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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of purifying metal ingots</div> <p><b>Vacuum arc remelting</b> (<b>VAR</b>) is a secondary <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting</a> process for production of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingots</a> with elevated chemical and mechanical <a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(physics)" title="Homogeneity (physics)">homogeneity</a> for highly demanding applications.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The VAR process has revolutionized the specialty <a href="/wiki/Steel#Modern" title="Steel">traditional metallurgical techniques</a> industry, and has made possible tightly-controlled materials used in biomedical, aviation and aerospace.<sup id="cite_ref-asm08_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asm08-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arc-melting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Arc-melting.jpg/220px-Arc-melting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Arc-melting.jpg/330px-Arc-melting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Arc-melting.jpg/440px-Arc-melting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption> A vacuum arc remelting (VAR) furnace (or Arc Melter) from Edmund Buhler</figcaption></figure> <p>VAR is used most frequently in high value applications. It is an additional processing step to improve the quality of metal. Because it is time consuming and expensive, a majority of commercial <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> do not employ the process. <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and specialty <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steels</a> are materials most often processed with this method. The conventional path for production of titanium alloys includes single, double or even triple VAR processing.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of this technique over traditional methods presents several advantages: </p> <ul><li>The solidification rate of molten material can be tightly controlled. This allows a high degree of control over the <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a> as well as the ability to minimize segregation</li> <li>The gases dissolved in liquid metal during melting metals in open furnaces, such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> are considered to be detrimental to the majority of steels and alloys. Under vacuum conditions these gases escape from liquid metal.</li> <li>Elements with high <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> (frequently contaminants) are lowered in concentration.</li> <li>Centerline <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a> and segregation are eliminated.</li> <li>Certain metals and alloys, such as Ti, cannot be melted in open air furnaces</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process_description">Process description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Process description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg/220px-%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg/330px-%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg/440px-%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%A7%E5%86%8D%E7%86%94%E7%85%89%E7%A4%BA%E6%84%8F%E5%9C%96.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of VAR apparatus</figcaption></figure> <p>The alloy to undergo VAR is formed into a cylinder typically by <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_induction_melting" title="Vacuum induction melting">vacuum induction melting</a> (VIM) or ladle refining (airmelt). This cylinder, referred to as an electrode is then put into a large cylindrical enclosed <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucible</a> and brought to a metallurgical <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> (0.001–0.1 mmHg or 0.1–13.3 Pa). At the bottom of the crucible is a small amount of the alloy to be remelted, which the top electrode is brought close to prior to starting the melt. Several kiloamperes of <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> current are used to start an arc between the two pieces, thus a continuous melt is derived. The <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucible</a> (typically made of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>) is surrounded by a water jacket to cool the melt and control the solidification rate. To prevent <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">arcing</a> between the electrode and the crucible walls, the diameter of the crucible is larger than the electrode. As a result, the electrode must be lowered as the melt consumes it. Control of the current, cooling water, and electrode gap is essential to effective control of the process and production of defect-free material. </p><p>Ideally, the melt rate stays constant throughout the process cycle, but monitoring and control of the vacuum arc remelting process is not simple.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because there is a complex heat transfer occurring involving conduction, radiation, convection within the liquid metal, and advection caused by the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a>. Ensuring the consistency of the melt process in terms of pool geometry, and melt rate is crucial in ensuring the best possible properties of the alloy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials_and_applications">Materials and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Materials and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The VAR process is used on many different materials. Certain applications almost always use a material that has been VAR treated. A list of materials that may be VAR treated include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_Steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stainless Steel">Stainless Steel</a> <ul><li>15-5</li> <li>13-8</li> <li>17-4</li> <li>304</li> <li>316</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alloy_Steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alloy Steel (page does not exist)">Alloy Steel</a> <ul><li>9310</li> <li>4340 & 4330+V</li> <li>300M</li> <li>AF1410</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aermet" title="Aermet">Aermet</a> 100</li> <li>M50</li> <li>BG42</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nitralloy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nitralloy (page does not exist)">Nitralloy</a></li> <li>16NCD13</li> <li>35NCD16</li> <li>HY-100</li> <li>HY-180</li> <li>HY-TUF</li> <li>D6AC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steels</a></li> <li>UT-18</li> <li>HP 9-4-30</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> <ul><li>Ti-6Al-4V</li> <li>Ti-10V-2Al-3Fe</li> <li>Ti-5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invar" title="Invar">Invar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitinol" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitinol">Nitinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inconel" title="Inconel">Inconel</a> alloys</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastelloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastelloy">Hastelloy</a> alloys</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rene_41" class="mw-redirect" title="Rene 41">Rene alloys</a></li> <li>RR1000</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Note that pure titanium and most titanium alloys are double or triple VAR processed. Nickel-based super alloys for aerospace applications are usually VAR processed. Zirconium and niobium alloys used in the nuclear industry are routinely VAR processed. Pure platinum, tantalum, and rhodium may be VAR processed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc" title="Vacuum arc">Vacuum arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_metallurgy" title="Vacuum metallurgy">Vacuum metallurgy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Modeling for Casting & Solidification Processing", by Kuang-Oscar Yu,CRC; 1st edition (October 15, 2001), <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-8881-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8247-8881-8">0-8247-8881-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asm08-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-asm08_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Vacuum Arc Remelting". <i>Casting</i>. 2008. pp. 132–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31399%2Fasm.hb.v15.a0005202">10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005202</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-187-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-187-0"><bdi>978-1-62708-187-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vacuum+Arc+Remelting&rft.btitle=Casting&rft.pages=132-138&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31399%2Fasm.hb.v15.a0005202&rft.isbn=978-1-62708-187-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVacuum+arc+remelting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.Zagrebelnyy, Modeling macrosegregation during vacuum arc remelting of Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8364-5948-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8364-5948-8">978-3-8364-5948-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Titanium: Past, Present, and Future</i> (1983) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1712&page=65">[1]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-07765-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-07765-6">0-309-07765-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DA Melgaard, RG Erdmann, JJ Beaman, RL Williamson - 2007</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum_arc_remelting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-81421/steel">Britannica</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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