influenced his handling of the 21st Army Group. Hart destroys the <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a> that Montgomery was unnecessarily cautious.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakout_from_Normandy">Breakout from Normandy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Breakout from Normandy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9528.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>British infantry aboard Sherman tanks wait for the order to advance, near <a href="/wiki/Argentan" title="Argentan">Argentan</a>, 21 August 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>The British and Canadian forces largely destroyed German armour in the east of Normandy allowing the American forces to break out in late July 1944 in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cobra" title="Operation Cobra">Operation Cobra</a>. Allied forces began an envelopment of the German forces remaining in Normandy. Hitler ordered a counter-attack on the seemingly vulnerable strip of territory that the US forces controlled on the Normandy coast, linking the First and Third Armies. </p><p>As American forces swept round to the south, British, Canadian and Polish forces pinned and then pushed the Germans from the north. A German pocket formed to the south of the town of <a href="/wiki/Falaise,_Calvados" title="Falaise, Calvados">Falaise</a> when the two allied forces met. Up to 150,000 German soldiers were trapped and around 60,000 casualties were inflicted. </p><p>As arranged before the Normandy invasion, <a href="/wiki/General_(United_States)" title="General (United States)">General</a> <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> took over as Ground Forces Command from Montgomery on 1 September, while Montgomery continued to command the British 21st Army Group, now consisting mainly of British and Canadian units.<sup id="cite_ref-weigley_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weigley-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Normandy battle there was little German resistance left in the west. British forces swept north entering Belgium on 2 September 1944,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while American forces swept east. <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> fell at the end of August 1944 to brigadier general Charles de Gaulle's Free French troops and American forces. By the end of September much of France had been liberated. </p><p>Logistical difficulties then caught up with the Allies as all supplies had to be transported from Normandy. Because of thinly-stretched supply lines, the American fast broad-front advance could not be sustained, grinding to a halt in <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Heated discussions then took place over the next phase of Allied strategy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Riviera_invasion">Riviera invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Riviera invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>, the invasion of southern France in August 1944 was carried out almost entirely by American and Free French troops, though British naval forces took part in bombardment duties and air protection of the beachhead. The only British land forces to take part were the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Independent_Parachute_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Independent Parachute Brigade">2nd Independent Parachute Brigade</a>. They landed without much opposition, and rapidly took their objectives. The quick success of the operation allowed them to be withdrawn from the line and redeployed to Greece where they were urgently needed to help quell the civil war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Market_Garden">Operation Market Garden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Operation Market Garden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Operation Market Garden</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_North-west_Europe_1944-45_BU950.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>The crew of a Cromwell tank is welcomed by Dutch civilians in <a href="/wiki/Eindhoven" title="Eindhoven">Eindhoven</a>, 19 September 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>Montgomery and Eisenhower had long been debating the merits of a broad front attack strategy versus concentrating power in one area and punching through German lines. Eisenhower favoured the former, and Montgomery the latter. However, in late 1944, logistic problems meant that the former was temporarily out of the question. Montgomery conceived <a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Operation Market Garden</a> to implement a narrow front strategy. The idea was to land airborne forces in the Netherlands to take vital bridges over the country's various rivers. Armoured formation would then relieve the airborne forces and advance quickly into Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American paratroops were dropped at intermediate points north of Allied lines, with the <a href="/wiki/British_1st_Airborne_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="British 1st Airborne Division">British 1st Airborne Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_1st_Independent_Parachute_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade">Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade</a> at the tip of the salient at <a href="/wiki/Arnhem" title="Arnhem">Arnhem</a>. All the bridges were captured on the 1st day except the Nijmegen bridge, which caused a near two day delay, the plan then began to run into serious trouble. The relief forces of <a href="/wiki/Brian_Horrocks" title="Brian Horrocks">Lieutenant General Horrock's</a> <a href="/wiki/XXX_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="XXX Corps (United Kingdom)">XXX Corps</a> had to advance up a single good road. Being unable to progress past Nijmegen, congestion along the road emerged. The Germans reacted quickly to attack the road from both sides. Consequently, XXX Corps had to seize the bridge which the US 82nd paratroopers failed to do, which took a great deal longer than expected to progress through to Arnhem. By the time XXX Corps reached Arnhem the British 1st Airborne had capitulated on the bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1st Airborne Division <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arnhem" title="Battle of Arnhem">held the Arnhem bridge for four days</a>, and had a large force over the river for a total of nine days, before finally withdrawing in a daring night escape back over the Rhine. Of the more than 10,000 men who flew into the Arnhem operation, only about 2,000 returned. 1st Airborne Division was essentially finished as a fighting formation for the duration of the war without having achieved the original objective. </p><p>In the aftermath of the attack, the salient's flanks were expanded to complete the closing up to the Rhine in that section of the front. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walcheren">Walcheren</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Walcheren"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following Market Garden, the great port of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> had been captured. However, it lay at the end of a long river estuary, and so it could not be used until its approaches were clear. The southern bank of the <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a> was cleared by Canadian and Polish forces relatively quickly, but the thorny problem of the island of <a href="/wiki/Walcheren" title="Walcheren">Walcheren</a> remained. </p><p>Walcheren guarded the northern approaches to Antwerp and thus had to be stormed. The dikes and dunes were bombed at three locations, <a href="/wiki/Westkapelle_(Netherlands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westkapelle (Netherlands)">Westkapelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veere" title="Veere">Veere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flushing,_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Flushing, Netherlands">Flushing</a>, in order to inundate the island. In the last great amphibious operation of the war in Europe, <a href="/wiki/British_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commandos">British Commandos</a> and Canadian troops captured the island in the late autumn of 1944, clearing the way for Antwerp to be opened and for the easement of the critical logistical problems the Allies were suffering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_the_Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Battle of the Bulge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes,_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit,_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg/220px-A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg/330px-A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg/440px-A_6th_Airborne_Division_sniper_on_patrol_in_the_Ardennes%2C_wearing_a_snow_camouflage_suit%2C_14_January_1945._B13676.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A 6th Airborne Division sniper on patrol in the Ardennes, 14 January 1945.</figcaption></figure> <p>After December 1944, the strategy was to complete the conquest of the Rhineland and prepare to break into Germany proper en masse. However, what happened next completely caught the Allied staffs by surprise.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans launched their last great offensive in December, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a>. In an attempt to repeat their 1940 success, German forces were launched through the Ardennes. Again they encountered weak forces holding the front, as the American formations there were either new to the war or exhausted units on a quiet sector of the front rehabilitating. There were however also some important differences to 1940 which resulted in the German offensive ultimately failing. They were facing enormously strong Allied airpower unlike in 1940 when they had ruled the skies. The opening of the offensive was timed for a spell of bad weather, aimed at removing the threat of the Allied airpower, but the weather cleared again relatively soon. </p><p>Most of the forces that took part in the Battle of the Bulge were American. Some great feats of staff work resulted in the <a href="/wiki/US_Third_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US Third Army">Third Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/US_Ninth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US Ninth Army">Ninth Army</a>, essentially altering their facing by ninety degrees to contain the salient. However, the salient created by the German attack meant that First and Ninth Armies were cut off from 12th Army Group Headquarters, so they were shifted to the command of 21st Army Group for the duration of the battle meaning the British army group had an important controlling role. The British XXX Corps also took part in the battle in a backstop role to contain any further German advances. </p><p>By the end of January, the salient had effectively been reduced back to its former size, and the temporarily aborted mission of liberating the Rhineland recommenced. First Army returned to 12th Army Group, but Ninth Army remained under the control of 21st Army Group for the time being. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crossing_the_Rhine_and_final_surrender">Crossing the Rhine and final surrender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Crossing the Rhine and final surrender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plunder" title="Operation Plunder">Operation Plunder</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4195.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4195.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>The liberation of <a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen concentration camp</a>, April 1945 </figcaption></figure> <p>The penultimate preliminary operation to close up to the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> in the British section was the clearing of the <a href="/wiki/Roer_Triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Roer Triangle">Roer Triangle</a> (codename <a href="/wiki/Operation_Blackcock" title="Operation Blackcock">Operation Blackcock</a>). The XIII Corps removed German forces from the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Roer" title="Roer">Roer</a> during the second half of January 1945. </p><p>Following the reaching of the Roer, Second Army shifted to the mission of pinning German forces opposing it. Ninth Army in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Grenade" title="Operation Grenade">Operation Grenade</a> and First Army in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Veritable" title="Operation Veritable">Operation Veritable</a> began a great pincer movement to destroy the remaining German forces west of the Rhine. The only British forces to take part in the main part of this offensive was XXX Corps, which was part of First Army. </p><p>By 5 March 1945, British Empire and American forces had closed up to the Rhine in all but a small salient on their sectors of the front. That salient was reduced by five days later. </p><p>On 23 March, the operations to cross the Rhine in the north began. The British Second and <a href="/wiki/U.S._Ninth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Ninth Army">U.S. Ninth</a> Armies took the lead. Ninth Army, on the south flank, took part in the great encirclement of German forces in the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a>. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._First_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. First Army">U.S. First Army</a> on the right crossed the Rhine in early April and then swung left to liberate the north of the Netherlands. Second Army drove straight across the North German plain, reaching the <a href="/wiki/Ems_(river)" title="Ems (river)">Ems</a> on 1 April and the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a> on 4 April. After the closing of the Ruhr pocket on that day, Ninth Army reverted to the command of 12th Army Group. On 15 April the British troops liberated Bergen-Belsen. </p><p>By 18 April, First Army had reached the coast in much of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, isolating the German forces there. Second Army reached the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> the next day. The only moves in the Netherlands that the Canadian and Polish forces made for the remainder of the war were reducing a small amount of the coast of the <a href="/wiki/IJsselmeer" title="IJsselmeer">IJsselmeer</a> that had not been captured and liberating a small amount of territory around <a href="/wiki/Groningen" title="Groningen">Groningen</a>. Most of German <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> also fell to Canadian and Polish forces. British units reached the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a> on 2 May, and then halted as they had reached the agreed line of meeting Soviet forces. The war came to an end on 7 May, and British forces reoriented to the task of occupying Germany itself.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Far_East">The Far East</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: The Far East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asian theatre of World War II</a></div> <p>On 7/8 December 1941, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> invaded Hong Kong, Thailand and Malaya from bases located in China and <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Japanese_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_States_and_the_British_Empire" title="Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire">Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire</a>, the declaration was not delivered until after the attacks began. The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan">United Kingdom declared war on Japan</a> the same day. Action in this theatre ended when Japan <a href="/wiki/Jewel_Voice_Broadcast" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewel Voice Broadcast">announced an intent to surrender</a> on 15 August 1945. The formal <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> ceremony took place on 2 September 1945. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disaster_in_Malaya_and_Singapore">Disaster in Malaya and Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Disaster in Malaya and Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg/220px-Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg/330px-Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg/440px-Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Surrendering troops of <a href="/wiki/The_Suffolk_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Suffolk Regiment">the Suffolk Regiment</a> held at gunpoint by Japanese infantry in Singapore</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Invasion_of_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Invasion of Thailand">Japanese Invasion of Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Malaya">Battle of Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Battle of Singapore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Battle of Hong Kong</a></div> <p>The outbreak of war in the Far East found the United Kingdom critically overstretched. British forces in the area were weak in almost all arms. On 8 December 1941, the Japanese launched invasions of Thailand, Malaya and Hong Kong. </p><p>On 10 December 1941, the first major setback to British power in the region was the sinking of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Prince_of_Wales_(53)" title="HMS Prince of Wales (53)">HMS <i>Prince of Wales</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Repulse_(1916)" title="HMS Repulse (1916)">HMS <i>Repulse</i></a> by Japanese land-based planes. The sinking of these ships was triply significant. It represented the loss of the last Allied capital ships in the Pacific left after the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> disaster. The <i>Prince of Wales</i> and the <i>Repulse</i> were the only Allied modern or 'fast' battleships to be sunk in the entire war. It was the first time that a battleship had been sunk by enemy aircraft while underway at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reverses in the air and on the ground soon followed. Japanese forces had naval superiority, and they used it to make outflanking amphibious landings as they advanced down the Malayan peninsula towards <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. Japanese assaults from the ground and air soon made the forward landing grounds that much of the RAF's only real hope of defending Singapore from the air rested upon untenable. The RAF took a toll of Japanese forces, but there were never enough aircraft to do anything more than delay the Japanese offensive. <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian</a>, British, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">Australian</a> army forces in Malaya were larger in numbers than the other services. But they were equally ill-prepared and ill-led. They were committed in numbers both too small and too poorly positioned to counter the Japanese tactic of outflanking strongpoints through the jungle. Over a period of several weeks, the Allied ground forces steadily gave ground. </p><p>In early 1942, Singapore was critically unprepared for the assault that came. It had been neglected during the famine years for defence of the 1930s. It had then suffered during the war as British efforts were focused on defeating Germany and Italy. The colony was run by a Governor who did not want to "upset" the civilian population. Military neglect was exacerbated when he refused to allow defensive preparations before the Japanese arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Japanese landings on Singapore, intense fighting occurred over several days. But the poorly led and increasingly disorganised Allied forces were steadily driven into a small pocket on the island. </p><p>On 15 February 1942, General <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Percival" title="Arthur Percival">Arthur Percival</a> surrendered the 80,000 strong garrison of Singapore. This was the largest surrender of personnel under British leadership in history. Many of the troops saw little or no action. The civilian population then suffered a brutal Japanese occupation. Some aircraft escaped to <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, but those islands also fell to the Japanese within a short time. British forces were forced back to <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burma_Campaign">Burma Campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Burma Campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burma_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Campaign">Burma Campaign</a></div> <p>The Burma Campaign pitted forces from the <a href="/wiki/British_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commonwealth">British Commonwealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> forces against the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a>. </p><p>In Burma, Commonwealth ground forces came primarily from the United Kingdom, British India (which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh), East Africa, West Africa and Nepal (Gurkhas).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Commonwealth air and naval units and personnel deployed were primarily from the UK, India, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forced_out_of_Burma">Forced out of Burma</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Forced out of Burma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Burma, the Japanese attacked in January, 1942 – shortly after the outbreak of war. However, they did not begin to make real progress until the fall of Malaya (31 January 1942) and of Singapore (February, 1942). After that, Tokyo could transfer large numbers of aircraft to the Burma front to overwhelm the Allied forces. </p><p>The first Japanese attacks were aimed at taking <a href="/wiki/Rangoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangoon">Rangoon</a>, the major port in Burma, which offered the Allies many advantages of supply. It had at first been defended relatively successfully, with the weak RAF forces reinforced by a squadron of the famous American Volunteer Group, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as the Japanese attack developed, the amount of warning the Rangoon airfields could get of attack decreased, and thus they became increasingly untenable. </p><p>By the start of March, Japanese forces had cut the British forces in two. Rangoon was evacuated and the port demolished. Its garrison then broke through the Japanese lines thanks to an error on the part of the Japanese commander. The British commander in Burma, Lieutenant General Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutton" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Hutton">Thomas Hutton</a> was removed from command shortly before Rangoon fell. He was replaced by Sir <a href="/wiki/Harold_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Alexander">Harold Alexander</a>. </p><p>With the fall of Rangoon, a British evacuation of Burma became inevitable. Supplies could not be moved to maintain fighting forces in Burma on a large scale, since the ground communications were dreadful, sea communications risky in the extreme (along with the fact that there was only one other port of any size in Burma besides Rangoon) and air communications out of the question due to lack of transport aircraft. </p><p>Besides the Japanese superiority in training and experience, command problems beset the Burma campaign. The <a href="/wiki/1st_Burma_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Burma Division">1st Burma Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_17th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian 17th Infantry Division">Indian 17th Infantry Division</a> at first had to be controlled directly by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Burma_Army_(1937-1942)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burma Army (1937-1942) (page does not exist)">Burma Army</a> headquarters under Hutton. Burma was also swapped from command to command during the early months of the war. It had been the responsibility of <a href="/wiki/GHQ_India" title="GHQ India">GHQ India</a> since 1937, but in the early weeks of the war, it was transferred from India to the ill-fated ABDA Command (<a href="/wiki/ABDACOM" class="mw-redirect" title="ABDACOM">ABDACOM</a>). ABDA was based in Java, and it was simply impossible for Wavell, the Supreme Commander of ABDA, to keep in touch with the situation in Burma without neglecting his other responsibilities. Shortly before ABDA was dissolved, responsibility for Burma was transferred back to India. Interactions with the Chinese proved problematic. <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, the leader of Nationalist China, was a poor strategist, and the Chinese Army suffered from severe command problems, with orders having to come directly from Chiang himself if they were to be obeyed. The ability of many Chinese commanders was called into question. Finally, the Chinese Army was lacking in the ancillary services which allow a force to fight a modern war. </p><p>The problems with the Chinese were never satisfactorily resolved. However, after the dissolution of ABDA, India retained control of operations in Burma until the formation of <a href="/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command" title="South East Asia Command">South East Asia Command</a> in late 1943. The problems of a lack of corps headquarters were also solved. A skeleton force known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Burcorps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burcorps (page does not exist)">Burcorps</a> was formed under Lieutenant General Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Slim" class="mw-redirect" title="William Slim">William Slim</a>, later to gain fame as the commander of the <a href="/wiki/British_Fourteenth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="British Fourteenth Army">Fourteenth Army</a>. </p><p>Burcorps retreated almost constantly, and suffered several disastrous losses, but it eventually managed to reach India in May 1942, just before the monsoon broke. Had it still been in Burma after the monsoon broke, it would have been cut off, and likely destroyed by the Japanese. The divisions making up Burcorps were withdrawn from the line for long refit periods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forgotten_army">Forgotten army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Forgotten army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chindit_column,_Operation_Longcloth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg/220px-Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg/330px-Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg/440px-Chindit_column%2C_Operation_Longcloth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2412" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A Chindit column crossing a river in Burma during 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>Operations in Burma over the remainder of 1942 and in 1943 were a study of military frustration. The United Kingdom could only just maintain three active campaigns, and immediate offensives in both the Middle East and Far East proved impossible due to lack of resources. The Middle East won out, being closer to home and a campaign against the far more dangerous Germans. </p><p>During the 1942–1943 dry season, two operations were mounted. The first was a small scale offensive into the <a href="/wiki/Arakan_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakan State">Arakan</a> region of Burma. The Arakan is a coastal strip along the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, crossed by numerous rivers. The First Arakan offensive largely failed due to difficulties of logistics, communications and command. The Japanese troops were also still assigned almost superhuman powers by their opponents. The second attack was much more controversial; that of the <a href="/wiki/77th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade" title="77th Indian Infantry Brigade">77th Indian Infantry Brigade</a>, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Chindits" title="Chindits">Chindits</a>. </p><p>Under the command of Major General <a href="/wiki/Orde_Wingate" title="Orde Wingate">Orde Wingate</a>, the Chindits in 1944 penetrated deep behind enemy lines in an attempt to gain intelligence, break communications and cause confusion. The operation had originally been conceived as part of a much larger offensive, which had to be aborted due to lack of supplies and shipping. Almost all of the original reasons for mounting the Chindit operation were then invalid. Nevertheless, it was mounted anyway.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some 3,000 men entered Burma in many columns. They caused damage to Japanese communications, and they gathered intelligence. However, they suffered dreadful casualties, with only two thirds of the men who set out on the expedition returning. Those that returned were wracked with disease and quite often in dreadful physical condition. The most important contributions of the Chindits to the war were unexpected. They had had to be supplied by air. At first it had been thought impossible to drop supplies over the jungle. Emergency situations that arose during the operation necessitated supply drops in the jungle, proving it was possible. It is also alleged by some that the Japanese in Burma decided to take the offensive, rather than adopt a purely defensive stance, as a direct result of the Chindit operation. Whatever the reason for this later change to the offensive, it was to prove fatal for the Japanese in Burma. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kohima_and_Imphal">Kohima and Imphal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Kohima and Imphal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg/180px-The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg/270px-The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg/360px-The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE134.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>British troops marching through the jungle, 1944</figcaption></figure> <p>As the 1943–44 dry period dawned, both sides were preparing to take the offensive. The <a href="/wiki/British_Fourteenth_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="British Fourteenth Army">British Fourteenth Army</a> struck first, but only marginally before the Japanese. </p><p>In Arakan, a British advance began on the XV Corps front. However, a Japanese counter-attack halted the advance and threatened to destroy the forces making it. Unlike during previous operations, the British forces stood firm, and were supplied from the air. The resulting <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ngakyedauk_Pass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ngakyedauk Pass (page does not exist)">Battle of Ngakyedauk Pass</a> saw a heavy defeat handed to the Japanese. With the possibility of aerial supply, their infiltration tactics, relying on units carrying their own supplies and hoping to capture enemy victuals were fatally compromised.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the central front, IV Corps advanced into Burma, before indications that a major Japanese offensive was building caused it to retreat on Kohima and Imphal. Forward elements of the corps were nearly cut off by Japanese forces, but eventually made it back to India. As they waited for the storm to break, the British forces were not to know that the successful defence of the two cities would be the turning point of the entire campaign in south East Asia. HQ XXXIII Corps was rushed forward to help control matters at the front and the two corps settled down for a long siege. </p><p>The Japanese threw themselves repeatedly against the defences of the two strong points, in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Imphal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Kohima</a>, but could not break through. At times the supply situation was perilous, but never totally critical. It came down to a battle of attrition, and the British forces could simply afford to fight that kind of battle for longer. In the end, the Japanese ran out of supplies, and suffered large casualties. They broke and fled back into Burma, pursued by elements of Fourteenth Army. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Burma_retaken">Burma retaken</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Burma retaken"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg/220px-SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg/330px-SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg/440px-SE_003071_Shermans_driving_on_Meiktila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Sherman tanks and trucks advancing on Meiktila, March 1945.</figcaption></figure> <p>The recapture of Burma took place during late 1944 and the first half of 1945. Command of the British formations on the front was rearranged in November 1944. 11th Army Group was replaced with <a href="/wiki/Allied_Land_Forces_South_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Land Forces South East Asia">Allied Land Forces South East Asia</a> and XV Corps was placed directly under ALFSEA. </p><p>Some of the first operations to recapture Burma took place in Arakan. To gain bases for the aircraft necessary to supply Fourteenth Army in its attack through the heart of the country, two offshore islands, <a href="/wiki/Akyab" class="mw-redirect" title="Akyab">Akyab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramree" title="Ramree">Ramree</a>, had to be captured. Akyab was virtually undefended when British forces came ashore, so it effectively provided a rehearsal of amphibious assault doctrine for the forces in theatre. However, Ramree was defended by several thousand Japanese. The clearing of the island took several days, and associated forces on the mainland longer to clear out. Following these actions, XV Corps was greatly reduced in numbers to free up transport aircraft to support Fourteenth Army. </p><p>Fourteenth Army made the main thrust to destroy Japanese forces in Burma. The Army had IV and XXXIII Corps under its command. The plan envisaged that XXXIII Corps would reduce <a href="/wiki/Mandalay" title="Mandalay">Mandalay</a> and act as a diversion for the main striking force of IV Corps, which would take <a href="/wiki/Meiktila" title="Meiktila">Meiktila</a> and thus cut the Japanese communications. The plan succeeded extremely well, and Japanese forces in Upper Burma were effectively reduced to scattered and unorganised pockets. Slim's men then advanced south towards the Burmese capital. </p><p>Following the taking of Rangoon in May 1945 some Japanese forces remained in Burma, but it was effectively a large mopping up operation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg/220px-Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg/330px-Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg/440px-Japanese_surrender_Penang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2401" data-file-height="1807" /></a><figcaption>A Japanese officer signs the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a> aboard <a href="/wiki/HMS_Nelson_(28)" title="HMS Nelson (28)">HMS <i>Nelson</i></a> on 2 September 1945.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malaya">Malaya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Malaya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The next major campaign was planned to be the liberation of Malaya. This was to involve an amphibious assault on the western side of Malaya codenamed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Zipper" title="Operation Zipper">Operation Zipper</a>. The dropping of the atomic bombs in August 1945 forestalled Zipper, though some of its landings took place after the Japanese capitulation of 15 August 1945 as the quickest way of getting occupation troops into Malaya. Under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Jurist" title="Operation Jurist">Operation Jurist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a> was retaken on 2 September 1945, while the Japanese garrison in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> formally surrendered on 12 September under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tiderace" title="Operation Tiderace">Operation Tiderace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest of Malaya was liberated over the following weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Okinawa_and_Japan">Okinawa and Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Okinawa and Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg/220px-HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg/330px-HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg/440px-HMS_Implacable_AWM_019037.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm aircraft warm up their engines before taking off. Other warships from the British Pacific Fleet can be seen in the background.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Iceberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Iceberg">Operation Iceberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">Operation Downfall</a></div> <p>In their final actions of the war, substantial British naval forces took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Iceberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Iceberg">Operation Iceberg</a>) and the final naval strikes on Japan. The <a href="/wiki/British_Pacific_Fleet" title="British Pacific Fleet">British Pacific Fleet</a> operated as a separate unit from the American task forces in the Okinawa operation. Its job was to strike airfields on the chain of islands between <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Formosa</a> and Okinawa, to prevent the Japanese reinforcing the defences of Okinawa from that direction. British forces made a significant contribution to the success of the invasion. </p><p>During the final strikes against Japan, British forces operated as an integral part of the American task force. </p><p>Only a small British naval force was present for Japan's surrender. Most British forces had been withdrawing to base to prepare for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">Operation Coronet</a>, the second part of the massive invasion of Japan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_air_war">The air war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: The air war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Air_Force" title="History of the Royal Air Force">History of the Royal Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Britain:_1940">Battle of Britain: 1940</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Battle of Britain: 1940"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg/220px-Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg/330px-Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg/440px-Spitfires_camera_gun_film_shows_tracer_ammunition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Shots from a Supermarine Spitfire Mark I hitting a Luftwaffe <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_111" title="Heinkel He 111">Heinkel He 111</a> (left) on its starboard quarter.</figcaption></figure> <p>The "Battle of Britain" in the autumn of 1940 involved German plans for an invasion called <i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion">Operation Sea Lion</a></i>. First the Luftwaffe began operations to destroy the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> (RAF). At first the Germans focused on RAF airfields and radar stations. However, when the RAF bomber forces (quite separate from the fighter forces) attacked Berlin, Hitler swore revenge and diverted the Luftwaffe to attacks on London. Using the Luftwaffe's limited resources to attack civilians instead of airfields and radar proved a major mistake. The success the Luftwaffe was having in rapidly wearing down the RAF was squandered, as the civilians being hit were far less critical than the airfields and radar stations that were now ignored. London was not a factory city and British aircraft production was not impeded; indeed it went up. The last German daylight raid came on 30 September; the Luftwaffe realized it was taking unacceptable losses and broke off the attack; occasional blitz raids hit London and other cities from time. In all some 43,000 civilians were killed. The Luftwaffe lost 1733 planes, the British, 915. The British victory resulted from more concentration, better radar, and better ground control.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_bombing_theory">Strategic bombing theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Strategic bombing theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British had their own very well-developed theory of strategic bombing, and built the long-range bombers to implement it.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 1944, however, the main German industrial targets were out of range, so the RAF bombers concentrated on military and transportation targets in France and Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Allies won air supremacy in Europe in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That meant that Allied supplies and reinforcements would get through to the battlefront, but not the enemy's. It meant the Allies could concentrate their strike forces wherever they pleased, and overwhelm the enemy with a preponderance of firepower. This was the basic Allied strategy, and it worked. Air superiority depended on having the fastest, most maneuverable fighters, in sufficient quantity, based on well-supplied airfields, within range. The RAF demonstrated the importance of speed and maneuverability in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a> (1940), when its fast <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricane</a> fighters easily riddled the clumsy Stukas as they were pulling out of dives. The race to build the fastest fighter became one of the central themes of World War II. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_of_the_RAF">Expansion of the RAF</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Expansion of the RAF"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The RAF underwent rapid expansion following the outbreak of war against Germany in 1939. This was aided by the Ottawa Agreement (also known as the Riverdale Agreement, after its chair, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Balfour,_1st_Baron_Riverdale" title="Arthur Balfour, 1st Baron Riverdale">Lord Riverdale</a>) that same year, between the governments of the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. As a result, under the <a href="/wiki/British_Commonwealth_Air_Training_Plan" title="British Commonwealth Air Training Plan">British Commonwealth Air Training Plan</a> the training and operational postings of half of all aircrews from the RAF, <a href="/wiki/RCAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RCAF">RCAF</a>, <a href="/wiki/RAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RAAF">RAAF</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNZAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RNZAF">RNZAF</a> were integrated: a total of 167,000 personnel were trained under the plan, mostly in Canada. There were parallel arrangements between the UK and South Africa. Under <a href="/wiki/Article_XV_squadrons" title="Article XV squadrons">Article XV</a> of the agreement, 67 "Article XV squadrons" were formed in the name of other Commonwealth air forces, within RAF operational commands. In addition, many RAF squadrons included individual Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African aircrews. </p><p>Another 43 squadrons were formed during the war out of aircrews from <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Europe">occupied European</a> countries, comprising designated <a href="/wiki/Polish_Air_Forces_in_France_and_Great_Britain" title="Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Air Force">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_Norwegian_forces#Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Norwegian forces">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_government-in-exile" title="Czechoslovak government-in-exile">Czechoslovakian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_Dutch_Forces" title="Free Dutch Forces">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Air_Force#Foundation,_World_War_II_and_Civil_War_(1930–1950)" title="Hellenic Air Force">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_Belgian_forces#Belgians_in_the_Royal_Air_Force" title="Free Belgian forces">Belgian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_government-in-exile#Armed_forces" title="Yugoslav government-in-exile">Yugoslavian</a> units. Two "<a href="/wiki/Eagle_Squadrons" title="Eagle Squadrons">Eagle Squadrons</a>" were formed from American volunteers when the US was neutral (1939–1941), as well as <a href="/wiki/No._164_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 164 Squadron RAF">one made up of Argentinean nationals</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combined_bomber_offensive">Combined bomber offensive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Combined bomber offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command" title="RAF Bomber Command">RAF Bomber Command</a></div> <p>The combined bomber offensive was born out of the need to strike back at Germany during the years when the United Kingdom had no forces on the continent of Europe. Initially the bomber forces available for attacks were small, and the rules of engagement were so restricted that any attacks that were made were mostly ineffective. However, once France had fallen in the summer of 1940 that began to change.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During and after the Battle of Britain, bomber forces pounded the invasion fleets assembling in channel ports. However, they also flew a raid against Berlin after German bombs had fallen on London. The attack on Berlin by Bomber Command so enraged Hitler that he ordered the deliberate and systematic targeting of British cities in revenge. Throughout 1941, the size of the raids launched by Bomber Command slowly grew. However, due to the German defences raids could only generally be flown at night, and the navigational technology of the time simply did not allow even a large city to be accurately located. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command,_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg/220px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg/330px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg/440px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CH20901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_The_Queen_Mother" title="Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother">Queen Elizabeth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Princess Elizabeth</a> with RAF personnel</figcaption></figure> <p>The entry of America into the war in December 1941 did not initially change much. However, what did alter matters was the appointment of Air Chief Marshal Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harris" title="Arthur Harris">Arthur Harris</a> as Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of Bomber Command in early 1942. Harris was a zealous advocate of the area bombing of German cities. He put a new fire and drive into the operations of Bomber Command. During the summer of 1942, the first 1,000 bomber raids were launched on German cities. However, at that time, such large numbers of aircraft could only be put over the target by stripping training units of their aircraft temporarily. </p><p>Other important advances occurred in the technical field. The first navigation aid, <a href="/wiki/GEE_(navigation)" class="mw-redirect" title="GEE (navigation)">GEE</a>, was introduced to help pilots to find their targets. <a href="/wiki/Chaff_(radar_countermeasure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaff (radar countermeasure)">Window</a>, small metal strips dropped from aircraft, was introduced to help confuse the German radars. Planes also got their own radar, the <a href="/wiki/H2S_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="H2S radar">H2S radar</a> system. It provided a radar map of the ground beneath the aircraft, allowing navigation with more accuracy to cities like Berlin which were at that time beyond the effective range of systems like Gee. However, probably the most important innovation to improve targeting accuracy was tactical, not technical. It was the introduction of the pathfinder system. Pathfinders were groups of specially trained aircrews who flew ahead of the main raid and marked the target. Their use greatly improved the accuracy and destructiveness of raids. </p><p>By early 1943, American forces were beginning to build up in large numbers in the UK. Bomber Command was joined in its bombing efforts by the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force" title="Eighth Air Force">Eighth Air Force</a>. Where Bomber Command operated by night, the Eighth flew by day. Raids were often coordinated so that the same target was hit twice within 24 hours. Hamburg was the victim of one of the most destructive air raids in history during 1943. The city was easy to find using radar, being located on the distinctively shaped Elbe estuary. It was devastated in a large raid that ignited a <a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">firestorm</a> and killed some 50,000 people. </p><p>The destruction of Hamburg was not to be repeated during the rest of 1943 and 1944. During that winter, Berlin was attacked a large number of times, with heavy losses being sustained by Bomber Command. A further force also joined the fray, with the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Air_Force" title="Fifteenth Air Force">Fifteenth Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/No._205_Group_RAF" title="No. 205 Group RAF">No. 205 Group RAF</a> beginning to fly from Italy. During early 1944, the emphasis began to change. As the invasion of France drew closer, the independent role of the bomber forces was considerably reduced, and eventually were placed under the direction of General Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force. Harris and his American counterparts fought hard against being placed under Eisenhower, but they eventually lost. </p><p>Bomber Command heavily bombed targets in France and helped to paralyse the transport system of the country in time for the launching of Operation Overlord on 6 June 1944. Following Overlord, further direct support was provided to the troop, but Harris eventually succeeded in detaching his command from Eisenhower's control. The striking of German cities resumed. </p><p>By the winter of 1944, the power of the British and American bomber forces had grown enormously. It was now routine for 1,000 bomber raids to be mounted by both American and British forces flying from the UK. American forces flying from Italy could also put several hundred aircraft above a target. Accuracy had improved, but it was still nowhere near good enough for 'precision bombing' in the modern sense of the term. Precision was not a single building, it was at best a district of a city. The RAF and American AAF dropped two million tons of high explosives bombs on 60 German cities, killing more than half a million citizens (many of them prisoners forced to work in German munitions factories), and leaving 80,000 airmen dead.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the amount of territory controlled by German forces decreased, the task of Bomber Command became somewhat easier, as more friendly territory was overflown during missions. The German night fighter defences were also reducing in strength due to the crippling of Germany's fuel supplies by American bombing of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">synthetic oil</a> plants. There remained one last great controversy during the war which would blacken the name of Bomber Command and surpass the firestorm of Hamburg in both destruction and casualties. </p><p>In February 1945, as Soviet forces closed in on the German city of <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>, which had been largely spared of heavy bombing raids due to its historic status, they asked for attacks to be made on the extensive transport links around the population centre. Bomber Command and American forces obliged, subjecting the city to a <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Dresden in World War II">series of extremely heavy raids</a>. About 25,000 were killed in those raids, and questions were asked whether they were necessary so late in the war, or whether it was an effort to foreclose the "<a href="/wiki/Stab_in_the_back" class="mw-redirect" title="Stab in the back">stab in the back</a>" rumours of the sort the Nazis had exploited in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bomber Command was destined to play no further large part in the war. A large number of RAF bombers were being prepared for deployment to <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a> as Japan surrendered. Therefore, it was only at the hands of American strategic bombers and British and American carrier aircraft that Japan <a href="/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">received attacks</a>. There was to be no far eastern equivalent of the combined bomber offensive of Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Airfields">Airfields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Airfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duxford" title="Duxford">Duxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Southend_Airport" title="London Southend Airport">Southend</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_Second_World_War" title="British Army during the Second World War">British Army during the Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Army_Groups_in_WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="British Army Groups in WWII">British Army Groups in WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Armies_in_WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="British Armies in WWII">British Armies in WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Corps_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="British Corps in World War II">British Corps in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Divisions_in_WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="British Divisions in WWII">British Divisions in WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_brigades_of_the_Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="British brigades of the Second World War">British brigades of the Second World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_Empire_divisions_in_the_Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of British Empire divisions in the Second World War">British Empire divisions in the Second World War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Resettlement_Units" title="Civil Resettlement Units">Civil Resettlement Units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demobilisation_of_the_British_Armed_Forces_after_the_Second_World_War" title="Demobilisation of the British Armed Forces after the Second World War">Demobilisation of the British Armed Forces after the Second World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyers_for_Bases_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Destroyers for Bases Agreement">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Army" title="History of the British Army">History of the British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Air_Force" title="History of the Royal Air Force">History of the Royal Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Royal Navy">History of the Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Britain" title="Military history of Britain">Military history of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production during World War II</a></li> <li>Military structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_hardened_field_defences_of_World_War_II" title="British hardened field defences of World War II">British hardened field defences of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GHQ_Line" title="GHQ Line">GHQ Stop Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taunton_Stop_Line" title="Taunton Stop Line">Taunton Stop Line</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Warfare_Executive" title="Political Warfare Executive">Political Warfare Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Sussex_Regiment" title="Royal Sussex Regiment">Royal Sussex Regiment</a></li> <li>Special forces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_Units" title="Auxiliary Units">Auxiliary Units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Commandos" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commandos">British Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chindits" title="Chindits">Chindits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Range_Desert_Group" title="Long Range Desert Group">Long Range Desert Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology during World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied technological cooperation during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_Home" title="Chain Home">Chain Home</a> <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> system</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II">Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom-United_States_relations_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II">United Kingdom-United States relations in World War II</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Royal Navy in 1939 and 1945". Naval-history.net. 8/7/11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.H. Gibbs, <i>Grand Strategy: Volume 1 Rearmament Policy</i> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Second_World_War" title="History of the Second World War">History of the Second World War</a> (1976) HMSO</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edgerton2012-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edgerton2012_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edgerton2012_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton2012" class="citation book cs1">Edgerton, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html"><i>Britain's War Machine</i></a>. www.penguin.co.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+War+Machine&rft.pub=www.penguin.co.uk&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.penguin.co.uk%2Fbooks%2F55731%2Fbritain-s-war-machine%2F9780141026107.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114">"Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War"</a>. <i>Reviews in History</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+History&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+War+Machine%3A+Weapons%2C+Resources+and+Experts+in+the+Second+World+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freviews.history.ac.uk%2Freview%2F1114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Work Done by 1,500,000 Horses in France during the War". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>87</b> (2250supp): 105. 15 February 1919. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican02151919-105bsupp">10.1038/scientificamerican02151919-105bsupp</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733">0036-8733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Work+Done+by+1%2C500%2C000+Horses+in+France+during+the+War&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2250supp&rft.pages=105&rft.date=1919-02-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican02151919-105bsupp&rft.issn=0036-8733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2004" class="citation web cs1">Roberts, Eric (16 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150621221339/http://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/">"British Technology and the Second World War"</a>. Stanford University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/">the original</a> on 21 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Technology+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2004-03-16&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcs.stanford.edu%2Fpeople%2Feroberts%2Fcourses%2Fww2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Kennedy, <i>Engineers of Victory: The Problem Solvers Who Turned The Tide in the Second World War</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James W. Brennan, "The Proximity Fuze: Whose Brainchild?," <i>U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings</i> (1968) 94#9 pp 72–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeptimus_H._Paul2000" class="citation book cs1">Septimus H. Paul (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fSZpgW-N628C&pg=PA1"><i>Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952</i></a>. Ohio State U.P. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814208526" title="Special:BookSources/9780814208526"><bdi>9780814208526</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Rivals%3A+Anglo-American+Atomic+Relations%2C+1941%E2%80%931952&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=Ohio+State+U.P.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780814208526&rft.au=Septimus+H.+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSZpgW-N628C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Sabine (2 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Crucial? Helpful? Practically Nil?" Reality and Perception of Britain's Contribution to the Development of Nuclear Weapons during the Second World War"</a>. <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 19–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805">10.1080/09592296.2022.2041805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-2296">0959-2296</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247253473">247253473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=%22Crucial%3F+Helpful%3F+Practically+Nil%3F%22+Reality+and+Perception+of+Britain%27s+Contribution+to+the+Development+of+Nuclear+Weapons+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-40&rft.date=2022-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247253473%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0959-2296&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2022.2041805&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09592296.2022.2041805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowing1964" class="citation book cs1">Gowing, Margaret (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6CJDAAAAIAAJ"><i>Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939-1945</i></a>. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. St Martin's Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1939-1945&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Gowing&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6CJDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span>; see book review by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1965" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Oscar E. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/349949">"Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939-1945. Margaret Gowing"</a>. <i>Isis</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 111–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349949">10.1086/349949</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Britain+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1939-1945.+Margaret+Gowing&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-113&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349949&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F349949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964372-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964372_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGowing1964">Gowing 1964</a>, p. 372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 372–373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pages=372-373&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619">"Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945"</a>. United States Department of State. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918063918/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Minutes+of+a+Meeting+of+the+Combined+Policy+Committee%2C+Washington%2C+July+4%2C+1945&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fhistoricaldocuments%2Ffrus1945Berlinv01%2Fd619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R.M. Butler, <i>Grand Strategy: Sept. 1939 – June 1941</i> (1957)pp 151–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFennell2019" class="citation book cs1">Fennell, Jonathan (2019). <i>Fighting the people's war: the British and Commonwealth armies and the Second World War</i>. Armies of the Second World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03095-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03095-4"><bdi>978-1-107-03095-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+the+people%27s+war%3A+the+British+and+Commonwealth+armies+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Armies+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03095-4&rft.aulast=Fennell&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R.M. Butler, <i>Grand Strategy: Sept. 1939 – June 1941</i> (1957) pp 119–50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steinkjer Encyclopedia: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.steinkjerleksikonet.no/index.php?artikkel=79">Bombing Sunday</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Norwegian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Kersaudy" title="François Kersaudy">François Kersaudy</a>, <i>Norway 1940</i> (1998)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald F. Bittner, <i>The Lion and the White Falcon: Britain and Iceland in the World War II Era</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atkin1990-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atkin1990_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkin,_Ronald1990" class="citation book cs1">Atkin, Ronald (1990). <i>Pillar of Fire: Dunkirk 1940</i>. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. pp. 16–17, 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84158-078-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-84158-078-3"><bdi>1-84158-078-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pillar+of+Fire%3A+Dunkirk+1940&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=16-17%2C+58&rft.pub=Birlinn+Limited&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=1-84158-078-3&rft.au=Atkin%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Britains Armies in France Doubled". <i>The New York Times</i>. 12 March 1940. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Britains+Armies+in+France+Doubled&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1940-03-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HP3-9NNz71sC&dq=british+expeditionary+force+1940&pg=PA43">Thomas B. Buell, John N. Bradley, John H. Bradley, <i>The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean</i></a> Square One Publishers 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7570-0160-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7570-0160-2">0-7570-0160-2</a> (pp.43-44)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/siege_calais_1940.html">"Siege of Calais, 23-26 May 1940"</a>. <i>www.historyofwar.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historyofwar.org&rft.atitle=Siege+of+Calais%2C+23-26+May+1940&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofwar.org%2Farticles%2Fsiege_calais_1940.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doug Dildy and Howard Gerrard, <i>Dunkirk 1940: Operation Dynamo</i> (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37573.html">"HyperWar: London Gazette No. 37573"</a>. <i>www.ibiblio.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+London+Gazette+No.+37573&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FLondonGazette%2F37573.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-NWE-Flanders/UK-NWE-Flanders-21.html">Ellis, L. F. (1954) The War in France and Flanders 1939–1940. HMSO London</a> (p.305)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Sinking of the Lancastria, Jonathan Fenby, 2005 Simon & Schuster UK Ltd, p.247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R.M. Butler, <i>Grand Strategy: Sept. 1939 – June 1941</i> (1975) pp 175–206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.R.M. Butler, <i>Grand Strategy: Sept. 1939 – June 1941</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corelli Barnett, <i>Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War</i> (1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. W. Roskill, <i>The White Ensign: British Navy at War, 1939–1945</i> (1960)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett, <i>Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War</i> (1991) ch2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roskill, <i>The White Ensign: British Navy at War, 1939–1945</i> (1960) ch 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett, <i>Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War</i> (1991) pp 194–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montgomery C. Meigs, <i>Slide Rules and Submarines: American Scientists and Subsurface Warfare in World War II</i> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel S. Greenberg, "U.S. Destroyers For British Bases – Fifty Old Ships Go To War," <i>U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings,</i> Nov 1962, Vol. 88 Issue 11, pp 70–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Syrett, <i>The defeat of the German U-boats: the Battle of the Atlantic</i> (1994) p 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold Hague, <i>The allied convoy system 1939–1945: its organization, defence and operation</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, Alexander (2007). "British Lend Lease Aid and the Soviet War Effort, June 1941 – June 1942". <i>The Journal of Military History</i>. <b>71</b> (3): 773–808. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjmh.2007.0206">10.1353/jmh.2007.0206</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30052890">30052890</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159715267">159715267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=British+Lend+Lease+Aid+and+the+Soviet+War+Effort%2C+June+1941+%E2%80%93+June+1942&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=773-808&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159715267%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30052890%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjmh.2007.0206&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas P. Lowry and John W. G. Wellham, <i>The Attack on Taranto: Blueprint for Pearl Harbor</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/S._W._C._Pack" class="mw-redirect" title="S. W. C. Pack">S. W. C. Pack</a>, <i>The Battle of Matapan</i> (1968)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. C. Kiriakopoulos, <i>Ten Days to Destiny: The Battle for Crete, 1941</i> (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Mitcham" title="Samuel W. Mitcham">Samuel W. Mitcham</a>: <i>Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps</i> (2007) p. 205 for quote</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Howard, <i>Grand Strategy. Vol. IV: August 1942 – September 1943</i> (1972) pp 337–56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Howard, <i>Grand Strategy. Vol. IV: August 1942 – September 1943</i> (1972) pp 359–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/a-whos-who-of-d-day">"A Who's Who Of D-Day"</a>. <i>Imperial War Museums</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imperial+War+Museums&rft.atitle=A+Who%27s+Who+Of+D-Day&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwm.org.uk%2Fhistory%2Fa-whos-who-of-d-day&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadaatwar.ca/content-14/wwii-canadians-on-d-day/">"Canadians on D-Day: June 6, 1944" <i>Canada at War</i>, accessioned 19 April 2015</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180109180907/http://www.canadaatwar.ca/content-14/wwii-canadians-on-d-day/">Archived</a> 9 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Experience in World War II: The United States in the European Theater edited by Walter L. Hixson p 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Hart, "Montgomery, Morale, Casualty Conservation and 'Colossal Cracks': 21st Army Group's Operational Technique in North-West Europe, 1944–45," <i>Journal of Strategic Studies,</i> Dec 1996, Vol. 19 Issue 4, foreword</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 1887-1976: A Selected Bibliography edited by Colin F. Baxter p 68-69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Experience in World War II: The United States in the European Theater edited by Walter L. Hixson p 149 - 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 1887-1976: A Selected Bibliography edited by Colin F. Baxter p 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen T. Powers, "The Battle of Normandy: The Lingering Controversy," <i>Journal of Military History,</i> July 1992, Vol. 56 Issue 3, pp 455–471 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1985972">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Hart, "Montgomery, Morale, Casualty Conservation and 'Colossal Cracks': 21st Army Group's Operational Technique in North-West Europe, 1944–45," <i>Journal of Strategic Studies,</i> Dec 1996, Vol. 19 Issue 4, pp 132–153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weigley-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-weigley_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigley,_Russell_F.1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Weigley" title="Russell Weigley">Weigley, Russell F.</a> (1981). <i>Eisenhower's Lieutenants</i>. Bloomington, IN: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-13333-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-13333-5"><bdi>0-253-13333-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower%27s+Lieutenants&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Bloomington%2C+IN%3A+Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-253-13333-5&rft.au=Weigley%2C+Russell+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European journal of American Studies, 'A Modern Liberation'. Belgium and the start of the American Century 1944-1946 by Peter Schrijvers</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Badsey, <i>Arnhem 1944: Operation Market Garden</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/nijmegen-the-bridges-to-nowhere/">http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/nijmegen-the-bridges-to-nowhere/</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nigel Hamilton, <i>Monty: The Field-Marshal 1944–1976</i> (1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerhard L. Weinberg, <i>World at arms: a global history of World War II</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David White, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQPvXYoo8X8C&pg=PA331">The Everything World War II Book: People, Places, Battles, and All the Key Events</a>, Adams Media, 2010, p. 331</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Middlebrook and Patrick Mahoney, <i>Battleship: the sinking of the Prince of Wales and the Repulse</i> (1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis Allen, <i>Singapore 1941–1942</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Callahan, <i>Burma, 1942–1945</i> (1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Bayly & Timothy Harper, <i>Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941-1945</i>; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Harvard University Press, 2005, p294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossi1998" class="citation web cs1">Rossi, J.R. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingtigersavg.22web.org/tiger1.htm">"History: The Flying Tigers – American Volunteer Group – Chinese Air Force"</a>. <i>AVG</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AVG&rft.atitle=History%3A+The+Flying+Tigers+%E2%80%93+American+Volunteer+Group+%E2%80%93+Chinese+Air+Force&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingtigersavg.22web.org%2Ftiger1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shelford Bidwell, <i>The Chindit war: Stilwell, Wingate, and the campaign in Burma, 1944</i> (1980)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. R. Moreman, <i>The jungle, the Japanese and the British Commonwealth armies at war, 1941–45: fighting methods, doctrine and training for jungle warfare</i> (Frank Cass, 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/25/a4109825.shtml">"BBC – WW2 People's War – Operation Jurist and the end of the War"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+WW2+People%27s+War+%E2%80%93+Operation+Jurist+and+the+end+of+the+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fww2peopleswar%2Fstories%2F25%2Fa4109825.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayly;_Christopher_Alan2007" class="citation book cs1">Bayly; Christopher Alan, Harper, Timothy Norman (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenwarsfre00bayl"><i>Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia</i></a></span>. United States: Harvard University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674021532" title="Special:BookSources/9780674021532"><bdi>9780674021532</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Wars%3A+Freedom+and+Revolution+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.place=United+States&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780674021532&rft.aulast=Bayly%3B+Christopher+Alan&rft.aufirst=Harper%2C+Timothy+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgottenwarsfre00bayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Bungay, <i>The Most Dangerous Enemy: The Definitive History of the Battle of Britain</i> (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tami Davis Biddle, "British and American Approaches to Strategic Bombing: Their Origins and Implementation in the World War II Combined Bomber Offensive," <i>Journal of Strategic Studies,</i> March 1995, Vol. 18 Issue 1, pp 91–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Overy, <i>The Air War, 1939–1945</i> (1981)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tami Davis Biddle, "Bombing By The Square Yard: Sir Arthur Harris At War, 1942–1945," <i>International History Review,</i> vol 9#1 1999, pp 626–664</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles F. Brower, <i>World War II in Europe: the final year</i> (1988) p, 126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malcolm Smith, "The Allied Air Offensive," <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i> 13 (Mar 1990) 67–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Messenger, <i>Bomber" Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939–1945</i> (1984),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard G. Davis, <i>Bombing the European Axis Powers: A Historical Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive, 1939–1945</i> (2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060614204932/http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/aul/aupress/catalog/books/Davis_B99.htm">"Template for book abstract"</a>. Archived from the original on 14 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Template+for+book+abstract&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maxwell.af.mil%2Fau%2Faul%2Faupress%2Fcatalog%2Fbooks%2FDavis_B99.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Hastings, <i>Bomber Command</i> (1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randall Hansen, <i>Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945</i> (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Roberts, <i>The Storm of War: A New History of the Second World War</i> (2011) p. lxviii</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Allport, Alan. <i>Britain at Bay: The Epic Story of the Second World War, 1938–1941</i> (2020)</li> <li>Butler, J.R.M. et al. <i>Grand Strategy</i> (6 vol 1956–60), official overview of the British war effort; Volume 1: Rearmament Policy; Volume 2: September 1939 – June 1941; Volume 3, Part 1: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 3, Part 2: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 4: September 1942 – August 1943; Volume 5: August 1943 – September 1944; Volume 6: October 1944 – August 1945</li> <li>Churchill, Winston. <i>The Second World War</i> (6 vol 1947–1951), classic personal history with many documents</li> <li>Edgerton, David. <i>Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War</i> (Oxford University Press; 2011)</li> <li>Harrison, Mark <i>Medicine and Victory: British Military Medicine in the Second World War</i> (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926859-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926859-2">0-19-926859-2</a></li> <li>Hastings, Max. <i>Winston's War: Churchill, 1940–1945</i> (2010)</li> <li>Roberts, Andrew. <i>Masters and Commanders – How Roosevelt, Churchill, Marshall and Alanbrooke Won the War in the West</i> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schneer,_Jonathan" class="mw-redirect" title="Schneer, Jonathan">Schneer, Jonathan</a>. <i>Ministers at War: Winston Churchill and His War Cabinet</i> (2015).</li> <li>Todman, Daniel. <i>Britain's War: Into Battle, 1937––1941</i> (2016)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTooze2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Tooze" title="Adam Tooze">Tooze, Adam</a> (2006). <a href="/wiki/The_Wages_of_Destruction" title="The Wages of Destruction"><i>The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy</i></a>. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9566-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9566-4"><bdi>978-0-7139-9566-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wages+of+Destruction%3A+The+Making+and+Breaking+of+the+Nazi+Economy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7139-9566-4&rft.aulast=Tooze&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+the+United+Kingdom+during+World+War+II" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_on_land">War on land</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: War on land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Allport, Alan. <i>Browned Off and Bloody-Minded: The British Soldier Goes to War, 1939–1945</i> (Yale UP, 2015)</li> <li>Atkinson, Rick. <i>The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944</i> (2008)</li> <li>Buckley, John. <i>British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944</i> (2004)</li> <li>D'Este, Carlo. <i>Decision in Normandy: The Unwritten Story of Montgomery and the Allied Campaign</i> (1983). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-217056-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-217056-6">0-00-217056-6</a>.</li> <li>Ellis, L.F. <i>The War in France and Flanders, 1939–1940</i> (HMSO, 1953) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-NWE-Flanders/index.html">online</a></li> <li>Ellis, L.F. <i>Victory in the West, Volume 1: Battle of Normandy</i> (HMSO, 1962)</li> <li>Ellis, L.F. <i>Victory in the West, Volume 2: Defeat of Germany</i> (HMSO, 1968)</li> <li>Fraser, David. <i>And We Shall Shock Them: The British Army in World War II</i> (1988). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-42637-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-42637-1">978-0-340-42637-1</a></li> <li>Graham, Dominick. <i>Tug of War: The Battle for Italy 1943–1945</i> (2004)</li> <li>Hamilton, Nigel. <i>Monty: The Making of a General: 1887–1942</i> (1981); <i>Master of the Battlefield: Monty's War Years 1942–1944</i> (1984); <i>Monty: The Field-Marshal 1944–1976</i> (1986).</li> <li>Lamb, Richard. <i>War In Italy, 1943–1945: A Brutal Story</i> (1996)</li> <li>Thompson, Julian. <i>The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Burma 1942–1945</i> (2004)</li> <li>Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh. <i>Dunkirk: Fight to the Last Man</i> (2008)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_at_sea">War at sea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: War at sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barnett, Corelli. <i>Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War</i> (1991)</li> <li>Marder, Arthur. <i>Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy, vol. 2: The Pacific War, 1942–1945</i> with Mark Jacobsen and John Horsfield (1990)</li> <li>Roskill, S. W. <i>The White Ensign: British Navy at War, 1939–1945</i> (1960). summary</li> <li>Roskill, S. W. <i>War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive</i> London: HMSO, 1954; <i>War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 2: The Period of Balance,</i> 1956; <i>War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 3: The Offensive, Part 1,</i> 1960; <i>War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 3: The Offensive, Part 2,</i> 1961. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-I/index.html">online vol 1</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-II/index.html">online vol 2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_in_the_air">War in the air</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: War in the air"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bungay, Stephen. <i>The Most Dangerous Enemy: The Definitive History of the Battle of Britain</i> (2nd ed. 2010)</li> <li>Collier, Basil. <i>Defence of the United Kingdom</i> (HMSO, 1957) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-Defence-UK/index.html">online</a></li> <li>Fisher, David E, <i>A Summer Bright and Terrible: Winston Churchill, Lord Dowding, Radar, and the Impossible Triumph of the Battle of Britain</i> (2005)</li> <li>Hastings, Max. <i>Bomber Command</i> (1979)</li> <li>Hansen, Randall. <i>Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945</i> (2009)</li> <li>Hough, Richard and Denis Richards. <i>The Battle of Britain</i> (1989)</li> <li>Messenger, Charles, <i>"Bomber" Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939–1945</i> (1984), defends Harris</li> <li>Overy, Richard. <i>The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality</i> (2001) 192 pages <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393322971">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Richards, Dennis, et al. <i>Royal Air Force, 1939–1945: The Fight at Odds – Vol. 1</i> (HMSO 1953), official history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=64821947">vol 1 online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706064449/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=64821947">Archived</a> 6 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54046342">vol 2 online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706061911/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54046342">Archived</a> 6 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-III/index.html">vol 3 online edition</a></li> <li>Shores, Christopher F. <i>Air War for Burma: The Allied Air Forces Fight Back in South-East Asia 1942–1945</i> (2005)</li> <li>Terraine, John. <i>A Time for Courage: The Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939–1945</i> (1985)</li> <li>Verrier, Anthony. <i>The Bomber Offensive</i> (1969), British</li> <li>Webster, Charles and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945 (HMSO, 1961), 4 vol. Important official British history</li> <li>Wood, Derek, and Derek D. Dempster. <i>The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power 1930–40</i> (1975) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-narrow-margin-the-battle-of-britain-and-the-rise-of-air-power-1930-40-by-derek-d-dempster-derek-wood.jsp">online edition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_sources">External sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: External sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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Security">Ministry of Home Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_in_World_War_II" title="London in World War II">London in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuations_of_civilians_in_Britain_during_World_War_II" title="Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II">Evacuations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions" title="Air Raid Precautions">Air Raid Precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Defence_Service" title="Civil Defence Service">Civil Defence Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_Report" title="Beveridge Report">Beveridge Report</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="British_women" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">British women</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Royal_Naval_Service" title="Women's Royal Naval Service">Women's Royal Naval Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Land_Army" title="Women's Land Army">Women's Land Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Voluntary_Service" title="Royal Voluntary Service">Women's Voluntary Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Transport_Auxiliary" title="Air Transport Auxiliary">Air Transport Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanised_Transport_Corps" title="Mechanised Transport Corps">Mechanised Transport Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Auxiliary_Air_Force" title="Women's Auxiliary Air Force">Women's Auxiliary Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg/120px-Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg/180px-Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg/240px-Sir_Winston_Churchill_-_19086236948.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6036" data-file-height="7504" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Military participation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command" title="RAF Fighter Command">RAF Fighter Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command" title="RAF Bomber Command">RAF Bomber Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAF_Balloon_Command" title="RAF Balloon Command">RAF Balloon Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAF_Coastal_Command" title="RAF Coastal Command">RAF Coastal Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Command" title="Anti-Aircraft Command">Anti-Aircraft Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_Second_World_War" title="British Army during the Second World War">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">Special Operations Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_campaign_medals#World_War_II" title="British campaign medals">Campaign medals</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Events" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">List of battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_(World_War_II)" title="British Expeditionary Force (World War II)">British Expeditionary Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Western Desert campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_over_Japan_Day" title="Victory over Japan Day">VJ-Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">VE-Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Diplomatic participation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyers-for-bases_deal" title="Destroyers-for-bases deal">Destroyers-for-bases deal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Leaders</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul"><i>Keelhaul</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim"><i>Osoaviakhim</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip"><i>Paperclip</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Sexual violence</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  /  <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  /  <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  /  <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United Kingdom</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943)</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Vietnam</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">German prisoners</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Soviet prisoners</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a></i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Torch</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage"><i>Cottage</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest"><i>Tempest</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go"><i>Ichi-Go</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings"><i>Neptune</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration"><i>Bagration</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden"><i>Market Garden</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow"><i>Crossbow</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive"><i>Pointblank</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte"><i>Bodenplatte</i></a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:British_Empire_WWII_battles" title="Template:British Empire WWII battles"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_Empire_WWII_battles" title="Template talk:British Empire WWII battles"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_Empire_WWII_battles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British Empire WWII battles"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="British_Empire_battles_of_the_Second_World_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire battles of the Second World War</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)"><b>East Africa</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">Invasion of British Somaliland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)#Italian_Somaliland" title="East African campaign (World War II)">Capture of Italian Somaliland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Appearance" title="Operation Appearance">Recapture of British Somaliland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign"><b>North Africa</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Italian invasion of Egypt">Italian invasion of Egypt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Operation Compass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Run_for_Tunis" title="Run for Tunis">Run for Tunis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Giarabub" title="Siege of Giarabub">Siege of Giarabub</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tobruk" title="Siege of Tobruk">Siege of Tobruk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crusader" title="Operation Crusader">Capture of Tobruk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Brevity" title="Operation Brevity">Operation Brevity</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Skorpion" title="Operation Skorpion">Operation Skorpion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sonnenblume" title="Operation Sonnenblume">Operation Sonnenblume</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Libya)" title="British Military Administration (Libya)">Occupation of Libya</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">Southern Africa</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>West Africa</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dakar" title="Battle of Dakar">Battle of Dakar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Postmaster" title="Operation Postmaster">Operation Postmaster</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II"><b>Europe</b></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Arctic_naval_operations_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic naval operations of World War II"><b>Arctic</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barents_Sea" title="Battle of the Barents Sea">Battle of the Barents Sea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Alphabet" title="Operation Alphabet">Evacuation of Norway</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allied_occupation_of_Iceland" title="Allied occupation of Iceland">Occupation of Iceland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gauntlet" title="Operation Gauntlet">Evacuation of Spitsbergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="British occupation of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands occupation</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Balkans campaign (World War II)"><b>Balkans</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Lustre" title="Operation Lustre">Reinforcement of Greece</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rethymno" title="Battle of Rethymno">Rethymno</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(1941)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (1941)">Thermopylae</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vevi_(1941)" title="Battle of Vevi (1941)">Vevi</a>)</dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean"><b>Mediterranean</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Convoy_AN_14" title="Attack on Convoy AN 14">Convoy AN 14</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir" title="Attack on Mers-el-Kébir">Attack on Mers-el-Kébir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calabria" title="Battle of Calabria">Battle of Calabria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Campobasso_Convoy" title="Battle of the Campobasso Convoy">Campobasso Convoy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Bon_(1941)" title="Battle of Cape Bon (1941)">Battle of Cape Bon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Matapan" title="Battle of Cape Matapan">Battle of Cape Matapan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passero_(1940)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Passero (1940)">Battle of Cape Passero</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Spada" title="Battle of Cape Spada">Battle of Cape Spada</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Spartivento" title="Battle of Cape Spartivento">Battle of Cape Spartivento</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cigno_Convoy" title="Battle of the Cigno Convoy">Cigno Convoy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Duisburg_Convoy" title="Battle of the Duisburg Convoy">Duisburg Convoy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Espero_Convoy" title="Battle of the Espero Convoy">Espero Convoy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ligurian_Sea" title="Battle of the Ligurian Sea">Battle of the Ligurian Sea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Skerki_Bank" title="Battle of Skerki Bank">Battle of Skerki Bank</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Strait_of_Otranto_(1940)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Strait of Otranto (1940)">Battle of the Strait of Otranto (1940)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto" title="Battle of Taranto">Battle of Taranto</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tarigo_Convoy" title="Battle of the Tarigo Convoy">Tarigo Convoy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Zuwarah" title="Battle off Zuwarah">Battle off Zuwarah</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Abstention" title="Operation Abstention">Operation Abstention</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Agreement" title="Operation Agreement">Operation Agreement</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Albumen" title="Operation Albumen">Operation Albumen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Excess" title="Operation Excess">Operation Excess</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grog" title="Operation Grog">Operation Grog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harpoon_(1942)" title="Operation Harpoon (1942)">Operation Harpoon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Pedestal" title="Operation Pedestal">Operation Pedestal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Scylla" title="Operation Scylla">Operation Scylla</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vigorous" title="Operation Vigorous">Operation Vigorous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_White" title="Operation White">Operation White</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Souda_Bay" title="Raid on Souda Bay">Raid on Souda Bay</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Siege of Malta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Grand Harbour">Battle of Grand Harbour</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Malta_convoys" title="Malta convoys">Malta convoys</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II"><b>Western Europe</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Heligoland_Bight_(1939)" title="Battle of the Heligoland Bight (1939)">Battle of the Heligoland Bight</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_(World_War_II)" title="British Expeditionary Force (World War II)">BEF</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1940)" title="Battle of Arras (1940)">Arras</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Battle of Belgium</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">Battle of the Netherlands</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Channel_Dash" title="Channel Dash">Channel Dash</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gisela" title="Operation Gisela">Operation Gisela</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Steinbock" title="Operation Steinbock">Operation Steinbock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Diver" title="Operation Diver">Operation Diver</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Gibraltarian_civilian_population_during_World_War_II" title="Evacuation of the Gibraltarian civilian population during World War II">Evacuation of Gibraltar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Juno_Beach" title="Juno Beach">Juno Beach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gold_Beach" title="Gold Beach">Gold Beach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sword_Beach" title="Sword Beach">Sword Beach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Windsor" title="Operation Windsor">Operation Windsor</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clearing_the_Channel_Coast" title="Clearing the Channel Coast">Clearing the Channel Coast</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Operation Market Garden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arnhem" title="Battle of Arnhem">Battle of Arnhem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nijmegen" title="Battle of Nijmegen">Battle of Nijmegen</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Scheldt" title="Battle of the Scheldt">Battle of the Scheldt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blackcock" title="Operation Blackcock">Operation Blackcock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Veritable" title="Operation Veritable">Battle of the Reichswald</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Belgium" title="Liberation of Belgium">Liberation of Belgium</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Netherlands)" title="Liberation Day (Netherlands)">Liberation of the Netherlands</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">Far East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong#Kowloon_and_New_Territories" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Battle of Kowloon and New Territories</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong#Hong_Kong_Island" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Battle of Hong Kong Island</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malay</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasion of Malaya">Japanese invasion of Malaya</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jitra" title="Battle of Jitra">Battle of Jitra</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muar" title="Battle of Muar">Defence of Johore</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Singapore</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arakan_Campaign_1942%E2%80%9343" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakan Campaign 1942–43">Arakan Campaign 1942–43</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Recapture of Burma</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign#Japanese_invasion_of_India_1944" title="Burma campaign">Invasion of India</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_U-Go" title="Operation U-Go">Operation U-Go</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Battle of Imphal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Battle of Kohima</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II"><b>Indian Ocean</b></a></dt> <dd><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Indian_Ocean_disaster">Indian Ocean disaster</a></dd> <dd><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Indian_Ocean_retreat">Indian Ocean retreat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cocos_Islands_mutiny" title="Cocos Islands mutiny">Cocos Islands mutiny</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid" title="Indian Ocean raid">Indian Ocean raid</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid" title="Easter Sunday Raid">Battle of Ceylon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland#Evacuation" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">Evacuation of British Somaliland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands">Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid_(1944)" title="Indian Ocean raid (1944)">Indian Ocean raid (1944)</a></dd> <dd><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Indian_Ocean_strike">Indian Ocean strike</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Malacca_Strait" title="Battle of the Malacca Strait">Battle of the Malacca Strait</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Outflank" title="Operation Outflank">Bombing of Sumatra</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Collie" title="Operation Collie">Bombardment of Andaman Islands</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Operation_Livery" title="Operation Livery">Bombardment of Northern Malaya</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Middle East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Invasion of Iraq</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War#Battle_of_Fallujah" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Battle of Fallujah</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War#Siege_of_Habbaniya" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Siege of Habbaniya</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War#Basra" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Battle of Basra</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War#Baghdad" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Capture of Baghdad</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran#British_Invasion_of_Khuzestan" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Invasion of Khuzestan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran#British_invasion_of_Central_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Invasion of Central Iran</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign#Campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Invasion of Lebanon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beirut_(1941)" title="Battle of Beirut (1941)">Capture of Beirut</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign#Campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Invasion of Syria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Damascus_(1941)" title="Battle of Damascus (1941)">Capture of Damascus</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/American_theater_(World_War_II)" title="American theater (World War II)">Americas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic"><b>Atlantic</b></a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Plate" title="Battle of the River Plate">Battle of the River Plate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_St._Lawrence" title="Battle of the St. Lawrence">Battle of the Gulf of St. Lawrence</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Denmark_Strait" title="Battle of the Denmark Strait">Battle of the Denmark Strait</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Escort_Force" title="Newfoundland Escort Force">Newfoundland Escort Force</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mid-Ocean_Escort_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Ocean Escort Force">Mid-Ocean Escort Force</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Western_Local_Escort_Force" title="Western Local Escort Force">Western Local Escort Force</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_Western_Approaches" title="Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches">Western Approaches Escort Force</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">History of World War II by region and country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia_in_World_War_II" title="The Gambia in World War II">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_in_World_War_II" title="Gold Coast in World War II">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco_in_World_War_II" title="Morocco in World War II">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland_in_World_War_II" title="Nyasaland in World War II">Nyasaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_El_Salvador#World_War_II" title="Military dictatorship in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_in_World_War_II" title="Greenland in World War II">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_during_World_War_II" title="California during World War II">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_during_World_War_II" title="Argentina during World War II">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_during_World_War_II" title="Suriname during World War II">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_during_World_War_II" title="Uruguay during World War II">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_II" title="Venezuela during World War II">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceylon_in_World_War_II" title="Ceylon in World War II">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">West Sumatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_in_World_War_II" title="Mongolia in World War II">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_in_World_War_II" title="Nepal in World War II">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey#Politics_of_World_War_II" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II" title="Estonia in World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Carpathian Ruthenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland_in_World_War_II" title="Iceland in World War II">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#World_War_II" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia_during_World_War_II" title="Slovakia during World War II">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussia in World War II">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine#World_War_II" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalonia_and_World_War_II" title="Catalonia and World War II">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_and_World_War_II" title="Galicia and World War II">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="German occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (<a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Slovene_Lands" title="World War II in the Slovene Lands">Slovenia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania and<br /> Antarctica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Pacific Islands home front during World War II">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Template:Strategic bombing during World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Template talk:Strategic bombing during World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Strategic bombing during World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing during World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_bombardment" title="Area bombardment">Area bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_bombing_of_cities#Aerial_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Aerial bombing of cities">Aerial bombing of cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_bombing_directive" title="Area bombing directive">Area bombing directive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-weapons" title="V-weapons">V-weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Innsbruck_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Innsbruck in World War II">Innsbruck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Vienna_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Vienna in World War II">Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Wiener_Neustadt_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Wiener Neustadt in World War II">Wiener Neustadt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Denmark</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aarhus_Air_Raid" title="Aarhus Air Raid">Aarhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Carthage" title="Operation Carthage">Copenhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nex%C3%B8#Allied_air_attacks" title="Nexø">Nexø</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8nne#Allied_air_attacks" title="Rønne">Rønne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Estonia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Narva_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Narva in World War II">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Tallinn_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Tallinn in World War II">Tallinn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Charnwood#Preliminary_attacks" title="Operation Charnwood">Caen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Astonia#Allied_preparations" title="Operation Astonia">Le Havre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royan#Destruction" title="Royan">Royan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Leu-d%27Esserent" title="Saint-Leu-d'Esserent">Saint-Leu-d'Esserent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ruhr" title="Battle of the Ruhr">Battle of<br /> the Ruhr</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bochum#Allied_air_attacks" title="Bochum">Bochum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Cologne_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Cologne in World War II">Cologne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dortmund#Allied_air_attacks" title="Dortmund">Dortmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Duisburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Duisburg in World War II">Duisburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_D%C3%BCsseldorf_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Düsseldorf in World War II">Düsseldorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Essen_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Essen in World War II">Essen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelsenkirchen#Nazi_Germany" title="Gelsenkirchen">Gelsenkirchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krefeld#Allied_air_attacks" title="Krefeld">Krefeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Wuppertal_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Wuppertal in World War II">Wuppertal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Other cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aachen#World_War_II" title="Aachen">Aachen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Augsburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Augsburg in World War II">Augsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aschersleben#Allied_air_attacks" title="Aschersleben">Aschersleben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Baden-Baden_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Baden-Baden in World War II">Baden-Baden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bamberg" title="Bombing of Bamberg">Bamberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Berlin in World War II">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bocholt,_Germany#Allied_air_attack" title="Bocholt, Germany">Bocholt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Braunschweig_(October_1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Braunschweig (October 1944)">Braunschweig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bremen_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bremen in World War II">Bremen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breslau" title="Siege of Breslau">Breslau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemnitz#World_War_II" title="Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crailsheim#Allied_air_attacks" title="Crailsheim">Crailsheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Darmstadt_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Darmstadt in World War II">Darmstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dessau#Allied_air_attacks" title="Dessau">Dessau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dietzenbach_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Dietzenbach in World War II">Dietzenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden" title="Bombing of Dresden">Dresden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emden#Allied_air_attacks" title="Emden">Emden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Frankfurt_am_Main_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Frankfurt am Main in World War II">Frankfurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Freiburg_on_10_May_1940" title="Bombing of Freiburg on 10 May 1940">Freiburg (Axis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tigerfish" title="Operation Tigerfish">Freiburg (Allies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Friedrichshafen_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Friedrichshafen in World War II">Friedrichshafen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giessen#Allied_air_attack" title="Giessen">Giessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Bombing of Göttingen">Göttingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halberstadt#Allied_air_attacks" title="Halberstadt">Halberstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halle_(Saale)#World_War_II_(1939–1945)" title="Halle (Saale)">Halle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamburg in World War II">Hamburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hanau_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hanau in World War II">Hanau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hanover_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hanover in World War II">Hannover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Heilbronn_in_World_War_II" title="Bombings of Heilbronn in World War II">Heilbronn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hildesheim_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hildesheim in World War II">Hildesheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena#Allied_air_attacks" title="Jena">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserslautern#World_War_II" title="Kaiserslautern">Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe#Allied_air_attacks" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kassel_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Kassel in World War II">Kassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleve#Allied_air_attacks" title="Kleve">Kleve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Königsberg in World War II">Königsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Leipzig_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Leipzig in World War II">Leipzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_L%C3%BCbeck_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Lübeck in World War II">Lübeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Ludwigshafen_and_Oppau_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Ludwigshafen and Oppau in World War II">Ludwigshafen / Oppau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_L%C3%BCneburg" title="Bombing of Lüneburg">Lüneburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Mainz_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Mainz in World War II">Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdeburg#Allied_air_attacks" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Mannheim_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Mannheim in World War II">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moers#Allied_air_attack" title="Moers">Moers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster#Allied_air_attacks" title="Münster">Münster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Munich_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Munich in World War II">Munich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nordhausen_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II">Nordhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nuremberg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Nuremberg in World War II">Nuremberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Obersalzberg" title="Bombing of Obersalzberg">Obersalzberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osnabr%C3%BCck#Allied_air_attacks" title="Osnabrück">Osnabrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paderborn#Allied_air_attacks" title="Paderborn">Paderborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Peenem%C3%BCnde_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Peenemünde in World War II">Peenemünde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Pforzheim_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Pforzheim in World War II">Pforzheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam#Allied_air_attacks" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostock#Allied_air_attack" title="Rostock">Rostock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken#World_War_II" title="Saarbrücken">Saarbrücken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schweinfurt#World_War_II" title="Schweinfurt">Schweinfurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siegen#Allied_air_attacks" title="Siegen">Siegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Stralsund_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Stralsund in World War II">Stralsund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Stuttgart_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Stuttgart in World War II">Stuttgart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Ulm_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Ulm in World War II">Ulm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Wesel_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Wesel in World War II">Wesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Wilhelmshaven_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Wilhelmshaven in World War II">Wilhelmshaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany#Allied_air_attacks" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_W%C3%BCrzburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Würzburg in World War II">Würzburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest#Allied_air_strikes" title="Budapest">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kassa" title="Bombing of Kassa">Kassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alessandria#Allied_air_attacks" title="Alessandria">Alessandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Ancona_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Ancona in World War II">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_on_Bari" title="Air raid on Bari">Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benevento#Allied_air_attacks" title="Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bologna_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bologna in World War II">Bologna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Cagliari_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Cagliari in World War II">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Cassino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania#Allied_air_attacks" title="Catania">Catania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Ferrara_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Ferrara in World War II">Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Foggia" title="Bombing of Foggia">Foggia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_on_Frascati" title="Air raid on Frascati">Frascati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Genoa_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Genoa in World War II">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorla" title="Bombing of Gorla">Gorla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Grosseto_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Grosseto in World War II">Grosseto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Livorno_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Livorno in World War II">Livorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina#Allied_air_attacks" title="Messina">Messina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Milan_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Milan in World War II">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Naples_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Naples in World War II">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Padua_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Padua in World War II">Padua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Palermo_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Palermo in World War II">Palermo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Pescara_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Pescara in World War II">Pescara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Pisa_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Pisa in World War II">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Reggio_Calabria_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Reggio Calabria in World War II">Reggio Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rimini_(1944)" title="Battle of Rimini (1944)">Rimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Rome_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Rome in World War II">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terni#Allied_air_attacks" title="Terni">Terni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Treviso_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Treviso in World War II">Treviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trieste#Allied_air_attacks" title="Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Turin_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Turin in World War II">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Verona#20th_century" title="History of Verona">Verona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Vicenza_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Vicenza in World War II">Vicenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viterbo#Allied_air_attacks" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Zadar_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Zadar in World War II">Zadar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Amsterdam" title="Bombing of Amsterdam">Amsterdam (Axis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_bombings_of_Amsterdam-Noord" title="Allied bombings of Amsterdam-Noord">Amsterdam (Allied)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Oyster" title="Operation Oyster">Eindhoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enschede#World_War_II" title="Enschede">Enschede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Enkhuizen" title="Bombing of Enkhuizen">Enkhuizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zeeland#Bombing_of_Middelburg" title="Battle of Zeeland">Middelburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nijmegen" title="Bombing of Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_bombing_of_Rotterdam" title="German bombing of Rotterdam">Rotterdam (Axis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_bombing_of_Rotterdam_in_World_War_II" title="Allied bombing of Rotterdam in World War II">Rotterdam (Allied)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_the_Bezuidenhout" title="Bombing of the Bezuidenhout">The Hague</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Norway</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hammerfest_(town)#Destruction_in_World_War_II" title="Hammerfest (town)">Hammerfest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namsos_campaign#Air_attacks" title="Namsos campaign">Namsos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Frampol" title="Bombing of Frampol">Frampol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Warsaw_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Warsaw in World War II">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Wielu%C5%84" title="Bombing of Wieluń">Wieluń</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bucharest_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bucharest in World War II">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tidal_Wave" title="Operation Tidal Wave">Ploiești</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Timi%C8%99oara_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Timișoara in World War II">Timișoara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad#Bombardment" title="Siege of Leningrad">Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Minsk_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Minsk in World War II">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Stalingrad" title="Bombing of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Switzerland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II#Schaffhausen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombings of Switzerland in World War II">Schaffhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II#Stein_am_Rhein" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombings of Switzerland in World War II">Stein am Rhein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombings_of_Switzerland_in_World_War_II#Zürich_and_Basel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombings of Switzerland in World War II">Zürich and Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">United<br />Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baedeker_Blitz" title="Baedeker Blitz">Baedeker Blitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrow_Blitz" title="Barrow Blitz">Barrow-in-Furness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_Blitz" title="Bath Blitz">Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belfast_Blitz" title="Belfast Blitz">Belfast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Blitz" title="Birmingham Blitz">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bournemouth_Blitz" title="Bournemouth Blitz">Bournemouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brighton_Blitz" title="Brighton Blitz">Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_Blitz" title="Bristol Blitz">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiff_Blitz" title="Cardiff Blitz">Cardiff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clydebank_Blitz" title="Clydebank Blitz">Clydebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coventry_Blitz" title="Coventry Blitz">Coventry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exeter_Blitz" title="Exeter Blitz">Exeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenock_Blitz" title="Greenock Blitz">Greenock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_Blitz" title="Hull Blitz">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leeds_Blitz" title="Leeds Blitz">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liverpool_Blitz" title="Liverpool Blitz">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Blitz" title="Manchester Blitz">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwich_Blitz" title="Norwich Blitz">Norwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nottingham_Blitz" title="Nottingham Blitz">Nottingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Blitz" title="Plymouth Blitz">Plymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheffield_Blitz" title="Sheffield Blitz">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southampton_Blitz" title="Southampton Blitz">Southampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swansea_Blitz" title="Swansea Blitz">Swansea</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Yugoslavia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgrade <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Retribution_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Retribution (1941)">1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Belgrade_(1944)" title="Bombing of Belgrade (1944)">1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Podgorica_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Podgorica in World War II">Podgorica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Sarajevo_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Sarajevo in World War II">Sarajevo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Other cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dublin_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Dublin in World War II">Dublin</a> (Ireland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Helsinki_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Helsinki in World War II">Helsinki</a> (Finland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Prague" title="Bombing of Prague">Prague</a> (Czechoslovakia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Sofia_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Sofia in World War II">Sofia</a> (Bulgaria)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Zagreb_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Zagreb in World War II">Zagreb</a> (Croatia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burma" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Burma</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Mandalay_(1942)" title="Bombing of Mandalay (1942)">Mandalay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Rangoon_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Rangoon in World War II">Allied Rangoon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raids_on_Hong_Kong" title="Air raids on Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Indonesia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Sukabumi" title="Bombing of Sukabumi">Sukabumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Transom" title="Operation Transom">Surabaya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Japan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Akita_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Akita in World War II">Akita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Aomori_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Aomori in World War II">Aomori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chiba_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Chiba in World War II">Chiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Fukui_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Fukui in World War II">Fukui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Fukuoka" title="Bombing of Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gifu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gifu in World War II">Gifu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamamatsu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamamatsu in World War II">Hamamatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hiratsuka_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hiratsuka in World War II">Hiratsuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kobe_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Kobe in World War II">Kobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_K%C5%8Dfu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Kōfu in World War II">Kōfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kumagaya" title="Bombing of Kumagaya">Kumagaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kure" title="Bombing of Kure">Kure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nagaoka" title="Bombing of Nagaoka">Nagaoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nagoya" title="Bombing of Nagoya">Nagoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Naha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Numazu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Numazu in World War II">Numazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Okazaki_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Okazaki in World War II">Okazaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Osaka" title="Bombing of Osaka">Osaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cartwheel" title="Operation Cartwheel">Rabaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cockpit" title="Operation Cockpit">Sabang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Sendai_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Sendai during World War II">Sendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Shizuoka_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Shizuoka in World War II">Shizuoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo" title="Bombing of Tokyo">Tokyo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo_(10_March_1945)" title="Bombing of Tokyo (10 March 1945)">10 March 1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyohashi_Air_Raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyohashi Air Raid">Toyohashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Toyokawa_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Toyokawa in World War II">Toyokawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Utsunomiya_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Utsunomiya during World War II">Utsunomiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Yawata" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Yawata">Yawata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Yawata_(June_1944)" title="Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)">June 1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Yokkaichi_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Yokkaichi in World War II">Yokkaichi</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonies" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taihoku</a> (Taiwan)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Singapore</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Singapore_(1941)" title="Bombing of Singapore (1941)">Allied Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Singapore_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Bombing of Singapore (1944–1945)">Axis Singapore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Broome" title="Attack on Broome">Broome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Darwin" title="Bombing of Darwin">Darwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Unalaska</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Other cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bangkok_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bangkok in World War II">Bangkok</a> (Thailand)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid" title="Easter Sunday Raid">Colombo</a> (Sri Lanka)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Kuala_Lumpur_(1945)" title="Bombing of Kuala Lumpur (1945)">Kuala Lumpur</a> (Malaysia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Manila</a> (Philippines)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and<br />Middle East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Mandatory Palestine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">Acre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">Haifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">Jaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">Tel Aviv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bahrain_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bahrain in World War II">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_raids_on_Cyprus_during_World_War_II" title="Bombing raids on Cyprus during World War II">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II#Italian_bombing_of_Gibraltar" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" 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