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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Deserts and drylands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deserts_and_drylands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grasslands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grasslands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Grasslands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grasslands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tundra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tundra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tundra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tundra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mountains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mountains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Mountains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mountains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boreal_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boreal_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Boreal forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boreal_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperate_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperate_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Temperate forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperate_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_beetles_that_can_harm_trees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_beetles_that_can_harm_trees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Expansion of beetles that can harm trees</span> </div> </a> <ul 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg/220px-Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg/330px-Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg/440px-Kummu_2021_quantiles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>Predicated changes for Earth's biomes under two different <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a> for 2081–2100. Top row is low emissions scenario, bottom row is high emissions scenario. Biomes are classified with <a href="/wiki/Holdridge_life_zones" title="Holdridge life zones">Holdridge life zones</a> system. A shift of 1 or 100% (darker colours) indicates that the region has fully moved into a completely different biome zone type.<sup id="cite_ref-Kummu2021_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kummu2021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> is already now altering <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a>, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and average weather patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity of <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme weather event">extreme weather events</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a region's climate changes, a change in its <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> follows.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, climate change may cause ecological disruption among interacting species, via changes in behaviour and <a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a>, or via <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">climate niche</a> mismatch.<sup id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, climate change can cause species to move in different directions, potentially disrupting their interactions with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2021)_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2021)-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of effects on some biome types are provided in the following.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (August 2024)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> Research into <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">Mountains</a> cover approximately 25 percent of the Earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of the global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Boreal_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forests">Boreal forests</a>, also known as <i>taiga</i>, are warming at a faster rate than the global average,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to drier conditions in the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a>, which leads to a whole host of subsequent impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-forestry_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forestry-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as its health and regeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-forestry_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forestry-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at a global average increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial temperatures, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand <a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">marine heatwaves</a>, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% at 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_classification">Terminology and classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology and classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On Earth, <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome"><i>biomes</i></a> are the main constituent parts of the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, defined by a distinctive biological <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> and a shared regional <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single biome would include multiple <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a> classification, terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments each consist of <i>hundreds</i> of ecoregions, around a <i>dozen</i> biome types, and a single-digit number of biogeographic regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson1998_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson1998-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olson2001_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson2001-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abell_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_impacts">General impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: General impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 2007 <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">IPCC Fourth Assessment Report</a> concluded that over the last three decades human-induced warming had likely had an influence on many biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Assessment_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> found that half of all species with long-term data had shifted their ranges poleward (or upward for mountain species). Two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-AR6_WGII_Chapter2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several European bird species' breeding seasons have been shifted to earlier periods, as indicated by the shifts in nestling ringing dates.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range of hundreds of North American birds has shifted northward at an average rate of 1.5 km/year over the past 55 years.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, climate change may disrupt the ecology among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and <a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a>, or via <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">climate niche</a> mismatch.<sup id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species in opposite directions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2021)_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2021)-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.<sup id="cite_ref-Sales_et_al_(2020)_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sales_et_al_(2020)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP8.5</a> scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches 4 °C (7.2 °F); in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below 2 °C (3.6 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrestrial_biomes">Terrestrial biomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terrestrial biomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deserts_and_drylands">Deserts and drylands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Deserts and drylands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Desertification#Climate_change" title="Desertification">Desertification § Climate change</a></div><p> Research into <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2024)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> century, under the "moderate" and high-warming <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathways</a> 4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change#Droughts" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change § Droughts</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change&action=edit#Droughts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Climate change affects many factors associated with <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a>. These include how much rain falls and how fast the rain <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporates</a> again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1057">: 1057 </span></sup> In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1157">: 1157 </span></sup> </p> Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases <a href="/wiki/Plant_stress_measurement" title="Plant stress measurement">plant stress</a>. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1157">: 1157 </span></sup> These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1157">: 1157 </span></sup> Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grasslands">Grasslands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Grasslands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Grassland#Climate_change" title="Grassland">Grassland § Climate change</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grassland&action=edit#Climate_change">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the <a href="/wiki/Woody_plant_encroachment" title="Woody plant encroachment">encroachment of woody species</a>. Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_barrens" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpentine barrens">serpentine barrens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When not limited by other factors, increasing CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO<sub>2</sub> are limited by factors including water availability and available <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>, particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO<sub>2</sub> on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization</a> from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process.<sup id="cite_ref-Grassland_:7_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grassland_:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tundra">Tundra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tundra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Many of the species at risk are <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> fauna such as <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bears</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the <a href="/wiki/Snow_camouflage" title="Snow camouflage">snow camouflage</a> of arctic animals such as <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" title="Snowshoe hare">snowshoe hares</a> with the increasingly snow-free landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Polar_amplification#Recent_Arctic_amplification" title="Polar amplification">Polar amplification § Recent Arctic amplification</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polar_amplification&action=edit#Recent_Arctic_amplification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times as fast as the globe - 3.1°C between 1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global warming of 1°C over the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-Polar_amplification_3X2021_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polar_amplification_3X2021-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, this estimate defines the Arctic as everything above <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_north" title="60th parallel north">60th parallel north</a>, or a full third of the Northern Hemisphere: in 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a> itself (above the 66th parallel) has been nearly four times faster than the global average.<sup id="cite_ref-Polar_amplification_Rantanen2022_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polar_amplification_Rantanen2022-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polar_amplification_4X2021_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polar_amplification_4X2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the Arctic Circle itself, even greater Arctic amplification occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Barents_Sea" title="Barents Sea">Barents Sea</a> area, with hotspots around <a href="/wiki/West_Spitsbergen_Current" title="West Spitsbergen Current">West Spitsbergen Current</a>: weather stations located on its path record decadal warming up to seven times faster than the global average.<sup id="cite_ref-Polar_amplification_Isaksen2022_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polar_amplification_Isaksen2022-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Polar_amplification_Carrington22_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polar_amplification_Carrington22-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has fuelled concerns that unlike the rest of the Arctic sea ice, ice cover in the Barents Sea may permanently disappear even around 1.5 degrees of global warming.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mountains">Mountains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mountains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">Mountains</a> cover approximately 25 percent of earth's surface and provide a home to more than one-tenth of global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential risks to mountain habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change can adversely affect both <a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">alpine tundra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">montane grasslands and shrublands</a>. It increases the number of extreme events such as the frequency and intensity of <a href="/wiki/Forest_fires" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fires">forest fires</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and accelerates snowmelt, which makes more water available earlier in the year and reduces availability later in the year, while the reduction in snow cover insulation can paradoxically increase cold damage from springtime frost events.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also causes remarkable changes in <a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies suggest a warmer climate would cause lower-elevation habitats to expand into the higher alpine zone.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a shift would encroach on rare alpine meadows and other high-altitude habitats. High-elevation plants and animals have limited space available for new habitat as they move higher on the mountains in order to adapt to long-term changes in regional climate. Such uphill shifts of both ranges and abundances have been recorded for various groups of species across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some mountain areas, such as the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, climate change appears to promote the appearance of various <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shrubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrubs">shrubs</a>, eventually converting them to shrublands.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in precipitation appear to be the most important driver.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It's been estimated that by 2050, climate change alone could reduce <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a> of trees in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a> by 31–37%, while <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> alone could be responsible for 19–36%, and the combined effect might reach 58%. The paper's worst-case scenario for both stressors had only 53% of the original rainforest area surviving as a continuous ecosystem by 2050, with the rest reduced to a severely fragmented block.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study estimated that the rainforest would lose 69% of its plant species under the warming of 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Warren2018a_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warren2018a-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (July 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boreal_forests">Boreal forests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Boreal forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif/310px-Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif" decoding="async" width="310" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif/465px-Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif/620px-Northern_Forest_Trend_in_Photosynthetic_Activity.gif 2x" data-file-width="4119" data-file-height="2945" /></a><figcaption>Change in Photosynthetic Activity in Northern Forests 1982–2003; <a href="/wiki/NASA_Earth_Observatory" title="NASA Earth Observatory">NASA Earth Observatory</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Boreal forests, also known as <i>taiga</i>, are warming at a faster rate than the global average.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to drier conditions in the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a>, which leads to a whole host of subsequent issues.<sup id="cite_ref-forestry_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forestry-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change has a direct impact on the productivity of the boreal forest, as well as health and regeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-forestry_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forestry-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the rapidly changing climate, trees show declines in growth at the southern limit of their range,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are migrating to higher latitudes and altitudes (northward) to remain their climatic habitat, but some species may not be migrating fast enough.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-test_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g., −20 to −40 °C (−4 to −40 °F) has decreased irregularly but systematically in nearly all the boreal region, allowing better survival for tree-damaging insects.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 10-year average of <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forest">boreal forest</a> burned in North America, after several decades of around 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (2.5 million acres), has increased steadily since 1970 to more than 28,000 km<sup>2</sup> (7 million acres) annually.,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and records in Canada show increases in wildfire from 1920 to 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early 2010s research confirmed that since the 1960s, western Canadian boreal forests, and particularly the western <a href="/wiki/Coniferous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferous forest">coniferous forests</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had already suffered substantial tree losses due to drought, and some conifers were getting replaced with <a href="/wiki/Aspen" title="Aspen">aspen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-forestry_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forestry-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the already dry forest areas in central <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and far eastern <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> are also experiencing greater drought,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> placing <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a> trees under particular stress,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>'s needle-shedding <a href="/wiki/Larch" title="Larch">larches</a> are replaced with evergreen conifers - a change which also affects the area's <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> (evergreen trees absorb more heat than the snow-covered ground) and acts as a small, yet detectable <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change feedback">climate change feedback</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, eastern Canadian forests have been much less affected;<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet some research suggests it would also reach a tipping point around 2080, under the <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP</a> 8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/220px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/330px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg/440px-2018_boreal_tree_species_trends.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>The response of six tree species common in Quebec's forests to 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming under different precipitation levels.</figcaption></figure> <p>It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consistent with that, a <a href="/wiki/Landsat" class="mw-redirect" title="Landsat">Landsat</a> analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but areas with a lot of trees got more "brown" as some of them died due to the same.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Alaska, the growth of white <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a> trees is stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a certain stage, such shifts could become effectively irreversible, making them <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points in the climate system</a>, and a major assessment designated both processes - reversion of southern boreal forests to <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> and the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> areas to boreal forest - as separate examples of such, which would likely become unstoppable around 4 °C (7.2 °F), though they would still take at least 50 years, if not a century or more. However, the certainty level is still limited; there's an outside possibility that 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would be enough to lock in either of the two shifts; on the other hand, reversion to grassland may require 5 °C (9.0 °F), and the replacement of tundra 7.2 °C (13.0 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Getting_tipsy_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getting_tipsy-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Explainer_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explainer-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forest expansion is likely to take longer than decline, as juveniles of boreal species are the worst-affected by the climate shifs, while the temperate species capable of replacing them have slower growth rates.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disappearance of forest also causes detectable carbon emissions, while gain acts as a carbon sink: yet the changes in albedo more than outweigh that in terms of climate impact.<sup id="cite_ref-Getting_tipsy_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getting_tipsy-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Explainer_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explainer-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperate_forests">Temperate forests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Temperate forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/220px--Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="120" data-mwtitle="Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv/Gavin_Newsom_talks_about_climate_change_at_North_Complex_Fire_-_2020-09-11.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Gavin Newsom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">governor of California</a> since 2019) talks about climate change at <a href="/wiki/North_Complex_Fire" title="North Complex Fire">North Complex Fire</a> in 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the western U.S., since 1986, longer, warmer summers have resulted in a fourfold increase in major wildfires and a sixfold increase in the area of forest burned, compared to the period from 1970 to 1986. While <a href="/wiki/Wildfire_suppression" title="Wildfire suppression">fire suppression</a> policies have played a substantial role as well, both healthy and unhealthy forests now face an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Forest_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fire">forest fires</a> because of the warming climate.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2018 study found that trees grow faster due to increased carbon dioxide levels; however, the trees are also 8–12 percent lighter and denser since 1900. The authors note, "Even though a greater volume of wood is being produced today, it now contains less material than just a few decades ago."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_of_beetles_that_can_harm_trees">Expansion of beetles that can harm trees</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Expansion of beetles that can harm trees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, a few days of extreme cold would kill most mountain <a href="/wiki/Pine_beetle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pine beetle">pine beetles</a> and keep their outbreaks contained. Since 1998, the lack of severe winters in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> had enabled a devastating <a href="/wiki/Pine_beetle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pine beetle">pine beetle</a> infestation, which had killed 33 million acres or 135,000 km<sup>2</sup> by 2008;<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-robbins_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robbins-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a level an order of magnitude larger than any previously recorded outbreak.<sup id="cite_ref-kurz_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kurz-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cudmore_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cudmore-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such losses can match an average year of forest fires in all of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> or five years worth of emissions from its transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-kurz_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kurz-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate change and the associated changing weather patterns occurring worldwide have a direct effect on biology, population ecology, and the population of eruptive insects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_pine_beetle" title="Mountain pine beetle">mountain pine beetle</a>. This is because temperature is a factor which determines insect development and population success.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to climatic and temperature changes, the mountain pine beetle predominately lived and attacked <a href="/wiki/Lodgepole_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodgepole pine">lodgepole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ponderosa_Pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponderosa Pine">ponderosa</a> pine trees at lower elevations, as the higher elevation <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascades</a> were too cold for their survival.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under normal seasonal freezing weather conditions in the lower elevations, the forest ecosystems that pine beetles inhabit are kept in balance by factors such as tree defense mechanisms, beetle defense mechanisms, and freezing temperatures. It is a simple relationship between a <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> (the forest), an <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">agent</a> (the beetle) and the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> (the weather and temperature).<sup id="cite_ref-pinebeetle_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pinebeetle-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as climate change causes mountain areas to become warmer and drier, pine beetles have more power to infest and destroy the forest ecosystems, such as the whitebark pine forests of the Rocky Mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-pinebeetle_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pinebeetle-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased temperatures also allow the pine beetle to increase their life cycle by 100%<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>: it only takes a single year instead of two for the pine beetle to develop. As the Rockies have not adapted to deal with pine beetle <a href="/wiki/Infestations" class="mw-redirect" title="Infestations">infestations</a>, they lack the defenses to fight the beetles.<sup id="cite_ref-pinebeetle_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pinebeetle-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropical_forests">Tropical forests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tropical forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_tropics" title="Effects of climate change on the tropics">Effects of climate change on the tropics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif/350px-River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif/525px-River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/River_gambia_Niokolokoba_National_Park.gif 2x" data-file-width="691" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">Rainforest</a> ecosystems are rich in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. This is the <a href="/wiki/Gambia_River" title="Gambia River">Gambia River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Niokolo-Koba_National_Park" title="Niokolo-Koba National Park">Niokolo-Koba National Park</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a> is the largest <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a> in the world. It is twice as big as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and spans nine countries in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. This size allows it to produce around half of its own <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a> by recycling moisture through evaporation and <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> as air moves across the forest;<sup id="cite_ref-CarbonBriefNine_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarbonBriefNine-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tree losses interfere with that capability, to the point where if enough is lost, much of the rest will likely die off and transform into a dry <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For now, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest" title="Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest">deforestation of the Amazon rainforest</a> has been the greatest threat to it, and the main reason why, as of 2022, about 20% of it had been deforested and another 6% "highly degraded".<sup id="cite_ref-AmazonWatch_202209_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmazonWatch_202209-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, climate change is also a threat as it exacerbates wildfire and interferes with precipitation. It is considered likely that hitting 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) of global warming would trigger the collapse of rainforest to savannah over the course of around a century (50-200) years, although it occur at between 2 °C (3.6 °F) to 6 °C (11 °F) of warming.<sup id="cite_ref-Getting_tipsy_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getting_tipsy-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Explainer_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explainer-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forest fires in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> have dramatically increased since 1997 as well. These fires are often actively started to clear forest for agriculture. They can set fire to the large peat bogs in the region and the CO<sub>2</sub> released by these peat bog fires has been estimated, in an average year, to be 15% of the quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> produced by fossil fuel combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research suggests that slow-growing trees are only stimulated in growth for a short period under higher CO<sub>2</sub> levels, while faster growing plants like <a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">liana</a> benefit in the long term. In general, but especially in <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a>, this means that liana become the prevalent species; and because they decompose much faster than trees their carbon content is more quickly returned to the atmosphere. Slow growing trees incorporate atmospheric carbon for decades.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Freshwater_biomes">Freshwater biomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Freshwater biomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lakes">Lakes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_trout" title="Rainbow trout">rainbow trout</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, a study looked at freshwater fish in 900 lakes of the American state of <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. It found that if their water temperature increases by 4 °C (7.2 °F) in July (said to occur under approximately the same amount of global warming), then <i>cold-water</i> fish species like <a href="/wiki/Cisco_(fish)" title="Cisco (fish)">cisco</a> would disappear from 167 lakes, which represents 61% of their habitat in Minnesota. <i>Cool-water</i> <a href="/wiki/Yellow_perch" title="Yellow perch">yellow perch</a> would see its numbers decline by about 7% across all of Minnesota's lakes, while warm-water <a href="/wiki/Bluegill" title="Bluegill">bluegill</a> would increase by around 10%.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner2023_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner2023-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rivers">Rivers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Rivers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eagle_River_8593.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/280px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/420px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Eagle_River_8593.JPG/560px-Eagle_River_8593.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eagle_River_(Cook_Inlet)" title="Eagle River (Cook Inlet)">Eagle River</a> in central Alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacier</a>-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_trout" title="Cutthroat trout">cutthroat trout</a>. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a>, a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the <a href="/wiki/Blue_whale" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, freshwater bodies such as <a href="/wiki/Streams" class="mw-redirect" title="Streams">streams</a> can be strongly affected by heatwaves. However, the impact could vary strongly depending on the presence or absence of predators in the stream community. In their absence, the impacts are much more severe and the local extinction of most species could occur, homogenizing the community.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as <a href="/wiki/Sockeye_salmon" title="Sockeye salmon">sockeye salmon</a> live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_100-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marine_biomes">Marine biomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marine biomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polar_waters">Polar waters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Polar waters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Arctic, the waters of <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a> are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Gyrfalcon" title="Gyrfalcon">gyrfalcons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Snowy_owl" title="Snowy owl">snowy owls</a> that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coral_reefs">Coral reefs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Coral reefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change#Corals" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change § Corals</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extinction_risk_from_climate_change&action=edit#Corals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pulau_Piaynemo,_Raja_Ampat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/220px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/330px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg/440px-Pulau_Piaynemo%2C_Raja_Ampat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Coral reefs off <a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a></figcaption></figure> Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at a global average increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial temperatures, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand <a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">marine heatwaves</a>, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% by 2 °C (3.6 °F) and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was found in 2021 that each square meter of coral reef area contains about 30 individual corals, and their total number is estimated at half a trillion - equivalent to all the trees in the Amazon, or all the birds in the world. As such, most individual coral reef species are predicted to avoid extinction even as coral reefs would cease to function as the ecosystems we know.<sup id="cite_ref-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Dietzel2021_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Dietzel2021-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 study found that 47–73 coral species (6–9%) are vulnerable to climate change while already threatened with extinction according to the <a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a>, and 74–174 (9–22%) coral species were not vulnerable to extinction at the time of publication, but could be threatened under continued climate change, making them a future conservation priority.<sup id="cite_ref-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Foden2013_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Foden2013-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors of the recent coral number estimates suggest that those older projections were too high, although this has been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Dietzel2021_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Extinction_risk_from_climate_change_Dietzel2021-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant_encroachment" title="Woody plant encroachment">Woody plant encroachment</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kummu2021-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kummu2021_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a 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effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC 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