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In the United States, for example, Bi-Bi proponents state that [[American Sign Language]] (ASL) should be the natural first language for deaf children in the United States, although the majority of deaf and hard of hearing being born to hearing parents. In this same vein, the spoken or written language used by the majority of the population is viewed as a secondary language to be acquired either after or at the same time as the native language. In Bi-Bi education, a signed language is the primary method of instruction. The bicultural aspect of Bi-Bi education emphasizes [[Deaf culture]] and strives to create confidence in deaf students by exposing them to the Deaf community. Various studies have found a correlation between ASL skill level and English literacy or reading comprehension. The most plausible explanation for this is that ASL skill level predicts English literacy level.<ref name="Goldin-Meadow">{{cite journal |last1=Goldin-Meadow |first1=Susan |last2=Mayberry |first2=Rachel I. |title=How Do Profoundly Deaf Children Learn to Read? |journal=Learning Disabilities Research and Practice |date=November 2001 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=222–229 |doi=10.1111/0938-8982.00022 }}</ref> Having a basis of American Sign Language can benefit the acquisition of the English language. In fact, bilingual children show more development in cognitive, linguistic, and meta-linguistic processes than their monolingual peers.<ref name="Prinz 1998 47–62">{{cite journal |last1=Prinz |first1=Philip M. |last2=Strong |first2=Michael |title=ASL Proficiency and English Literacy within a Bilingual Deaf Education Model of Instruction |journal=Topics in Language Disorders |date=August 1998 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=47–60 |doi=10.1097/00011363-199808000-00006 }}</ref> 36% to 40% of residential and day schools for deaf students in the US report using Bi-Bi education programs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=LaSasso |first1=C. |title=Survey of Residential and Day Schools for Deaf Students in the United States That Identify Themselves as Bilingual-Bicultural Programs |journal=Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education |date=1 January 2003 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=79–91 |doi=10.1093/deafed/8.1.79 |pmid=15448048 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Sweden and Denmark are two countries known for their bilingual–bicultural education of deaf children. Sweden passed a law in 1981 that mandated bilingualism as a goal of deaf education. Denmark recognized sign language as an equal language and espoused sign language as the primary method of instruction in schools for the deaf in 1991.<ref>{{cite report |id={{ERIC|ED414671}} |last1=Baker |first1=Sharon |last2=Baker |first2=Keith |title=Educating Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: Bilingual-Bicultural Education |date=August 1997 }}</ref> A notable example of schools utilizing the Bi-Bi method in the US include [[The Learning Center for the Deaf]] in Massachusetts. == Bilingual-Bicultural Movement == [[Marie Jean Philip]] was a pioneer in the Bilingual-Bicultural (Bi-Bi) movement.<ref>Philip, Marie Jean and Anita Small. 1992. [http://saveourdeafschools.org/Philip_and_Small_1991.pdf Bilingual/Bicultural Program Development at The Learning Center for Deaf Children]. In: ''Deaf Studies: What's Up? Conference Proceedings, October 24–25, 1991'', pp. 51-107.</ref> In 1985, The Learning Center for Deaf Children in Framingham, Massachusetts, was able to convince Philip to begin a new career as Special Assistant to the Director for Implementation of Bilingual/Bicultural Policies. After two years, Philip agreed to take on the full-time position of Bilingual Bicultural Coordinator, which she held from 1988. Philip led the school into the Bi-Bi education system. The Learning Center for the Deaf became the first Deaf school in the United States to officially adopt a Bilingual-Bicultural teaching philosophy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.rit.edu/depts/archives/deafhistory/philip-epilogue.htm|title=Petersen Collection - Banner Template|website=library.rit.edu}}</ref> Schools in California,<ref>Norton, Kenneth W. 2000. The Eagle Soars to Enlightenment. Fremont, CA: California School for the Deaf</ref> Indiana,<ref>[http://saveourdeafschools.org/ISD_BIBI_History.pdf Bilingual-Bicultural program implementation timeline], Indiana School for the Deaf, unpublished, circa 2000.</ref> and Maryland soon also officially adopted Bilingual-Bicultural teaching philosophies. On September 24, 2018, Carey M. Ballard published a thirty-minute documentary film, ''Bilingual-Bicultural Movement at The Learning Center for the Deaf'', which examines the history of the movement.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/5l6jUOmBBVs Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200421235319/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5l6jUOmBBVs Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5l6jUOmBBVs| title = Bilingual-Bicultural Movement at The Learning Center for the Deaf | website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> == History == Bilingual–bicultural education is based on Cummins' Model of Linguistic Interdependence. In 1976, [[Jim Cummins (professor)|James Cummins]] predicted that proficiency in a first language would correlate to competence in a second language because a single cognitive process underlies [[language acquisition]] for both languages. After decades of using the [[oralism|oral method]] of education, some advocates sought a new method for teaching deaf students. Many schools then began to use systems of [[Manually Coded English]] (MCE) in an attempt to develop English in deaf students. After the perceived failure of Manually Coded English systems, some educators began using the bilingual–bicultural model.<ref name="Prinz 1998 47–62"/> == Socio-emotional impact == Research has shown links between sociocultural factors and students' educational success. Learning in their first language allows students to feel a sense of belonging, leading to their academic success, including development in their two languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sánchez|first1=B.|last2=Colón|first2=Y.|last3=Esparza|first3=P.J.|year=2005|title=The Role of Sense of School Belonging and Gender in the Academic Adjustment of Latino Adolescents|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=34|issue=6|pages=619–628|doi=10.1007/s10964-005-8950-4|s2cid=143864108}}</ref> The bilingual teaching approach creates meaningful academic experiences for students when cultural factors are recognized.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cummins|first=James|year=1979|title=Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children|journal=Review of Educational Research|volume=49|issue=2|pages=222–25l|doi=10.2307/1169960|jstor=1169960}}</ref> The cultural aspect of the bicultural bilingual approach enhances deaf students' experiences success in school.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Seremeth |first1=Mary Ann |date=2016 |title=A study of teacher efficacy in secondary American Sign Language-English teaching |id={{ProQuest|1870036812}} |oclc=978349766 }}</ref> The school climate in a bicultural-bilingual setting gives students the opportunity to foster their academic, cognitive and socio-cultural skills in two languages. [[Lev Vygotsky]], a former Soviet psychologist renowned for his study on social cognitive development, argued that the quality and quantity of children's play is contingent upon the language shared among children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vygotsky |first1=L. S. |title=Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child |journal=Soviet Psychology |date=April 1967 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=6–18 |doi=10.2753/RPO1061-040505036 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vygotsky |first1=L. S. |last2=Cole |first2=Michael |title=Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes |date=1978 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-57629-2 }}{{pn|date=May 2023}}</ref> [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]], another psychologist renowned for his child development study, and Vygotsky agreed that language plays a significant role in cognitive and social development, because language competence significantly shapes play behaviors.<ref>Piaget, J.(1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York Norton.</ref> When deaf children are in a Bi-Bi setting where they have access to language and the full ability to communicate with their peers, they are developing and fine-tuning their cognitive and social skills. A study on deaf children and [[theory of mind]] (ToM), which is essentially the ability to put oneself in someone else's shoes, showed no differences in performance in theory of mind tasks between deaf children of deaf parents and their hearing peers.<ref name="Schick de Villiers de Villiers Hoffmeister 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Schick |first1=Brenda |last2=de Villiers |first2=Peter |last3=de Villiers |first3=Jill |last4=Hoffmeister |first4=Robert |title=Language and Theory of Mind: A Study of Deaf Children |journal=Child Development |date=March 2007 |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=376–396 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01004.x |pmid=17381779 |citeseerx=10.1.1.473.8685 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0017 |year=2012 |editor-last1=Margolis |editor-last2=Samuels |editor-last3=Stich |editor-first1=Eric |editor-first2=Richard |editor-first3=Stephen P. |last1=Goldman |first1=Alvin I. |chapter=Theory of Mind |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Cognitive Science |isbn=978-0-19-530979-9 }}</ref> This means that deaf children with deaf parents were advantaged in having acquired language from birth. Deaf children with hearing parents, whether they were educated using spoken English or ASL, showed delays in two ToM tasks, false beliefs and knowledge states.<ref name="Schick de Villiers de Villiers Hoffmeister 2007"/> It is worth mentioning that not all deaf children born with hearing parents are linguistically disadvantaged because hearing parents can acquire sign language to communicate with their deaf children. The primary cause of delays in theory of mind is the lack of access to conversations in the environmental, opportunities for incidental learning, and the difficulty in communicating about daily routines. Those create challenges in discussing thoughts, beliefs and intentions among deaf children lacking language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Candida C. |last2=Siegal |first2=Michael |title=Deafness, Conversation and Theory of Mind |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=March 1995 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=459–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01303.x |pmid=7782409 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Candida C. |last2=Siegal |first2=Michael |title=Insights into Theory of Mind from Deafness and Autism |journal=Mind and Language |date=March 2000 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=123–145 |doi=10.1111/1468-0017.00126 }}</ref> When deaf children are exposed to natural and accessible language from an early age, they do not have delays in theory of mind reasoning and demonstrate a high capacity in understanding and reasoning about others' minds. Evidence have suggested that there is a correlation between having a strong theory of mind and a strong language foundation. It can be argued that the Bi-Bi approach provides deaf children with optimal access to language to support typical socio-emotional development. Deaf children use sign to express themselves, discuss events, ask questions, and refer to things in their settings, just as hearing children use spoken language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Volterra |first1=V. |last2=Caselli |first2=M.C.C. |chapter=From gestures and vocalizations to signs and words |pages=1–9 |editor1-last=Stokoe |editor1-first=William C. |editor2-last=Volterra |editor2-first=Virginia |title=SLR '83: Proceedings of the III International Symposium on Sign Language Research, Rome, June 22-26, 1983 |date=1985 |publisher=Linstok Press |isbn=978-0-932130-08-2 }}</ref> The human brain is naturally wired to crave information and constant access to communication, and social settings with accessible language provide that.<ref>{{cite report |id={{ERIC|ED455620}} |last1=Marschark |first1=Marc |title=Language Development in Children Who Are Deaf: A Research Synthesis |date=June 2001 }}</ref> The earlier that Deaf children have the chance to naturally acquire sign language with constant language input, the better their cognitive and social skills, because they are able to receive information about actions, objects, experiences, and events in time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Karen E. |last2=Landry |first2=Susan H. |last3=Swank |first3=Paul R. |title=Does the Content of Mothers' Verbal Stimulation Explain Differences in Children's Development of Verbal and Nonverbal Cognitive Skills? |journal=Journal of School Psychology |date=January 2000 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1016/S0022-4405(99)00035-7 }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120209174615/http://saveourdeafschools.org/unlocking_the_curriculum.pdf Unlocking the Curriculum: Principles for Achieving Access in Deaf Education] by Robert E. Johnson, Scott Liddell and Carol Erting, 1989. * {{cite report |id={{ERIC|ED378720}} |last1=Mason |first1=David G. |title=Bilingual/Bicultural Deaf Education Is Appropriate |date=March 1994 }} * Mahshie, Shawn Neal. 1995. [http://saveourdeafschools.org/mahshie.pdf Educating Deaf Children Bilingually--With Insights and Applications from Sweden and Denmark]. National government publication. Washington, D.C.: Pre-College Programs, Gallaudet University * {{cite book |id={{ERIC|ED086409}} |title=Annual International Multilingual, Multicultural Conference: Proceedings |date=April 1973 |publisher=Dissemination Center for Bilingual Bicultural Education }} * {{cite journal |last1=Grosjean |first1=Francois |title=The Right of the Deaf Child to Grow Up Bilingual |journal=Sign Language Studies |date=2001 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=110–114 |id={{Project MUSE|31761}} {{ProQuest|1297899667}} |doi=10.1353/sls.2001.0003 |jstor=26204832 |s2cid=144571937 }} ==See also== * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4470068&view=1up&seq=11&skin=2021 Nothing More Nothing Less--A French-Canadian View of Bilingualism and Biculturalism] (1967) {{sign language navigation}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bilingual-Bicultural Education}} [[Category:Deafness]] [[Category:Deaf culture]] [[Category:Bilingual education]] [[Category:Education for the deaf]] [[Category:Sign language]] </textarea><div 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