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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>South Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_to_Medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_to_Medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Early to Medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_to_Medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bloomery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5" title="فرن الحديد الخالص – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرن الحديد الخالص" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennofen" title="Rennofen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rennofen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Φρεατώδης κάμινος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φρεατώδης κάμινος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horno_bajo" title="Horno bajo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Horno bajo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basforno" title="Basforno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Basforno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haizeola" title="Haizeola – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Haizeola" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%87%D9%86_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5" title="کوره آهن خالص – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوره آهن خالص" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_fourneau" title="Bas fourneau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bas fourneau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plitko_ognji%C5%A1te" title="Plitko ognjište – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plitko ognjište" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungku_tempa" title="Tungku tempa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tungku tempa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rau%C3%B0abl%C3%A1stur" title="Rauðablástur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rauðablástur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalo_lydymo_krosnel%C4%97" title="Metalo lydymo krosnelė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Metalo lydymo krosnelė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laagoven" title="Laagoven – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Laagoven" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jernvinne_i_Norge" title="Jernvinne i Norge – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jernvinne i Norge" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jernvinne_i_Noreg" title="Jernvinne i Noreg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jernvinne i Noreg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dymarka" title="Dymarka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dymarka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forja_catal%C3%A3" title="Forja catalã – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Forja catalã" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C" title="Сыродутная печь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сыродутная печь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bloomery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plitko_ognji%C5%A1te" title="Plitko ognjište – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plitko ognjište" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harkkohytti" title="Harkkohytti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Harkkohytti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A4sterugn" title="Blästerugn – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Blästerugn" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Сиродутне горно – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сиродутне горно" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8D%9B%E9%90%B5%E7%88%90" title="鍛鐵爐 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="鍛鐵爐" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q964257#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Bloomery" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of furnace once used widely for smelting iron from its oxides</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bloomery_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bloomery (disambiguation)">Bloomery (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bloomery%22">"Bloomery"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bloomery%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bloomery%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bloomery%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bloomery%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bloomery%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bloomery" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:bloomery"> bloomery</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg/220px-%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg/330px-%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg/440px-%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_%C5%9Al%C4%85ska_piec_p.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A bloomery in operation. The bloom will eventually be drawn out of the bottom hole.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>bloomery</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_furnace" title="Metallurgical furnace">metallurgical furnace</a> once used widely for <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> iron from its <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron oxides">oxides</a>. The bloomery was the earliest form of <a href="/wiki/Smelter" class="mw-redirect" title="Smelter">smelter</a> capable of smelting iron. Bloomeries produce a porous mass of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> called a <i><b>bloom</b></i>. The mix of slag and iron in the bloom, termed <i><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a></i>, is usually consolidated and further forged into <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnaces</a>, which produce <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>, have largely superseded bloomeries. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_bloom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iron_bloom.jpg/220px-Iron_bloom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iron_bloom.jpg/330px-Iron_bloom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Iron_bloom.jpg/440px-Iron_bloom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1701" data-file-height="1417" /></a><figcaption>An iron bloom just removed from the furnace: Surrounding it are pieces of slag that have been pounded off by the hammer.</figcaption></figure> <p>A bloomery consists of a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pit" class="extiw" title="wikt:pit">pit</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chimney" title="Chimney">chimney</a> with heat-resistant walls made of earth, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a>. Near the bottom, one or more pipes (made of clay or metal) enter through the side walls. These pipes, called <b><a href="/wiki/Tuyeres" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuyeres">tuyeres</a></b>, allow air to enter the furnace, either by natural draught or forced with <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Trompe" title="Trompe">trompe</a>. An opening at the bottom of the bloomery may be used to remove the bloom, or the bloomery can be tipped over and the bloom removed from the top. </p><p>The first step taken before the bloomery can be used is the preparation of the <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> and the iron ore. Charcoal is nearly pure <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, which, when burned, both produces the high temperature needed for the smelting process and provides the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> needed for <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> of the metal. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> is broken into small pieces and usually roasted in a fire, to make rock-based ores easier to break up, bake out some impurities, and (to a lesser extent) to remove any moisture in the ore. Any large impurities (as silica) in the ore can be removed as it is crushed. The desired particle size depends primarily on which of several ore types may be available, which will also have a relationship to the layout and operation of the furnace, of which a number of regional, historic/traditional forms exist. Natural iron ores can vary considerably in oxide form (<span class="chemf nowrap">Fe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> / <span class="chemf nowrap">Fe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span> / <span class="chemf nowrap">FeO(OH)</span>), and importantly in relative iron content. Since <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> from previous blooms may have a high iron content, it can also be broken up and may be <a href="/wiki/Recycled" class="mw-redirect" title="Recycled">recycled</a> into the bloomery with the new ore. </p><p>In operation, after the bloomery is heated typically with a wood fire, shifting to burning sized charcoal, iron ore and additional charcoal are introduced through the top. Again, traditional methods vary, but normally smaller charges of ore are added at the start of the main smelting sequence, increasing to larger amounts as the smelt progresses. Overall, a typical ratio of total charcoal to ore added is in a roughly one-to-one ratio. Inside the furnace, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> from the incomplete <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> of the charcoal <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduces</a> the iron oxides in the ore to <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">metallic iron</a> without melting the ore; this allows the bloomery to operate at lower temperatures than the melting temperature of the ore. As the desired product of a bloomery is iron that is easily <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forgeable</a>, it requires a low carbon content. The temperature and ratio of charcoal to iron ore must be carefully controlled to keep the iron from absorbing too much carbon and thus becoming unforgeable. Cast iron occurs when the iron absorbs 2% to 4% carbon. Because the bloomery is self-<a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">fluxing</a>, the addition of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> is not required to form a slag. </p><p>The small particles of iron produced in this way fall to the bottom of the furnace, where they combine with molten slag, often consisting of <a href="/wiki/Fayalite" title="Fayalite">fayalite</a>, a compound of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and iron mixed with other impurities from the ore. The hot liquid slag, running to the bottom of the furnace, cools against the base and lower side walls of the furnace, effectively forming a bowl still containing fluid slag. As the individual iron particles form, they fall into this bowl and <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sinter</a> together under their own weight, forming a spongy mass referred to as the <b>bloom</b>. Because the bloom is typically <a href="/wiki/Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a>, and its open spaces can be full of slag, the extracted mass must be beaten with heavy hammers to both compress voids and drive out any molten slag remaining. This process may require several additional heating and compaction cycles, working at high 'welding' temperatures. Iron treated this way is said to be <b>wrought</b> (worked), and the resulting iron, with reduced amounts of slag, is called <b>wrought iron</b> or bar iron. Because of the creation process, individual blooms can often have differing carbon contents between the original top and bottom surfaces, differences that will also be somewhat blended together through the flattening, folding, and hammer-welding sequences. Intentionally producing blooms that are coated in <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> (i.e. iron with a higher carbon content) by manipulating the charge of and air flow to the bloomery is also possible.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the era of modern commercial <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a> began, the word "bloom" was extended to another <a href="/wiki/Word_sense" title="Word sense">sense</a> referring to <a href="/wiki/Semi-finished_casting_products#Bloom" title="Semi-finished casting products">an intermediate-stage piece of steel</a>, of a size comparable to many traditional iron blooms, that was ready to be further worked into <a href="/wiki/Semi-finished_casting_products#Billet" title="Semi-finished casting products">billet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Smelting#Early_iron_smelting" title="Smelting">Early iron smelting</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg/220px-PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg/330px-PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg/440px-PSM_V38_D159_Persian_method_of_smelting_iron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>A drawing of a simple bloomery and bellows.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_fourneau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/220px-Bas_fourneau.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/330px-Bas_fourneau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/440px-Bas_fourneau.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption>Bloomery smelting during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, as depicted in the <i><a href="/wiki/De_Re_Metallica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Re Metallica">De Re Metallica</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a>, 1556</figcaption></figure> <p>The onset of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in most parts of the world coincides with the first widespread use of the bloomery. While earlier examples of iron are found, their high nickel content indicates that this is <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a>. Other early samples of iron may have been produced by accidental introduction of iron ore in copper-smelting operations. Iron appears to have been smelted in the Middle East as early as 3000 BC, but coppersmiths, not being familiar with iron, did not put it to use until much later. In the West, iron began to be used around 1200 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>China has long been considered the exception to the general use of bloomeries. The Chinese are thought to have skipped the bloomery process completely, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a> to produce wrought iron; by the fifth century BC, metalworkers in the southern <a href="/wiki/State_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Wu">state of Wu</a> had invented the blast furnace and the means to both cast iron and to decarburize the carbon-rich pig iron produced in a blast furnace to a low-carbon, wrought iron-like material. Recent evidence, however, shows that bloomeries were used earlier in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, migrating in from the west as early as 800 BC, before being supplanted by the locally developed blast furnace. Supporting this theory was the discovery of "more than ten" iron-digging implements found in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Duke_Jing_of_Qin" title="Duke Jing of Qin">Duke Jing of Qin</a> (d. 537 BCE), whose tomb is located in <a href="/wiki/Fengxiang_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengxiang County">Fengxiang County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> (a museum exists on the site today).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in East Africa are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in Nubia in ancient Sudan dated at least to the seventh to the sixth century BC. The ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites produced a surplus for sale. All traditional sub-Saharan African iron-smelting processes are variants of the bloomery process.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is considerable discussion about the origins of <a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">iron metallurgy in Africa</a>. Smelting in bloomery type furnaces in West Africa and forging of tools appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a> of central Nigeria by at least 550 BC and possibly several centuries earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eggert_2014_53–54_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert_2014_53–54-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, evidence indicates iron smelting with bloomery-style furnaces dated to 750 BC in <a href="/wiki/Opi_(archaeological_site)" title="Opi (archaeological site)">Opi</a> (Augustin Holl 2009) and <a href="/wiki/Lejja" title="Lejja">Lejja</a> dated to 2,000 BC (Pamela Eze-Uzomaka 2009), both sites in the <a href="/wiki/Nsukka" title="Nsukka">Nsukka</a> region of southeast Nigeria in what is now <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igboland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eze-Uzomaka_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eze-Uzomaka-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holl-2009_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl-2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eggert_2014_53–54_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert_2014_53–54-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site of Gbabiri, in the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>, has also yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop, with earliest dates of 896–773 and 907–796 BC, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Eggert_2014_53–54_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert_2014_53–54-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During a hydroelectric plant project, in the southern foothills of the Central Highlands, Samanalawewa, in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, a wind-driven furnace was found in an excavation site. Such furnaces were powered by the monsoon winds and have been dated to 300 BC using radiocarbon-dating techniques. These ancient Lankan furnaces might have produced the best-quality steel for legendary Damascus swords as referred in earlier Syrian records.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Field trials using replica furnaces confirmed that this furnace type uses a wind-based air-supply principle that is distinct from either forced or natural draught, and show also that they are capable of producing high-carbon steel.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wrought iron was used in the construction of monuments such as the <a href="/wiki/Iron_pillar_of_Delhi" title="Iron pillar of Delhi">iron pillar of Delhi</a>, built in the third century AD during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>. The latter was built using a towering series of disc-shaped iron blooms. Similar to China, high-carbon steel was eventually used in India, although cast iron was not used for architecture until modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-METALLURGICAL_HERITAGE_OF_INDIA_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-METALLURGICAL_HERITAGE_OF_INDIA-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_to_Medieval_Europe">Early to Medieval Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early to Medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg/220px-PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg/330px-PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg/440px-PSM_V38_D175_A_blomary_fire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption>A Catalan furnace, with tuyere and bellows on the right</figcaption></figure> <p>Early European bloomeries were relatively small, primarily due to the mechanical limits of human-powered bellows and the amount of force possible to apply with hand-driven sledge hammers. Those known archaeologically from the pre-Roman Iron Age tend to be in the 2 kg range, produced in low shaft furnaces. Roman-era production often used furnaces tall enough to create a natural draft effect (into the range of 200 cm tall), and increasing bloom sizes into the range of 10–15 kg.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary experimenters had routinely made blooms using Northern European-derived "short-shaft" furnaces with blown air supplies in the 5–10 kg range <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheels</a>, spreading around the turn of the first millennium and used to power more massive bellows, allowed the bloomery to become larger and hotter, with associated trip hammers allowing the consolidation forging of the larger blooms created. Progressively larger bloomeries were constructed in the late 14th century, with a capacity of about 15 kg on average, though exceptions did exist. European average bloom sizes quickly rose to 300 kg, where they levelled off until the demise of the bloomery. </p><p>As a bloomery's size is increased, the iron ore is exposed to burning charcoal for a longer time. When combined with the strong air blast required to penetrate the large ore and charcoal stack, this may cause part of the iron to melt and become saturated with carbon in the process, producing unforgeable pig iron, which requires <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">oxidation</a> to be reduced into cast iron, steel, and iron. This pig iron was considered a waste product detracting from the largest bloomeries' yield, and early <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>, identical in construction, but dedicated to the production of molten iron, were not built until the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bloomery type furnaces typically produced a range of iron products from very low-carbon iron to steel containing around 0.2–1.5% carbon. The master smith had to select pieces of low-carbon iron, <a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">carburize</a> them, and <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern-weld</a> them together to make steel sheets. Even when applied to a noncarburized bloom, this pound, fold, and weld process resulted in a more homogeneous product and removed much of the slag. The process had to be repeated up to 15 times when high-quality steel was needed, as for a sword. The alternative was to <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">carburize the surface</a> of a finished product. Each welding's heat oxidises some carbon, so the master smith had to make sure enough carbon was in the starting mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England and Wales, despite the arrival of the blast furnace in the <a href="/wiki/Wealden_iron_industry" title="Wealden iron industry">Weald</a> in about 1491, bloomery forges, probably using waterpower for the hammer and the bellows, were operating in the <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_(region)" title="West Midlands (region)">West Midlands</a> region beyond 1580. In <a href="/wiki/Furness" title="Furness">Furness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a>, they operated into the early 17th century and the last one in England (near <a href="/wiki/Garstang" title="Garstang">Garstang</a>) did not close until about 1770.<sup id="cite_ref-English_books_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_books-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the oldest-known blast furnaces in Europe has been found in <a href="/wiki/Lapphyttan" title="Lapphyttan">Lapphyttan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dating">carbon-14 dated</a> to be from the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (January 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The oldest bloomery in Sweden, also found in the same area, has been carbon-14 dated to 700 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bloomeries survived in Spain and southern France as <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalan</a> forges into the mid-19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> as the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/w/index.php?title=St%C3%BCckofen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stückofen (page does not exist)">Stückofen</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%BCckofen" class="extiw" title="fr:Stückofen">fr</a>]</sup></i></span> to 1775. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas">The Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Iron smelting was <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America">unknown in pre-Columbian America</a>. </p><p>Excavations at <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a>, Newfoundland, have found considerable evidence for the processing of bog iron and the production of iron in a bloomery by the Norse.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cluster of Viking Age (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000</span>–1022 AD) at L'Anse aux Meadows are situated on a raised marine terrace, between a sedge peat bog and the ocean. Estimates from the smaller amount of slag recovered archaeologically suggest 15 kg of slag was produced during what appears to have been a single smelting attempt. By comparing the iron content of the primary bog iron ore found in the purpose built 'furnace hut' with the iron remaining in that slag, an estimated 3 kg iron bloom was produced. At a yield of at best 20% from what is a good iron rich ore, this suggests the workers processing the ore had not been particularly skilled.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This supports the idea that iron processing knowledge was widespread and not restricted to major centers of trade and commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeologists also found 98 nail, and importantly, ship rivet fragments, at the site as well as considerable evidence for woodworking – which points to boat or possibly ship repairs being undertaken at the site.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (An important consideration remains that a potential 3 kg raw bloom most certainly does not make enough refined bar to manufacture the 3 kg of recovered nails and rivets.) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG/220px-Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG/330px-Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG/440px-Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_4-5-05_100_6559.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>A view of the bloomeries (Catalan forges) at <a href="/wiki/Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano" title="Mission San Juan Capistrano">Mission San Juan Capistrano</a>, the oldest (<i>circa</i> 1790s) existing facilities of their kind in California</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a>, bloomeries or "Catalan forges" were part of "self-sufficiency" at some of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Category:Spanish missions in the Americas">missions</a>, <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomiendas</a></i></span>, and <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">pueblos</a></i></span>. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">Franciscan Spanish missions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>, the "Catalan forges" at <a href="/wiki/Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano" title="Mission San Juan Capistrano">Mission San Juan Capistrano</a> from the 1790s are the oldest existing facilities of their kind in the present day <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">state of California</a>. The bloomeries' sign proclaims the site as being "part of <a href="/wiki/Orange_County,_California" title="Orange County, California">Orange County</a>'s first industrial complex". </p><p>The archaeology at Jamestown Virginia (<i>circa</i> 1610–1615<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>) had recovered the remains of a simple short-shaft bloomery furnace, likely intended as yet another "resource test" like the one in Vinland much earlier. The English settlers of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> were prevented by law from manufacture; for a time, the British sought to situate most of the skilled artisanry at domestic locations. In fact, this was one of the problems that led to the revolution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Falling_Creek_Ironworks" title="Falling Creek Ironworks">Falling Creek Ironworks</a> was the first in the United States. The <a href="/wiki/Neabsco_Iron_Works" title="Neabsco Iron Works">Neabsco Iron Works</a> is an example of the early <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginian</a> effort to form a workable American industry. </p><p>The earliest iron forge in <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">colonial Pennsylvania</a> was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rutter" title="Thomas Rutter">Thomas Rutter</a>'s bloomery near <a href="/wiki/Pottstown,_Pennsylvania" title="Pottstown, Pennsylvania">Pottstown</a>, founded in 1716.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Adirondacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Adirondacks">Adirondacks</a>, New York, new bloomeries using the <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a> technique were built in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Adirondacks_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adirondacks-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_hammer" title="Double hammer">Double hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara (furnace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduction" title="Direct reduction">Direct reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduction_(blast_furnace)" title="Direct reduction (blast furnace)">Direct reduction (blast furnace)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg/220px-Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg/330px-Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg/440px-Bloomery_Iron_Furnace_Bloomery_WV_2013_09_03_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Bloomery iron furnace along Bloomery Pike (West Virginia Route 127) near Bloomery, West Virginia, United States.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThorntonWilliamsShugar" class="citation web cs1">Thornton, Jonathan; Williams, Skip; Shugar, Aaron. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iron.wlu.edu/reports/Eindhoven%20Smelt%20Report.htm">"The Rockbridge Bloomery – Reports: Smelting Enriched Bog Ore in a Low Shaft Bloomery"</a>. <i>The Smelter's Art: Experimental Iron Production at The Rockbridge Bloomery</i>. 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Tylecote, <i>History of Metallurgy</i> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jernkontoret.se/en/the-steel-industry/the-history-of-swedish-steel-industry/blast-furnace-in-earlier-times/">"The blast furnace in earlier times"</a>. <i>Jernkontoret</i>. 21 December 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231226232305/https://www.jernkontoret.se/en/the-steel-industry/the-history-of-swedish-steel-industry/blast-furnace-in-earlier-times/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jernkontoret&rft.atitle=The+blast+furnace+in+earlier+times&rft.date=2018-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jernkontoret.se%2Fen%2Fthe-steel-industry%2Fthe-history-of-swedish-steel-industry%2Fblast-furnace-in-earlier-times%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABloomery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magnusson, G. (2015). <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">Järnet och Sveriges medeltida modernisering</i></span>. Jernkontoret, Stockholm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/bloomery-process">"Bloomery process"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2017</span>. <q>The final version of this kind of bloomery hearth survived in Spain until the 19th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bloomery+process&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fbloomery-process&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABloomery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlesBowkerSamsonoff2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bowles, G.; Bowker, R.; Samsonoff, N. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docplayer.net/47076189-Viking-expansion-and-the-search-for-bog-iron.htmlhttps://docplayer.net/47076189-Viking-expansion-and-the-search-for-bog-iron.html">"Viking expansion and the search for bog iron"</a>. <i>Platforum</i>. <b>12</b>: 25–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Platforum&rft.atitle=Viking+expansion+and+the+search+for+bog+iron&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=25-37&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bowles&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Bowker%2C+R.&rft.au=Samsonoff%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocplayer.net%2F47076189-Viking-expansion-and-the-search-for-bog-iron.htmlhttps%3A%2F%2Fdocplayer.net%2F47076189-Viking-expansion-and-the-search-for-bog-iron.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABloomery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis-Simpson,_Shannon2000" class="citation book cs1">Lewis-Simpson, Shannon (2000). <i>Vinland Revisited: The Norse World at the Turn of the First Millennium</i>. St. John's, Newfoundland: Historic Sites Association of Newfoundland and Labrador. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-919735-07-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-919735-07-X"><bdi>0-919735-07-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vinland+Revisited%3A+The+Norse+World+at+the+Turn+of+the+First+Millennium&rft.place=St.+John%27s%2C+Newfoundland&rft.pub=Historic+Sites+Association+of+Newfoundland+and+Labrador&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-919735-07-X&rft.au=Lewis-Simpson%2C+Shannon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABloomery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolles1878" class="citation book cs1">Bolles, Albert Sidney (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/0374INDU"><i>Industrial history of the United States, from the earliest settlements to the present time: being a complete survey of American industries, embracing agriculture and horticulture; including the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, wheat; the raising of horses, neat-cattle, etc.; all the important manufactures, shipping and fisheries, railroads, mines and mining, and oil; also a history of the coal-miners and the Molly Maguires; banks, insurance, and commerce; trade-unions, strikes, and eight-hour movement; together with a description of Canadian industries</i></a>. Norwich, Connecticut: Henry Bill Publishing Company. p. 193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+history+of+the+United+States%2C+from+the+earliest+settlements+to+the+present+time%3A+being+a+complete+survey+of+American+industries%2C+embracing+agriculture+and+horticulture%3B+including+the+cultivation+of+cotton%2C+tobacco%2C+wheat%3B+the+raising+of+horses%2C+neat-cattle%2C+etc.%3B+all+the+important+manufactures%2C+shipping+and+fisheries%2C+railroads%2C+mines+and+mining%2C+and+oil%3B+also+a+history+of+the+coal-miners+and+the+Molly+Maguires%3B+banks%2C+insurance%2C+and+commerce%3B+trade-unions%2C+strikes%2C+and+eight-hour+movement%3B+together+with+a+description+of+Canadian+industries&rft.place=Norwich%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Henry+Bill+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Bolles&rft.aufirst=Albert+Sidney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F0374INDU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABloomery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adirondacks-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Adirondacks_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gordon C. Pollard, "Experimentation in 19th century bloomery production: evidence from the Adirondacks of New York", <i>Historical Metallurgy</i> 32(1) (1998), 33–40.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloomery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bloomeries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bloomeries">Bloomeries</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ironsmelting.net/">Technology and archaeology of the earliest iron smelting and smithing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warehamforge.ca/ironsmelting/index.html">Experimental Iron Smelting (at the Wareham Forge)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darkcompany.ca/iron/">Viking-Era Norse techniques by DARC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wealdeniron.org.uk/Expt/index.htm">WIRG experimental bloomery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.davistownmuseum.org/toolPreBlastFurnace.html">Precursors of the blast furnace</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070614173348/http://www.unc.edu/courses/rometech/public/content/mines_and_iron/Roger_Smith/roger/BLOOM4.htm">Roger Smith's article on bloomery construction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/iron3.htm">How Stuff Works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718053841/http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/EARFE/EARFE.html">Early use of iron in China</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000022/00000029.pdf">The Catalan process for the direct production of malleable iron and its spread to Europe and the Americas PDF</a> by Estanislau Tomàs (retrieved 23 March 2010)</li> <li>A Practical Treatise on the Smelting and Smithing of Bloomery <i>Iron</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/268/257">https://hmsjournal.org/index.php/home/article/view/268/257</a></li> <li>An Update on "A Practical Treatise" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285737243_An_American_bloomery_in_Sussex#fullTextFileContent">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285737243_An_American_bloomery_in_Sussex#fullTextFileContent</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> 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