CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Song dynasty - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"18522eb7-e6bd-4ac7-8802-f89280f781bf","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Song_dynasty","wgTitle":"Song dynasty","wgCurRevisionId":1254763815,"wgRevisionId":1254763815,"wgArticleId":56978,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Chinese-language text","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2023","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Commons category link from Wikidata","Featured articles","Song dynasty","10th-century establishments in China", "11th century in China","12th century in China","1279 disestablishments in Asia","13th-century disestablishments in China","960 establishments","Confucian dynasties","Dynasties of China","Former countries in Chinese history","Medieval East Asia","States and territories disestablished in 1279","States and territories established in the 960s"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Song_dynasty","wgRelevantArticleId":56978,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Southern_Song_dynasty","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search": true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q7462","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints", "ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/1200px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1179"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/800px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="786"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/640px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="629"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Song dynasty - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Song_dynasty rootpage-Song_dynasty skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Song+dynasty" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Song+dynasty" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Song+dynasty" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Song+dynasty" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northern_Song,_960–1127" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Song,_960–1127"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Northern Song, 960–1127</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Song,_960–1127-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Song,_1127–1279" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Song,_1127–1279"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Southern Song, 1127–1279</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Song,_1127–1279-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Culture and society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture_and_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture and society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture_and_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_service_examinations_and_the_gentry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_service_examinations_and_the_gentry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Civil service examinations and the gentry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_service_examinations_and_the_gentry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law,_justice,_and_forensic_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law,_justice,_and_forensic_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Law, justice, and forensic science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law,_justice,_and_forensic_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_methods_of_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_methods_of_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Military and methods of warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_methods_of_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts,_literature,_philosophy,_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts,_literature,_philosophy,_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Arts, literature, philosophy, and religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts,_literature,_philosophy,_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine_and_clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine_and_clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Cuisine and clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine_and_clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Science and technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Science and technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gunpowder_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gunpowder_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Gunpowder warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gunpowder_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measuring_distance_and_mechanical_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_distance_and_mechanical_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Measuring distance and mechanical navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_distance_and_mechanical_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymaths,_inventions,_and_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymaths,_inventions,_and_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymaths,_inventions,_and_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics_and_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics_and_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Mathematics and cartography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics_and_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movable_type_printing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movable_type_printing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Movable type printing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movable_type_printing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydraulic_and_nautical_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydraulic_and_nautical_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Hydraulic and nautical engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydraulic_and_nautical_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_engineering_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_engineering_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Structural engineering and architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_engineering_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Song dynasty</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 88 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">88 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dinastie" title="Song-dinastie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Song-dinastie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة سونغ الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة سونغ الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Song" title="Dinastía Song – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dinastía Song" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Song" title="Dinastía Song – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Song" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Sun imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sun imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="سون ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سون ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Song" title="Dinasti Song – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Dinasti Song" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2ng" title="Sòng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sòng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Сун империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сун империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Сун – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сун" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Song" title="Dinastiya Song – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Dinastiya Song" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Сун – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сун" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="སུང་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སུང་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezh_Song" title="Tierniezh Song – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezh Song" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Сун улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сун улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Song" title="Dinastia Song – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Song" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD_(%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85)" title="Сун (патшалăх) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сун (патшалăх)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%AD%C5%A1e_Sung" title="Říše Sung – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Říše Sung" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastiet" title="Song-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Song-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-Dynastie" title="Song-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Song-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Songi dünastia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Songi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Δυναστεία Σονγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία Σονγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Song" title="Dinastía Song – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Song" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Song" title="Dinastio Song – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinastio Song" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dinastia" title="Song dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Song dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF" title="دودمان سونگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان سونگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Song" title="Dynastie Song – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynastie Song" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Song" title="Dinastía Song – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Song" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8B" title="宋 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="宋" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sung-chh%C3%A8u" title="Sung-chhèu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sung-chhèu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%A1%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC" title="송나라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="송나라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सोंग राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सोंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Sung" title="Dinastija Sung – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastija Sung" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Song" title="Dinastio Song – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Dinastio Song" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Song" title="Dinasti Song – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Song" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songveldi%C3%B0" title="Songveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Songveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Song" title="Dinastia Song – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastia Song" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="שושלת סונג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת סונג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სუნის დინასტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სუნის დინასტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasaba_ya_Song" title="Nasaba ya Song – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nasaba ya Song" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedana_Song" title="Xanedana Song – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedana Song" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_Song" title="Familia Song – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familia Song" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunu_dinastija" title="Sunu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sunu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song%C5%B3_dinastija" title="Songų dinastija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Songų dinastija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szung-dinasztia" title="Szung-dinasztia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szung-dinasztia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Сунг (династија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сунг (династија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="സോങ് രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സോങ് രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सोंग राजवंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सोंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Song" title="Dinasti Song – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Song" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3ng-di%C3%A8u" title="Sóng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sóng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Сүн улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сүн улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastie" title="Song-dynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Song-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="सोङ्ग राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सोङ्ग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8B_(%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D)" title="宋 (王朝) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宋 (王朝)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastiet" title="Song-dynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Song-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastiet" title="Song-dynastiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Song-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Song" title="Dinastia Song – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dinastia Song" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_imperiyasi" title="Sun imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sun imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਸੋਂਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੋਂਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="سونگ راجٹبر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سونگ راجٹبر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84" title="រាជវង្សសុង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សសុង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastia_Song" title="Dynastia Song – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastia Song" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Sung" title="Dinastia Sung – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Sung" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Song" title="Dinastia Song – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Song" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Империя Сун – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Империя Сун" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Song" title="Dinastia Song – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dinastia Song" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Song dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sung_(dynastia)" title="Sung (dynastia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sung (dynastia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%86%DA%AF" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی سۆنگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی سۆنگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Династија Сунг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Династија Сунг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Sung" title="Dinastija Sung – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinastija Sung" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastia" title="Song-dynastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Song-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songdynastin" title="Songdynastin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Songdynastin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Song" title="Dinastiyang Song – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Song" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="சொங் அரசமரபு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சொங் அரசமரபு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87" title="ราชวงศ์ซ่ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์ซ่ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Hanedan%C4%B1" title="Song Hanedanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Song Hanedanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Династія Сун – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Сун" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%81" title="سونگ شاہی سلسلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سونگ شاہی سلسلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%87%DA%AD_%D8%B3%DB%87%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="سۇڭ سۇلالىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سۇڭ سۇلالىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungciuz" title="Sungciuz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Sungciuz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_T%E1%BB%91ng" title="Nhà Tống – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Tống" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%99%E5%AE%8B" title="趙宋 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="趙宋" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Song" title="Dinastiya Song – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Dinastiya Song" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="宋朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="宋朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%99%E5%AE%8B" title="趙宋 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="趙宋" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song-dynastie" title="Song-dynastie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Song-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="宋朝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="宋朝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7462#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Song_dynasty" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Song_dynasty" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Song_dynasty" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&oldid=1254763815" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Song_dynasty&id=1254763815&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSong_dynasty%23Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSong_dynasty%23Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Song_dynasty&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7462" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Song_dynasty&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chinese imperial dynasty from 960 to 1279</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song (state)</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song dynasty</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Song</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">宋</span></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">960–1279</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Song dynasty at its greatest extent in 1111"><img alt="A map showing the territory of the Song, Liao, and Western Xia dynasties. The Song occupies the east half of what constitutes the territory of the modern China, except for the northernmost areas (modern Inner Mongolia and above). Western Xia occupies a small strip of land surrounding a river in what is now Inner Mongolia and Ningxia, and the Liao occupy a large section of what is today north-east China." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/250px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/375px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/500px-China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="825" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Song dynasty at its greatest extent in 1111</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Bianjing</a> (960–1127)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shangqiu" title="Shangqiu">Yingtian</a> (1127–1128)</li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou</a> (1128–1129)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Jiangning</a> (1129–1138)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Lin%27an_Prefecture" title="Lin'an Prefecture">Lin'an</a> (1129, 1138–1276)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Nestorian Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Song dynasty">Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 960–976 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu</a> (founder of Northern Song)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1127–1162 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong</a> (founder of Southern Song)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1278–1279 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Bing" title="Zhao Bing">Zhao Bing</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">Post-classical</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 February 960<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Signing of the <a href="/wiki/Chanyuan_Treaty" title="Chanyuan Treaty">Chanyuan Treaty</a> with <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1005</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Alliance_Conducted_at_Sea" title="Alliance Conducted at Sea">Alliance with Jin</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1115–1125</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_incident" title="Jingkang incident">Jingkang incident</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1127</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Beginning of <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Mongol invasion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1235</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Fall of <a href="/wiki/Lin%27an_Prefecture" title="Lin'an Prefecture">Lin'an</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1276</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a> (end of dynasty) </div></th><td class="infobox-data">19 March 1279</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">958 <abbr title="estimation">est.</abbr><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">800,000 km<sup>2</sup> (310,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">980 est.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">3,100,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,200,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1127 est.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">2,100,000 km<sup>2</sup> (810,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1204 est.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">1,800,000 km<sup>2</sup> (690,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1120s </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Northern: 80–110 million<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee201529,_327_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee201529,_327-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Southern: 65 million<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015625_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015625-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(nominal)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> 26.5 taels<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency)" title="Jiaozi (currency)">Jiaozi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(currency)" title="Guanzi (currency)">Guanzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huizi_(currency)" title="Huizi (currency)">Huizi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cash_(currency_unit)" title="Chinese cash (currency unit)">Chinese cash</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Jingnan" title="Jingnan">Jingnan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Shu" title="Later Shu">Later Shu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wuyue" title="Wuyue">Wuyue</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Han" title="Northern Han">Northern Han</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Song dynasty</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_dynasty_(Chinese_characters).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/125px-Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/188px-Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/250px-Song_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="292" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">"Song dynasty" in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">宋朝</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Sòng cháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Bopo" style="font-style: normal;"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄙㄨㄥˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄔㄠˊ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Sonq chaur</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Sung<sup>4</sup> chʻao<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Sòng cháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[sʊ̂ŋ ʈʂʰǎʊ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Son zau</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Sung chìuh</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Sung3 ciu4</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[sʊŋ˧ tsʰiw˩]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Sòng tiâu</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ltc-Latn">/suoŋ<sup>H</sup> ʈˠiᴇu/</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BC)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BC)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BC</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BC)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BC)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BC – 220 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BC – 9 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 AD)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Northern_Song,_960–1127">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Southern_Song,_1127–1279">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic<br />of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br />1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Song dynasty</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span></span>/</a></span></span>) was an <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">imperial dynasty of China</a> that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu of Song</a>, who usurped the throne of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Ten_Kingdoms" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Ten Kingdoms</a>, ending the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a>. The Song often came into conflict with the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> dynasties in northern China. After retreating to southern China following attacks by the Jin dynasty, the Song was eventually conquered by the Mongol-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="History of the Song dynasty">dynasty's history</a> is divided into two periods: during the Northern Song (<span lang="zh">北宋</span>; 960–1127), the capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now <a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East China</a>. The <a href="#Southern_Song,_1127–1279">Southern Song</a> (<span lang="zh">南宋</span>; 1127–1279) comprise the period following the loss of control over the northern half of Song territory to the Jurchen-led <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jin%E2%80%93Song_wars" title="Jin–Song wars">Jin–Song wars</a>. At that time, the Song court retreated south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> and established its capital at <a href="/wiki/Lin%27an_Prefecture" title="Lin'an Prefecture">Lin'an</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>). Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional Chinese heartlands around the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, the Southern Song Empire contained a large population and productive agricultural land, sustaining a robust economy. In 1234, the Jin dynasty was <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of China">conquered by the Mongols</a>, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a>, the fourth <a href="/wiki/Great_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Khan">Great Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, died in 1259 while besieging the mountain castle <a href="/wiki/Diaoyucheng" title="Diaoyucheng">Diaoyucheng</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>. His younger brother <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> was proclaimed the new Great Khan and in 1271 founded the Yuan dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1988115_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988115-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khan's armies <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">conquered the Song dynasty</a> in 1279 after defeating the Southern Song in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a>, and reunited China under the Yuan dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198876_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198876-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Technology</a>, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished during the Song era. The Song dynasty was the first in world history to issue <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknotes</a> or true paper money and the first Chinese government to establish <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Song_dynasty#Navy" title="Military history of the Song dynasty">a permanent standing navy</a>. This dynasty saw the first surviving records of the chemical formula for gunpowder, the invention of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_weapons_in_the_Song_dynasty" title="Gunpowder weapons in the Song dynasty">gunpowder weapons</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fire_arrow" title="Fire arrow">fire arrows</a>, bombs, and the <a href="/wiki/Fire_lance" title="Fire lance">fire lance</a>. It also saw the first discernment of <a href="/wiki/True_north" title="True north">true north</a> using a compass, first recorded description of the <a href="/wiki/Pound_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Pound lock">pound lock</a>, and improved designs of <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clocks</a>. Economically, the Song dynasty was unparalleled with a <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> three times larger than that of Europe during the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015435_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015435-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2015294_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2015294-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's population doubled in size between the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth was made possible by expanded <a href="/wiki/Rice_cultivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice cultivation">rice cultivation</a>, use of early-ripening rice from Southeast and South Asia, and production of widespread food surpluses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199896_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199896-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Northern Song census recorded 20 million households, double that of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> dynasties. It is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of 90 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 200 million by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007103–104_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007103–104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dramatic increase of population fomented an <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">economic revolution in pre-modern China</a>. </p><p>The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and emergence of a national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government from direct intervention in the economy. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_gentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese gentry">lower gentry</a> assumed a larger role in local administration and affairs. <a href="/wiki/Song_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Song society">Song society</a> was vibrant, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. Citizens gathered to view and trade artwork, and intermingled at festivals and in private clubs. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock printing</a> and the 11th-century invention of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> printing. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> reinvigorated <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> with new commentary, infused with <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that established the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>. Although <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil service examinations">civil service examinations</a> had existed since the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, they became much more prominent in the Song period. Officials gaining power through <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> led to a shift from a <a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">military-aristocratic</a> elite to a <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrat">scholar-bureaucratic</a> elite. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="History of the Song dynasty">History of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Song dynasty">List of emperors of the Song dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Song,_960–1127"><span id="Northern_Song.2C_960.E2.80.931127"></span>Northern Song, 960–1127</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Northern Song, 960–1127"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Taizu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painted image of a portly man sitting in a red throne-chair with dragon-head decorations, wearing white silk robes, black shoes, and a black hat, and sporting a black mustache and goatee." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Song_Taizu.jpg/170px-Song_Taizu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Song_Taizu.jpg/255px-Song_Taizu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Song_Taizu.jpg/340px-Song_Taizu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="22645" data-file-height="25422" /></a><figcaption>Court portrait of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu of Song</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 960–976</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Chenqiao_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Chenqiao Mutiny">usurping the throne</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Zhou dynasty">Later Zhou dynasty</a>, Emperor Taizu of Song (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 960–976</span>) spent sixteen years <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="History of the Song dynasty">conquering the rest</a> of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, reuniting much of the territory that had once belonged to the Han and Tang empires and ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, he established a strong central government over the empire. The establishment of this capital marked the start of the <b>Northern Song</b> period. He ensured administrative stability by promoting the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">civil service examination</a> system of drafting state <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrats</a> by skill and merit (instead of <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocratic</a> or military position) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. In one such project, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">cartographers</a> created detailed maps of each province and city that were then collected in a large <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b518_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b518-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking scientific and technological innovations by supporting works like the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clock</a> tower designed and built by the engineer <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sixun" title="Zhang Sixun">Zhang Sixun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c469–471_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c469–471-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> Kingdom in Korea, and other countries that were also trade partners with <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999138_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999138-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall198523_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall198523-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1984173,_316_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1984173,_316-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996158_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShen1996158-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrose2008258_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2008258-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Song_(Yuan_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Song (Yuan dynasty)">Chinese records</a> even mention <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">an embassy</a> from the ruler of "Fu lin" (拂菻, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>), <a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a>, and its arrival in 1081.<sup id="cite_ref-halsall_2000_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halsall_2000-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, China's closest neighbouring states had the greatest impact on its domestic and foreign policy. From its inception under Taizu, the Song dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> in the northeast and with the <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tanguts</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> in the northwest. The Song dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao dynasty and to recapture the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Prefectures" title="Sixteen Prefectures">Sixteen Prefectures</a>, a territory under Khitan control since 938 that was traditionally considered to be part of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> (Most parts of today's <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote199969_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote199969-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces, who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into Northern Song territory until 1005, when the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Shanyuan_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanyuan Treaty">Shanyuan Treaty</a> ended these northern border clashes. The Song were forced to provide tribute to the Khitans, although this did little damage to the Song economy since the Khitans were economically dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006154_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006154-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More significantly, the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote199970–71_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote199970–71-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2018-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taizong_of_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man in heavy white robes, wearing a black hat with long horizontal protrusions coming from the bottom of the hat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taizong_of_Song.jpg/150px-Taizong_of_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taizong_of_Song.jpg/225px-Taizong_of_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Taizong_of_Song.jpg/300px-Taizong_of_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7413" data-file-height="11602" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizong of Song">Emperor Taizong of Song</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> </span> 976–997)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19958_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19958-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19959_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19959-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song fought against the Vietnamese kingdom of <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a> twice, the first conflict in <a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93Vietnamese_war_(981)" class="mw-redirect" title="Song–Vietnamese war (981)">981</a> and later a <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD%E2%80%93Song_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Lý–Song War">significant war</a> from 1075 to 1077 over a border dispute and the Song's severing of commercial relations with Đại Việt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008207_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008207-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Vietnamese forces inflicted heavy damages in a raid on <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, the Song commander Guo Kui (1022–1088) penetrated as far as Thăng Long (modern <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heavy losses on both sides prompted the Vietnamese commander Thường Kiệt (1019–1105) to make peace overtures, allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort; captured territories held by both Song and Vietnamese were mutually exchanged in 1082, along with prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208–209_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208–209-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/150px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/225px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/300px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>A Song-era wooden Bodhisattva</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 11th century, political rivalries divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">Chancellor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a> (989–1052), was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to institute the <a href="/wiki/Qingli_Reforms" title="Qingli Reforms">Qingli Reforms</a>, which included measures such as improving the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Fan was forced to step down from his office, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a> (1021–1086) became Chancellor of the imperial court. With the backing of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shenzong_of_Song" title="Emperor Shenzong of Song">Emperor Shenzong</a> (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the <a href="/wiki/New_Policies_(Song_dynasty)" title="New Policies (Song dynasty)">New Policies</a>. These involved <a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">land value tax</a> reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's "New Policies Group" (<i>Xin Fa</i>), also known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by the historian and Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a> (1019–1086).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19953–4_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19953–4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman <a href="/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi">Su Shi</a> (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song-Palace1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Song-Palace1.jpg/220px-Song-Palace1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Song-Palace1.jpg/330px-Song-Palace1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Song-Palace1.jpg/440px-Song-Palace1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption><i>Auspicious Cranes</i>, a painting of the Song royal palace by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The continual alternation between reform and conservatism had effectively weakened the dynasty. This decline can also be attributed to <a href="/wiki/Cai_Jing" title="Cai Jing">Cai Jing</a> (1047–1126), who was appointed by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhezong" title="Emperor Zhezong">Emperor Zhezong</a> (1085–1100) and who remained in power until 1125. He revived the New Policies and pursued political opponents, tolerated corruption and encouraged <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong</a> (1100–1126) to neglect his duties to focus on artistic pursuits. Later, a peasant rebellion broke out in Zhejiang and Fujian, headed by <a href="/wiki/Fang_La" title="Fang La">Fang La</a> in 1120. The rebellion may have been caused by an increasing tax burden, the concentration of landownership and oppressive government measures.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs, alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a>, a subject tribe of the Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty (1115–1234)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song official <a href="/wiki/Tong_Guan" title="Tong Guan">Tong Guan</a> (1054–1126) advised Emperor Huizong to form an alliance with the Jurchens, and the joint military campaign under this <a href="/wiki/Alliance_Conducted_at_Sea" title="Alliance Conducted at Sea">Alliance Conducted at Sea</a> toppled and completely conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125. During the joint attack, the Song's northern expedition army removed the defensive forest along the Song-Liao border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2018-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wooden carving of a sitting Buddhist figure in loose fitting, painted robes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg/150px-Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg/225px-Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg/300px-Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A Liao dynasty (907–1125) <a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">polychrome</a> wood-carved statue of <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Jin%E2%80%93Song_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin–Song Wars">Jin–Song Wars</a> of 1125 and 1127. Because of the removal of the previous defensive forest, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Kaifeng.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2018-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingkang Incident">Jingkang Incident</a> during the latter invasion, the Jurchens captured not only the capital, but the retired Emperor Huizong, his successor <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Qinzong_of_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Qinzong of Song">Emperor Qinzong</a>, and most of the Imperial court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The remaining Song forces regrouped under the self-proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong of Song</a> (1127–1162) and withdrew south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> to establish a new capital at Lin'an (modern Hangzhou). The Jurchen conquest of <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a> and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin'an was the dividing line between the Northern and <a href="#Southern_Song,_1127–1279">Southern Song</a> dynasties. </p><p>After their fall to the Jin, the Song lost control of North China. Now occupying what has been traditionally known as "China Proper", the Jin regarded themselves the rightful rulers of China. The Jin later chose earth as their dynastic element and yellow as their royal color. According to the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Five Elements</a> (wuxing), the earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, their ideological move showed that the Jin considered Song reign in China complete, with the Jin replacing the Song as the rightful rulers of China Proper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2014_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2014-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Song,_1127–1279"><span id="Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279"></span>Southern Song, 1127–1279</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Southern Song, 1127–1279"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Gaozong.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man in heavy white robes, wearing a black hat with long horizontal protrusions coming from the bottom of the hat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Song_Gaozong.png/150px-Song_Gaozong.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Song_Gaozong.png/225px-Song_Gaozong.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Song_Gaozong.png/300px-Song_Gaozong.png 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="3491" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong of Song</a> (r. 1127–1162)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/250px-China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/375px-China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg/500px-China_-_Southern_Song_Dynasty-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>Southern Song in 1142. The western and southern borders remain unchanged from the previous map. However, the north of the <a href="/wiki/Qinling_Huaihe_Line" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinling Huaihe Line">Qinling Huaihe Line</a> was under the control of the Jin dynasty. The Xia dynasty's territory generally remained unchanged. In the southwest, the Song dynasty bordered a territory about a sixth its size, the <a href="/wiki/Dali_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Dali dynasty">Dali dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although weakened and pushed south beyond the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a>, the <b>Southern Song</b> found new ways to bolster its strong economy and defend itself against the Jin dynasty. It had able military officers such as <a href="/wiki/Yue_Fei" title="Yue Fei">Yue Fei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Shizhong" title="Han Shizhong">Han Shizhong</a>. The government sponsored massive <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbor</a> improvement projects, and the construction of <a href="/wiki/Beacon" title="Beacon">beacons</a> and seaport <a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">warehouses</a> to support maritime trade abroad, including at the major international <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a>, that were sustaining China's commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang200014_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang200014-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19955_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19955-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the <a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow Sea</a> (to <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, it was necessary to establish an official standing <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song dynasty therefore established China's first permanent navy in 1132,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Dinghai" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinghai">Dinghai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a permanent navy, the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in 1161, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangdao" title="Battle of Tangdao">Battle of Tangdao</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caishi" title="Battle of Caishi">Battle of Caishi</a>. During these battles the Song navy employed swift <a href="/wiki/Paddle_wheel_ship#East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paddle wheel ship">paddle wheel driven</a> naval vessels armed with <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">traction trebuchet catapults</a> aboard the decks that launched gunpowder <a href="/wiki/Bomb" title="Bomb">bombs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Jin forces commanded by <a href="/wiki/Wanyan_Liang" title="Wanyan Liang">Wanyan Liang</a> (the Prince of Hailing) boasted 70,000 men on 600 warships, and the Song forces only 3,000 men on 120 warships,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevathes199443–47_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevathes199443–47-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Song dynasty forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and the rapid assaults by <a href="/wiki/Qianli_chuan" title="Qianli chuan">paddlewheel ships</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a134_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a134-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized following these victories. A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52,000 fighting marines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:188px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg/180px-CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg/270px-CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg/360px-CaiWenji-return150dpi90_percent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="1101" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:188px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AIC-portrait-monk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AIC-portrait-monk.jpg/154px-AIC-portrait-monk.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AIC-portrait-monk.jpg/231px-AIC-portrait-monk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AIC-portrait-monk.jpg/308px-AIC-portrait-monk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="549" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg/120px-Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg/180px-Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg/240px-Wood_Bodhisattva_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:216px;max-width:216px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg/214px-Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg/321px-Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg/428px-Wood_Bodhisattva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise from upper left: Anonymous painting of <a href="/wiki/Cai_Wenji" class="mw-redirect" title="Cai Wenji">Cai Wenji</a> and her <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> husband (Zuoxianwang) dating from the Southern Song. A head sculpture of an <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhat</a>, 11th Century. A seated wooden <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> statue, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> (1115–1234). A wooden <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> statue from the Song dynasty (960–1279)</div></div></div></div> <p>The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to raise revenue for these projects, an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song's defensive preparations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006239_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006239-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997385_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997385-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdshead200490–91_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdshead200490–91-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Financial matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy, land-owning families—some of which had officials working for the government—used their social connections with those in office in order to obtain tax-exempt status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198880_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198880-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the Song dynasty was able to hold back the Jin, a new foe came to power over the steppe, deserts, and plains north of the Jin dynasty. The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> (r. 1206–1227), initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209, engaging in large raids across its borders, and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006235_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006235-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jin dynasty was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>; when the Jin suddenly moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a> (r.1229–1241), both the Jin dynasty and Western Xia dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces in 1233/34.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mongols were allied with the Song, but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> at the collapse of the Jin dynasty. After the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">first Mongol invasion of Vietnam</a> in 1258, Mongol general <a href="/wiki/Uriyangkhadai" title="Uriyangkhadai">Uriyangkhadai</a> attacked <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> from <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> as part of a coordinated Mongol attack in 1259 with armies attacking in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> under Mongol leader <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a> and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rossabi-45_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi-45-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 11, 1259, Möngke Khan died during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diaoyu_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Diaoyu Castle">siege of Diaoyu Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006240_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006240-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His successor <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern banks of the Yangtze.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198849_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198849-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the winter of 1259, Uriyangkhadai's army fought its way north to meet Kublai's army, which was besieging <a href="/wiki/Ezhou" title="Ezhou">Ezhou</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kublai made preparations to take <a href="/wiki/Ezhou" title="Ezhou">Ezhou</a>, but a pending civil war with his brother <a href="/wiki/Ariq_B%C3%B6ke" title="Ariq Böke">Ariq Böke</a>—a rival claimant to the Mongol Khaganate—forced Kublai to move back north with the bulk of his forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198850–51_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198850–51-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Kublai's absence, the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Jia_Sidao" title="Jia Sidao">Jia Sidao</a> to make an immediate assault and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangtze.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198856_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198856-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were minor border skirmishes until 1265, when Kublai won a significant battle in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198882_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198882-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River with his navy and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang" title="Battle of Xiangyang">besieged Xiangyang</a>, the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangtze River basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198882_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198882-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Jia_Sidao" title="Jia Sidao">Jia Sidao</a> was defeated by Kublai's newly appointed commander-in-chief, general <a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198888_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198888-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1276, most of the Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces, including the capital Lin'an.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta" title="Pearl River Delta">Pearl River Delta</a> in 1279, the Yuan army, led by the general <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Hongfan" title="Zhang Hongfan">Zhang Hongfan</a>, finally crushed the Song resistance. The last remaining ruler, the 13-year-old emperor <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Bing" title="Zhao Bing">Zhao Bing</a>, committed suicide, along with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiufu" title="Lu Xiufu">Lu Xiufu</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198894_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198894-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1300 members of the royal clan. On Kublai's orders, carried out by his commander Bayan, the rest of the former imperial family of Song were unharmed; the deposed <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gong of Song">Emperor Gong</a> was demoted, being given the title 'Duke of Ying', but was eventually exiled to <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a> where he took up a monastic life. The former emperor would eventually be forced to commit suicide under the orders of Kublai's great-great-grandson, <a href="/wiki/Gegeen_Khan,_Emperor_Yingzong_of_Yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gegeen Khan, Emperor Yingzong of Yuan">Gegeen Khan</a>, out of fear that Emperor Gong would stage a coup to restore his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198890_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198890-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other members of the Song imperial family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty, including <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mengfu" title="Zhao Mengfu">Zhao Mengfu</a> and Zhao Yong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture_and_society">Culture and society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Culture and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Culture of the Song dynasty">Culture of the Song dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Society of the Song dynasty">Society of the Song dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG/220px-Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG/330px-Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG/440px-Ying%27en_Gate_in_Shaoxing_04_2012-07.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>A city gate of <a href="/wiki/Shaoxing" title="Shaoxing">Shaoxing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> province, built in 1223 during the Song dynasty</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_(10340676846).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg/220px-Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg/330px-Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg/440px-Kaifeng_Capital_of_Northern_Song_Dynasty_%2810340676846%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Model of the capital city Kaifeng</figcaption></figure> <p>The Song dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an era of administrative sophistication and complex social organization. Some of the largest cities in the world were found in China during this period (Kaifeng and Hangzhou had populations of over a million).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200689_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200689-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People enjoyed various social clubs and entertainment in the cities, and there were many schools and temples to provide the people with education and religious services.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song government supported <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare">social welfare</a> programs including the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Retirement_home" title="Retirement home">retirement homes</a>, public <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">clinics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pauper" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauper">paupers</a>' <a href="/wiki/Graveyard" class="mw-redirect" title="Graveyard">graveyards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song dynasty supported a widespread <a href="/wiki/Postal_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal administration">postal service</a> that was modeled on the earlier <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BCE – CE 220) postal system to provide swift communication throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d35_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d35-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central government employed thousands of postal workers of various ranks to provide service for post offices and larger postal stations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d36_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d36-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In rural areas, farming peasants either <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">owned their own plots of land</a>, paid rents as <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farmers</a>, or were <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a> on large estates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999155_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999155-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg/220px-Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg/330px-Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg/440px-Emperor_Taizu_play_Cuju.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu of Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizong of Song">Emperor Taizong of Song</a>, prime minister Zhao Pu and other ministers playing <a href="/wiki/Cuju" title="Cuju">Cuju</a>, an early form of <a href="/wiki/Football" title="Football">football</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuan" title="Qian Xuan">Qian Xuan</a> (1235–1305)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two young girls play with a toy consisting of a long feather attached to a stick, while a cat watches them. There is a large rock formation and a flowering tree to the left of the girls and the cat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg/200px-Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg/300px-Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg/400px-Children_Playing_on_a_Winter_Day.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="3610" /></a><figcaption>A 12th-century painting by Su Hanchen; a girl waves a <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a> feather banner like the one used in dramatical theater to signal an acting leader of troops.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although women were on a lower social tier than men according to Confucian ethics, they enjoyed many social and legal privileges and wielded considerable power at home and in their own small businesses. As Song society became more and more prosperous and parents on the bride's side of the family provided larger <a href="/wiki/Dowries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dowries">dowries</a> for her marriage, women naturally gained many new legal rights in ownership of property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under certain circumstances, an unmarried daughter without brothers, or a surviving mother without sons, could inherit one-half of her father's share of undivided family property.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were many notable and well-educated women, and it was a common practice for women to educate their sons during their earliest youth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200671_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200671-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19951_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19951-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mother of the scientist, general, diplomat, and statesman Shen Kuo taught him essentials of military strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19951_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19951-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also exceptional women writers and poets, such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Qingzhao" title="Li Qingzhao">Li Qingzhao</a> (1084–1151), who became famous even in her lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a> during this period had a great effect on people's lives, beliefs, and daily activities, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a> on spirituality was popular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006172_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006172-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major deities of <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestral spirits</a>, and the many deities of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> were worshipped with sacrificial offerings. Tansen Sen asserts that more <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist monks</a> from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> traveled to China during the Song than in the previous <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen200313_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen200313-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With many ethnic foreigners travelling to China to conduct trade or live permanently, there came many foreign religions; religious minorities in China included <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Song_dynasty" title="Islam during the Song dynasty">Middle Eastern Muslims</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Persian Manichaeans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196282–83_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196282–83-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The populace engaged in a vibrant social and domestic life, enjoying such public festivals as the <a href="/wiki/Lantern_Festival" title="Lantern Festival">Lantern Festival</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming Festival</a>. There were entertainment quarters in the cities providing a constant array of amusements. There were puppeteers, acrobats, theatre actors, sword swallowers, snake charmers, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folklore" title="Chinese folklore">storytellers</a>, singers and musicians, prostitutes, and places to relax, including tea houses, restaurants, and organized banquets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-China_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962222–225_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962222–225-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People attended social clubs in large numbers; there were tea clubs, exotic food clubs, <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarian</a> and art collectors' clubs, horse-loving clubs, poetry clubs, and music clubs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like regional cooking and cuisines in the Song, the era was known for its regional varieties of performing arts styles as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199769–70_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199769–70-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Theatrical drama</a> was very popular amongst the elite and general populace, although <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>—not <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">the vernacular language</a>—was spoken by actors on stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962223_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962223-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1988162_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988162-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four largest drama theatres in Kaifeng could hold audiences of several thousand each.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199776_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199776-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also notable domestic pastimes, as people at home enjoyed activities such as the <a href="/wiki/Go_board_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Go board game">go</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiangqi" title="Xiangqi">xiangqi</a> board games. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_service_examinations_and_the_gentry">Civil service examinations and the gentry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Civil service examinations and the gentry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Society of the Song dynasty">Society of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg/176px-Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg/264px-Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg/352px-Zhou_Wenju%27s_A_Literary_Garden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3164" data-file-height="2040" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum,_Beijing..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg/208px-Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg/312px-Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg/416px-Zhou_Wenjiu._Go_players.National_Palace_Museum%2C_Beijing..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1834" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:51px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg/388px-Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="388" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg/582px-Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg/776px-Four_Generals_of_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise from upper left: <i>A Literary Garden</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Wenju" title="Zhou Wenju">Zhou Wenju</a>, 10th century; Zhou Wenju, <i>Go players</i>, Palace Museum, Beijing; "Four Generals of Zhongxing" by Southern Song dynasty artist <a href="/wiki/Liu_Songnian" title="Liu Songnian">Liu Songnian</a> (1174–1224); the renowned general <a href="/wiki/Yue_Fei" title="Yue Fei">Yue Fei</a> (1103–1142) is the second person from the left in the latter painting.</div></div></div></div> <p>During this period greater emphasis was laid upon the <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a> system of recruiting officials; this was based upon degrees acquired through competitive <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">examinations</a>, in an effort to select the most capable individuals for governance. Selecting men for office through proven merit <a href="/wiki/Xiaolian" title="Xiaolian">was an ancient idea in China</a>. The civil service system became institutionalized on a small scale during the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and Tang dynasties, but by the Song period, it became virtually the only means for drafting officials into the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advent of widespread <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> helped to widely circulate Confucian teachings and to educate more and more eligible candidates for the exams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in the number of exam takers for the low-level prefectural exams rising from 30,000 annual candidates in the early 11th century to 400,000 candidates by the late 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil service and examination system allowed for greater <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a>, and equality in competition for those wishing to attain an official seat in government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using statistics gathered by the Song state, Edward A. Kracke, Sudō Yoshiyuki, and Ho Ping-ti supported the hypothesis that simply having a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who had served as an official of state did not guarantee one would obtain the same level of authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hartwell" title="Robert Hartwell">Robert Hartwell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Hymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert P. Hymes">Robert P. Hymes</a> criticized this model, stating that it places too much emphasis on the role of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a> and considers only three paternal ascendants of exam candidates while ignoring the demographic reality of Song China, the significant proportion of males in each generation that had no surviving sons, and the role of the <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many felt disenfranchised by what they saw as a bureaucratic system that favored the land-holding class able to afford the best education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the greatest literary critics of this was the official and famous poet <a href="/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi">Su Shi</a>. Yet Su was a product of his times, as the identity, habits, and attitudes of the <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrats">scholar-official</a> had become less <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocratic</a> and more <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucratic</a> with the transition of the periods from Tang to Song.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the beginning of the dynasty, government posts were disproportionately held by two elite social groups: a founding elite who had ties with the founding emperor and a semi-hereditary professional elite who used long-held clan status, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">family connections</a>, and marriage alliances to secure appointments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982405–413_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982405–413-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 11th century, the founding elite became obsolete, while political partisanship and factionalism at court undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite, which dissolved as a distinguishable social group and was replaced by a multitude of gentry families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982416–420_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982416–420-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg/220px-Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg/330px-Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg/440px-Wuxi_Donglin_Shuyuan_2015.04.24_16-10-51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Donglin_Academy" title="Donglin Academy">Donglin Academy</a>, an educational institution equivalent to modern-day college. It was originally built in 1111 during the Northern Song dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to Song's enormous population growth and the body of its appointed scholar-officials being accepted in limited numbers (about 20,000 active officials during the Song period), the larger scholarly <a href="/wiki/Gentry_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentry (China)">gentry class</a> would now take over grassroots affairs on the vast local level.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excluding the scholar-officials in office, this elite social class consisted of exam candidates, examination degree-holders not yet assigned to an official post, local tutors, and retired officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006101–106_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006101–106-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These learned men, degree-holders, and local elites supervised local affairs and sponsored necessary facilities of local communities; any local magistrate appointed to his office by the government relied upon the cooperation of the few or many local gentry in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the Song government—excluding the educational-reformist government under Emperor Huizong—spared little amount of state revenue to maintain <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">prefectural</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_(People%27s_Republic_of_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="County (People's Republic of China)">county</a> schools; instead, the bulk of the funds for schools was drawn from private financing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan1994196–199_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994196–199-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This limited role of government officials was a departure from the earlier Tang dynasty (618–907), when the government strictly regulated commercial markets and local affairs; now the government withdrew heavily from regulating commerce and relied upon a mass of local gentry to perform necessary duties in their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gentry distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162–163_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162–163-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006104_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006104-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the homes of prominent landholders attracted a variety of <a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">courtiers</a>, including artisans, artists, educational tutors, and entertainers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196292–93_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196292–93-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the disdain for trade, commerce, and the merchant class exhibited by the highly cultured and elite exam-drafted scholar-officials, <a href="/wiki/Commercialism" title="Commercialism">commercialism</a> played a prominent role in Song culture and society.<sup id="cite_ref-China_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A scholar-official would be frowned upon by his peers if he pursued means of profiteering outside of his official salary; however, this did not stop many scholar-officials from managing business relations through the use of intermediary agents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196260–61,_68–69_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196260–61,_68–69-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law,_justice,_and_forensic_science"><span id="Law.2C_justice.2C_and_forensic_science"></span>Law, justice, and forensic science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Law, justice, and forensic science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Society of the Song dynasty">Society of the Song dynasty</a></div> <p>The Song <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial system</a> retained most of the <a href="/wiki/Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal code</a> of the earlier Tang dynasty, the basis of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_law" title="Traditional Chinese law">traditional Chinese law</a> up until the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roving sheriffs maintained law and order in the municipal jurisdictions and occasionally ventured into the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKnight1992155–157_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKnight1992155–157-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Official magistrates overseeing court cases were not only expected to be well-versed in written law but also to promote morality in society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magistrates such as the famed <a href="/wiki/Bao_Zheng" title="Bao Zheng">Bao Zheng</a> (999–1062) embodied the upright, moral judge who upheld justice and never failed to live up to his principles. Song judges specified the guilty person or party in a criminal act and meted out punishments accordingly, often in the form of <a href="/wiki/Caning" title="Caning">caning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A guilty individual or parties brought to court for a criminal or civil offense were not viewed as wholly innocent until proven otherwise, while even accusers were viewed with a high level of suspicion by the judge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to costly court expenses and immediate jailing of those accused of criminal offenses, people in the Song preferred to settle disputes and quarrels privately, without the court's interference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shen Kuo's <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i> argued against traditional Chinese beliefs in <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> (such as his argument for two throat valves instead of three); this perhaps spurred the interest in the performance of post-mortem <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsies</a> in China during the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199530–31_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199530–31-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin1995pp._30–31,_footnote_27_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin1995pp._30–31,_footnote_27-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physician and judge known as <a href="/wiki/Song_Ci" title="Song Ci">Song Ci</a> (1186–1249) wrote <a href="/wiki/Collected_Cases_of_Injustice_Rectified" title="Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified">a pioneering work</a> of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a> on the examination of <a href="/wiki/Corpse" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpse">corpses</a> in order to determine cause of death (strangulation, poisoning, drowning, blows, etc.) and to prove whether death resulted from murder, suicide, or accidental death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962170_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962170-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Song Ci stressed the importance of proper <a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">coroner</a>'s conduct during autopsies and the accurate recording of the <a href="/wiki/Inquest" title="Inquest">inquest</a> of each autopsy by official clerks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESung198112,_72_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESung198112,_72-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_methods_of_warfare">Military and methods of warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Military and methods of warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Military history of the Song dynasty">Military history of the Song dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Songrivership3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/220px-Songrivership3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/330px-Songrivership3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Songrivership3.jpg/440px-Songrivership3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="1281" /></a><figcaption>Traction trebuchet on an Early Song dynasty warship from the <i><a href="/wiki/Wujing_Zongyao" title="Wujing Zongyao">Wujing Zongyao</a></i>. Trebuchets like this were used to launch the earliest type of explosive bombs.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Song military was chiefly organized to ensure that the army could not threaten Imperial control, often at the expense of effectiveness in war. Northern Song's Military Council operated under a Chancellor, who had no control over the imperial army. The imperial army was divided among three marshals, each independently responsible to the Emperor. Since the Emperor rarely led campaigns personally, Song forces lacked unity of command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002239_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002239-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The imperial court often believed that successful generals endangered royal authority, and relieved or even executed them (notably Li Gang,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002250_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002250-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yue Fei, and <a href="/wiki/Han_Shizhong" title="Han Shizhong">Han Shizhong</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002254_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002254-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg/220px-Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="439" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg/330px-Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg/440px-Northern_song_Cavalry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="1008" /></a><figcaption>Armoured Song cavalry</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the scholar-officials viewed <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_(pre-1911)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of China (pre-1911)">military soldiers</a> as lower members in the hierarchic social order,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200225–26_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200225–26-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a person could gain status and prestige in society by becoming a high-ranking military officer with a record of victorious battles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge200543_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge200543-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its height, the Song military had one million soldiers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> divided into <a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">platoons</a> of 50 troops, companies made of two platoons, battalions composed of 500 soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge200545_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge200545-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbowmen</a> were separated from the regular infantry and placed in their own units as they were prized combatants, providing effective missile fire against cavalry charges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government was eager to sponsor new crossbow designs that could shoot at longer ranges, while crossbowmen were also valuable when employed as long-range <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">snipers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130–131_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130–131-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Song cavalry employed a slew of different weapons, including halberds, swords, bows, spears, and '<a href="/wiki/Fire_lance" title="Fire lance">fire lances</a>' that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">shrapnel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006131_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006131-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg/170px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg/255px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg/340px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Liaodi_Pagoda" title="Liaodi Pagoda">Liaodi Pagoda</a>, the tallest pre-modern <a href="/wiki/Chinese_pagoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese pagoda">Chinese pagoda</a>, built in 1055; it was intended as a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Buddhist religious structure</a>, yet served a military purpose as a <a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">watchtower</a> for observation of potential dangers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECai201181–82_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECai201181–82-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Military strategy and military training were treated as sciences that could be studied and perfected; soldiers were tested in their skills of using weaponry and in their athletic ability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006129_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006129-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The troops were trained to follow signal standards to advance at the waving of banners and to halt at the sound of bells and drums.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Song navy was of great importance during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century; during the war against the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> state, the Song navy employed tactics such as defending large floating <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> in order to secure movements of troops and supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200287_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200287-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were large ships in the Song navy that could carry 1,000 soldiers aboard their decks,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the swift-moving <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle-wheel craft</a> were viewed as essential fighting ships in any successful naval battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d422_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d422-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a battle on January 23, 971, massive arrow fire from Song dynasty crossbowmen decimated the <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephant</a> corps of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a> army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This defeat not only marked the eventual submission of the Southern Han to the Song dynasty, but also the last instance where a war elephant corps was employed as a regular division within a Chinese army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period, as listed by the history text of the <i>Song Shi</i> (compiled in 1345).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e19_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e19-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, only a handful of these military treatises have survived, which includes the <i><a href="/wiki/Wujing_Zongyao" title="Wujing Zongyao">Wujing Zongyao</a></i> written in 1044. It was the first known book to have listed formulas for gunpowder;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e119_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e119-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it gave appropriate formulas for use in several different kinds of gunpowder bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e122–124_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e122–124-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also provided detailed descriptions and illustrations of double-piston pump <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowers</a>, as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of the components and equipment used in the device.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82–84_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82–84-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts,_literature,_philosophy,_and_religion"><span id="Arts.2C_literature.2C_philosophy.2C_and_religion"></span>Arts, literature, philosophy, and religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Arts, literature, philosophy, and religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Song_dynasty" title="Religion in the Song dynasty">Religion in the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:197px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ts'ui Po 002" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg/183px-Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg/275px-Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg/366px-Ts%27ui_Po_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="486" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Close up on <i>Double Happiness (Cui Bai)</i>. It was painted by <a href="/wiki/Cui_Bai" title="Cui Bai">Cui Bai</a>, active during the reign of Shenzong. <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:197px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mao_I_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mao I 001" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mao_I_001.jpg/201px-Mao_I_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="201" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mao_I_001.jpg/302px-Mao_I_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mao_I_001.jpg/402px-Mao_I_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1996" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Cats in the Garden</i>, by Mao Yi, 12th century.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The visual arts during the Song dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The gentry elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">painting</a>, composing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">poetry</a>, and writing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">calligraphy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200681–83_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200681–83-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poet and statesman Su Shi and his associate <a href="/wiki/Mi_Fu" title="Mi Fu">Mi Fu</a> (1051–1107) enjoyed antiquarian affairs, often borrowing or buying art pieces to study and copy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poetry and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literature</a> profited from the rising popularity and development of the <a href="/wiki/Ci_(poetry)" title="Ci (poetry)">ci poetry form</a>. Enormous encyclopedic volumes were compiled, such as works of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">historiography</a> and dozens of treatises on technical subjects. This included the <a href="/wiki/Universal_history_(genre)" title="Universal history (genre)">universal history</a> text of the <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i>, compiled into 1000 volumes of 9.4 million written <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>. The genre of Chinese <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travel literature</a> also became popular with the writings of the geographer <a href="/wiki/Fan_Chengda" title="Fan Chengda">Fan Chengda</a> (1126–1193) and Su Shi, the latter of whom wrote the 'daytrip essay' known as <i><a href="/wiki/Su_Shi#Travel_record_literature" title="Su Shi">Record of Stone Bell Mountain</a></i> that used <a href="/wiki/Persuasive_writing" title="Persuasive writing">persuasive writing</a> to argue for a philosophical point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett198574–76_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198574–76-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although an early form of the local geographic <a href="/wiki/Gazetteer" title="Gazetteer">gazetteer</a> existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form known as "treatise on a place", or <i>fangzhi</i>, replaced the old "map guide", or <abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr><span> zho</span> – transl.<span> tujing</span>, during the Song dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBol200144_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBol200144-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong</a> was the eighth emperor of the Song dynasty and he was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the art and the catalogue of his collection listed over 6,000 known paintings.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_149_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_149-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prime example of a highly venerated court painter was <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a> (1085–1145) who painted an enormous <a href="/wiki/Panoramic_painting" title="Panoramic painting">panoramic painting</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a></i>. Emperor Gaozong of Song initiated a massive art project during his reign, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Songs_of_a_Nomad_Flute" title="Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute">Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute</a></i> from the life story of <a href="/wiki/Cai_Wenji" class="mw-redirect" title="Cai Wenji">Cai Wenji</a> (b. 177). This art project was a diplomatic gesture to the Jin dynasty while he negotiated for the release of his mother from Jurchen captivity in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999151_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999151-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four lines of vertically oriented Chinese characters. The two on the left are formed from a continuous line, the calligraphy equivalent of cursive. The two on the right use a more traditional multiple stroke writing style." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/220px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/330px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/440px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a> of mixed styles written by Song dynasty poet <a href="/wiki/Mi_Fu" title="Mi Fu">Mi Fu</a> (1051–1107)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of an older, balding man in a half pale green and half sky blue robe. He is sitting on an armchair holding a thin wooden stick, possibly a folded up fan." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg/200px-Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg/300px-Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg/400px-Chinesischer_Maler_von_1238_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1937" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Wuzhun_Shifan" title="Wuzhun Shifan">Wuzhun Shifan</a>, painted in 1238 AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>In philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries. Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> (1033–1107) and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> (1130–1200).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through its concept of ethical <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195993_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195993-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> deeply affected the pre–Neo-Confucian doctrine of Cheng Yi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical work of Cheng Yi in turn influenced Zhu Xi. Although his writings were not accepted by his contemporary peers, Zhu's commentary and emphasis upon the Confucian classics of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Books">Four Books</a> as an introductory corpus to Confucian learning formed the basis of the Neo-Confucian doctrine. By the year 1241, under the sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Lizong_of_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Lizong of Song">Emperor Lizong</a>, Zhu Xi's Four Books and his commentary on them became standard requirements of study for students attempting to pass the civil service examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006169_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006169-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neighbouring countries of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> also adopted Zhu Xi's teaching, known as the Shushigaku (朱子學, School of Zhu Xi) of Japan, and in Korea the Jujahak (주자학). Buddhism's continuing influence can be seen in painted artwork such as <a href="/wiki/Lin_Tinggui" title="Lin Tinggui">Lin Tinggui</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Luohan</a> Laundering</i>. However, the ideology was highly criticized and even scorned by some. The statesman and historian <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a> (1007–1072) called the religion a "curse" that could only be remedied by uprooting it from <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Chinese culture</a> and replacing it with Confucian discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195988–89_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195988–89-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan sect</a> experienced a literary flourishing in the Song period, which saw the publication of several major classical <a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">koan collections</a> which remain influential in <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> philosophy and practice to the present day. A true revival of Buddhism in Chinese society would not occur until the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty, with Kublai Khan's sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drog%C3%B6n_Ch%C3%B6gyal_Phagpa" title="Drogön Chögyal Phagpa">Drogön Chögyal Phagpa</a> as the leading <a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">lama</a>. The Christian sect of <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>, which had entered China in the Tang era, would also be revived in China under Mongol rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962215_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962215-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine_and_clothing">Cuisine and clothing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cuisine and clothing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law#China" title="Sumptuary law">Sumptuary laws</a> regulated the food that one consumed and the clothes that one wore according to status and social class. Clothing was made of hemp or cotton cloths, restricted to a color standard of black and white. Trousers were the acceptable attire for peasants, soldiers, artisans, and merchants, although wealthy merchants might choose to wear more ornate clothing and male blouses that came down below the waist. Acceptable apparel for scholar-officials was rigidly defined by the social ranking system. However, as time went on this rule of rank-graded apparel for officials was not as strictly enforced. Each official was able to display his awarded status by wearing different-colored traditional <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Chinese clothing">silken robes</a> that hung to the ground around his feet, specific types of headgear, and even specific styles of girdles that displayed his graded-rank of officialdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962127–30_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962127–30-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women wore long dresses, blouses that came down to the knee, skirts, and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders. The main difference in women's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left, not on the right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962129_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962129-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A bowl of reddish-purple, oval-shaped fruits with raisin texture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG/200px-Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG/300px-Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG/400px-Ziziphus_jujuba_MS_2461.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Dried <a href="/wiki/Jujube" title="Jujube">jujubes</a> such as these were imported to Song China from South Asia and the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The main food staples in the diet of the lower classes remained rice, pork, and salted fish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1011, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhenzong_of_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Zhenzong of Song">Emperor Zhenzong of Song</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Champa_rice" title="Champa rice">Champa rice</a> to China from <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Kingdom of Champa</a>, which sent 30,000 bushels as a tribute to Song. Champa rice was drought-resistant and able to grow fast enough to offer two harvests a year instead of one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYen-Mah2008102_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYen-Mah2008102-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Song restaurant and tavern menus are recorded. They list entrees for feasts, banquets, festivals, and carnivals. They reveal a diverse and lavish diet for those of the upper class. They could choose from a wide variety of meats and seafood, including shrimp, geese, duck, mussel, shellfish, <a href="/wiki/Fallow_deer" title="Fallow deer">fallow deer</a>, hare, partridge, pheasant, francolin, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198878_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198878-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199773_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199773-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dairy products were rare in Chinese cuisine at this time. Beef was rarely consumed since the bull was a valuable draft animal, and dog meat was absent from the diet of the wealthy, although the poor could choose to eat dog meat if necessary (yet it was not part of their regular diet).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962135–136_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962135–136-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People also consumed <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">dates</a>, raisins, <a href="/wiki/Jujube" title="Jujube">jujubes</a>, pears, plums, apricots, pear juice, <a href="/wiki/Lychee" title="Lychee">lychee</a>-fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, spices and seasonings of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_pepper" title="Sichuan pepper">Sichuan pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a>, soy sauce, vegetable oil, sesame oil, salt, and vinegar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198878_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198878-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199786_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199786-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">Economy of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/177px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" decoding="async" width="177" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/266px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/354px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:309px;max-width:309px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/307px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg" decoding="async" width="307" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/461px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/614px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="407" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:358px;max-width:358px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:83px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qingming_Festival_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Qingming_Festival_2.jpg/356px-Qingming_Festival_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="356" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Qingming_Festival_2.jpg/534px-Qingming_Festival_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Qingming_Festival_2.jpg/712px-Qingming_Festival_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:83px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/128px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/192px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/256px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1899" data-file-height="1244" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">City views of the Song dynasty from paintings. Clockwise from upper left: A Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) era Chinese painting of a water-powered mill for grain, with surrounding river transport. The bridge scene from <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a>'s (1085–1145) painting <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_Qingming_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Along the River During Qingming Festival">Along the River During Qingming Festival</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">Ships</a> depicted in <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_Qingming_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Along the River During Qingming Festival">Along the River During Qingming Festival</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Leifeng_Pagoda" title="Leifeng Pagoda">Leifeng Pagoda</a> during the Southern Song dynasty by <a href="/wiki/Li_Song_(painter)" title="Li Song (painter)">Li Song</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The Song dynasty had one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world. Song Chinese invested their funds in <a href="/wiki/Joint_stock_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint stock company">joint stock companies</a> and in multiple sailing vessels at a time when monetary gain was assured from the vigorous overseas trade and domestic trade along the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> and Yangtze River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both private and government-controlled industries met the needs of a growing Chinese population in the Song; prominent merchant families and private businesses were allowed to occupy industries that were not already government-operated monopolies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c23_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c23-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic historians</a> emphasize this toleration of market mechanisms over population growth or new farming technologies as the major cause of Song economic prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2015_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2015-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Artisans and merchants formed <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> that the state had to deal with when assessing taxes, requisitioning goods, and setting standard workers' wages and prices on goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196288,_94_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196288,_94-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron industry">iron industry</a> was pursued by both private entrepreneurs who owned their own smelters as well as government-supervised smelting facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2001178–179,_181–183_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001178–179,_181–183-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song economy was stable enough to produce over 100,000,000 kg (220,000,000 lb) of iron products per year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large-scale <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in China">Deforestation in China</a> would have continued if not for the 11th-century innovation of the use of coal instead of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> for smelting <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of this iron was reserved for military use in crafting weapons and armouring troops, but some was used to fashion the many iron products needed to fill the demands of the growing domestic market. The iron trade within China was advanced by the construction of new canals, facilitating the flow of iron products from production centres to the large market in the capital city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997339_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997339-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:138px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg/188px-Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg/282px-Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg/376px-Song_Dynasty_Ancient_Ship_of_Quanzhou_Bay_20061229.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="757" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">Junks</a> from the 13th century featured <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hulls</a> with <a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_(partition)" title="Bulkhead (partition)">watertight compartments</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:154px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_cargo_ships,_Song_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg/188px-Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg/282px-Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg/376px-Chinese_cargo_ships%2C_Song_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1292" data-file-height="1065" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A painting shows a pair of cargo ships with stern-mounted rudders accompanied by a smaller craft.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 reached roughly six billion coins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as <a href="/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency)" title="Jiaozi (currency)">Jiaozi</a> (see also <i><a href="/wiki/Huizi_(currency)" title="Huizi (currency)">Huizi</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the printing of <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">paper money</a>, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, and Anqi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic power of Song China can be attested by the growth of the urban population of its capital city Hangzhou. The population was 200,000 at the start of the 12th century and increased to 500,000 around 1170 and doubled to over a million a century later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196238_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196238-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This economic power also heavily influenced foreign economies abroad. In 1120 alone, the Song government collected 18,000,000 ounces (510,000 kg) of silver in taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_142_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_142-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Moroccan geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Idrisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Idrisi">al-Idrisi</a> wrote in 1154 of the prowess of Chinese merchant ships in the Indian Ocean and of their annual voyages that brought iron, swords, silk, velvet, porcelain, and various textiles to places such as <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreigners, in turn, affected the Chinese economy. For example, many West and Central Asian Muslims went to China to trade, becoming a preeminent force in the import and export industry, while some were even appointed as officers supervising economic affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sea trade with the South-west Pacific, the Hindu world, the Islamic world, and East Africa brought merchants great fortune and spurred an enormous growth in the <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a> industry of Song-era <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGolas1980_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolas1980-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures. In order to reduce the risk of losing money on maritime trade missions abroad, wrote historians Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:121px;max-width:121px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:206px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiao_zi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Jiaozi note" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/119px-Jiao_zi.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/179px-Jiao_zi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg/238px-Jiao_zi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:206px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Jiaozi printing plate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg/165px-Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg/248px-Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg/330px-Beijing.China_printing_museum.Plate_of_Paper_money.Northern_Song_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3115" data-file-height="3889" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency)" title="Jiaozi (currency)">Jiaozi</a> and corresponding printing plate. The Jiaozi was a form of promissory banknote which appeared around the 11th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. Numismatists regard it as the first paper money in history.</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Song era] investors usually divided their investment among many ships, and each ship had many investors behind it. One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash. He wrote, "People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade, either because they are fellow-countrymen or personal acquaintances. ... [They give the merchants] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods. They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly make profits of several hundred percent".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Science and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Science and technology of the Song dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Architecture of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">List of Chinese discoveries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gunpowder_warfare">Gunpowder warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gunpowder warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder" title="History of gunpowder">History of gunpowder</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/180px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/270px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/360px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>Earliest known written formula for gunpowder from the <i>Wujing Zongyao</i> (1044)</figcaption></figure> <p>Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by gunpowder, including the evolution of the early <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrower</a>, explosive <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a>, enabled the Song Chinese to ward off their militant enemies until the Song's ultimate collapse in the late 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e80_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e80-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e220–221_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e220–221-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e192_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e192-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198879_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198879-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Wujing_Zongyao" title="Wujing Zongyao">Wujing Zongyao</a></i> manuscript of 1044 was the first book in history to provide formulas for gunpowder and their specified use in different types of bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e117_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e117-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While engaged in a war with the Mongols, in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his <i>Kezhai Zagao, Xugaohou</i> that the city of <a href="/wiki/Qingzhou" title="Qingzhou">Qingzhou</a> was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron-cased bombshells a month, dispatching to <a href="/wiki/Xiangyang_District,_Xiangfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiangyang District, Xiangfan">Xiangyang</a> and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e173–174_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e173–174-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, the invading Mongols employed northern Chinese soldiers and used these same types of gunpowder weapons against the Song.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e174–175_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e174–175-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 14th century the firearm and cannon could also be found in Europe, India, and the Middle East, during the early age of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunpowder warfare">gunpowder warfare</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_distance_and_mechanical_navigation">Measuring distance and mechanical navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Measuring distance and mechanical navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="History of the Han dynasty">As early as the Han dynasty</a>, when the state needed to accurately measure distances traveled throughout the empire, the Chinese relied on a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Odometer" title="Odometer">odometer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese odometer was a wheeled carriage, its gearwork being driven by the rotation of the carriage's wheels; specific units of distance—the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Li_(unit)" title="Li (unit)">li</a>—were marked by the mechanical striking of a drum or bell as an auditory signal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c281–282_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c281–282-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The specifications for the 11th-century odometer were written by Chief Chamberlain Lu Daolong, who is quoted extensively in the historical text of the <i>Song Shi</i> (compiled by 1345).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283–284_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283–284-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Song period, the odometer vehicle was also combined with another old complex mechanical device known as the <a href="/wiki/South-pointing_chariot" title="South-pointing chariot">south-pointing chariot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c291_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c291-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device, originally crafted by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Jun_(mechanical_engineer)" title="Ma Jun (mechanical engineer)">Ma Jun</a> in the 3rd century, incorporated a <a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)" title="Differential (mechanical device)">differential gear</a> that allowed a figure mounted on the vehicle to always point in the southern direction, no matter how the vehicle's wheels turned about.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c287_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c287-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of the differential gear that was used in this navigational vehicle is now found in modern automobiles in order to apply an equal amount of <a href="/wiki/Torque" title="Torque">torque</a> to a car's wheels even when they are rotating at different speeds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymaths,_inventions,_and_astronomy"><span id="Polymaths.2C_inventions.2C_and_astronomy"></span>Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Su Song Star Map 2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/330px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/440px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="877" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Star map of the <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">south polar projection</a> for Su's celestial globe, <i>Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao</i>, 1092</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Su Song Star Map 1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/330px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/440px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="969" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">One of the <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star charts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a>'s <i>Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao</i> published in 1092, featuring cylindrical projection similar to <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator projection</a> and the corrected position of the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> thanks to Shen Kuo's astronomical observations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Su Song's celestial atlas of five star maps is actually the oldest in <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printed</a> form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199532_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199532-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Polymaths such as the scientists and statesmen <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) and <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101) embodied advancements in all fields of study, including <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetics">magnetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horology" class="mw-redirect" title="Horology">horology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">pharmaceutical medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_criticism" title="Art criticism">art criticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulics</a>, and many other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a136_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a136-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c446_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c446-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shen Kuo was the first to discern <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_declination" title="Magnetic declination">magnetic declination</a> of <a href="/wiki/True_north" title="True north">true north</a> while experimenting with a compass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohn20031_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohn20031-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997843_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997843-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen theorized that geographical <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climates gradually shifted</a> over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChanClanceyLoy200215_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChanClanceyLoy200215-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b614_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b614-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He created a theory of land formation involving concepts accepted in modern <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199523–24_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199523–24-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He performed optical experiments with <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> just decades after <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> was the first to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c98_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c98-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also improved the designs of astronomical instruments such as the widened astronomical <a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays#Astronomy" title="Dream Pool Essays">sighting tube</a>, which allowed Shen Kuo to fix the position of the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> (which had shifted over centuries of time).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199517_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199517-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen Kuo was also known for <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a> clockworks, as he invented a new overflow-tank <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">clepsydra</a> which had more efficient higher-order <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a> instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199517_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199517-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:372px;max-width:372px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:193px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Clock Tower from Su Song's Book desmear" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/129px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG" decoding="async" width="129" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/194px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG/258px-Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book_desmear.JPG 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="1366" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">An interior diagram of the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clock</a> tower of Kaifeng featured in Su Song's book, written by 1092 and published in print by 1094.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:193px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="11th century long serpent fire arrow rocket launcher" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg/130px-11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg/195px-11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg/260px-11th_century_long_serpent_fire_arrow_rocket_launcher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="846" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A depiction of the 13th century "long serpent" rocket launcher. The holes in the frame are designed to keep the rockets separate, from the 1510 edition of <i>Wujing Zongyao</i>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:193px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chain_drive,_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chain drive, Su Song's book of 1092" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg/101px-Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg/152px-Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg/202px-Chain_drive%2C_Su_Song%27s_book_of_1092.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="876" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The oldest known illustration of an endless power-transmitting chain drive. It was used for coupling the main driving shaft of the Kaifeng clock tower to the armillary sphere gear box.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Su Song was best known for his horology treatise written in 1092, which described and illustrated in great detail his <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a>-powered, 12 m (39 ft) tall astronomical <a href="/wiki/Clock_tower" title="Clock tower">clock tower</a> built in Kaifeng. The clock tower featured large astronomical instruments of the <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globe" title="Celestial globe">celestial globe</a>, both driven by an early intermittently working <a href="/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement">escapement</a> mechanism (similarly to the western <a href="/wiki/Verge_escapement" title="Verge escapement">verge escapement</a> of true <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical clock">mechanical clocks</a> appeared in medieval clockworks, derived from ancient clockworks of classical times).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c445_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c445-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c448_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c448-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Su's tower featured a rotating gear wheel with 133 clock jack <a href="/wiki/Mannequin" title="Mannequin">mannequins</a> who were timed to rotate past shuttered windows while <a href="/wiki/Striking_clock" title="Striking clock">ringing gongs and bells, banging drums</a>, and presenting announcement plaques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c165,_445_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c165,_445-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his printed book, Su published a celestial atlas of five <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star charts</a>. These star charts feature a cylindrical projection similar to <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator projection</a>, the latter being a cartographic innovation of <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> in 1569.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Song Chinese observed <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a>, including <a href="/wiki/SN_1054#Chinese_astronomy" title="SN 1054">SN 1054</a>, the remnants of which would form the <a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a>. Moreover, the <i>Soochow Astronomical Chart</i> on Chinese <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planispheres</a> was prepared in 1193 for instructing the crown prince on astronomical findings. The planispheres were engraved in stone several decades later.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b278,_280,_428_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b278,_280,_428-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics_and_cartography">Mathematics and cartography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mathematics and cartography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese geography">Chinese geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sixianghuiyuan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sixianghuiyuan.jpg/220px-Sixianghuiyuan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sixianghuiyuan.jpg/330px-Sixianghuiyuan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sixianghuiyuan.jpg/440px-Sixianghuiyuan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>Facsimile of Zhu Shijie's <i>Jade Mirror of Four Unknowns</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Inverted image of a stone rubbing, comprising a map of eastern China, complete with detailed rivers. The area of the map covered by land features a near perfect grid pattern, which because it does not overlap any text, is clearly the work of the original mapmaker." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png/220px-Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png/330px-Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png/440px-Yuji_tu_-_enhanced_contrast.png 2x" data-file-width="9849" data-file-height="10117" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Yu Ji Tu</i>, or "Map of the Tracks of Yu", carved into stone in 1137, located in the <a href="/wiki/Stele_Forest" title="Stele Forest">Stele Forest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>. This 3 ft (0.91 m) squared map features a <a href="/wiki/Scale_(map)" title="Scale (map)">graduated scale</a> of 100 <a href="/wiki/Li_(unit)" title="Li (unit)">li</a> for each rectangular grid. China's coastline and river systems are clearly defined and precisely pinpointed on the map. <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu</a> refers to the Chinese deity described in the <a href="/wiki/Yu_Gong" title="Yu Gong">geographical chapter</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i>, dated 5th–3rd centuries BCE.</figcaption></figure> <p>There were many notable improvements to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese mathematics</a> during the Song era. Mathematician <a href="/wiki/Yang_Hui" title="Yang Hui">Yang Hui</a>'s 1261 book provided the earliest Chinese illustration of <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle" title="Pascal's triangle">Pascal's triangle</a>, although it had earlier been described by Jia Xian in around 1100.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b134–137_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b134–137-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yang Hui also provided rules for constructing combinatorial arrangements in <a href="/wiki/Magic_square" title="Magic square">magic squares</a>, provided theoretical proof for <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s forty-third proposition about <a href="/wiki/Parallelogram" title="Parallelogram">parallelograms</a>, and was the first to use negative coefficients of 'x' in <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_equation" title="Quadratic equation">quadratic equations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b46,_59–60,_104_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b46,_59–60,_104-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yang's contemporary <a href="/wiki/Qin_Jiushao" title="Qin Jiushao">Qin Jiushao</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1202</span>–1261) was the first to introduce the <a href="/wiki/0_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">zero symbol</a> into Chinese mathematics;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b43_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b43-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before this blank spaces were used instead of zeroes in the system of <a href="/wiki/Counting_rods" title="Counting rods">counting rods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b62–63_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b62–63-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also known for working with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem" title="Chinese remainder theorem">Chinese remainder theorem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heron%27s_formula" title="Heron's formula">Heron's formula</a>, and astronomical data used in determining the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">winter solstice</a>. Qin's major work was the <i><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_Treatise_in_Nine_Sections" title="Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections">Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections</a></i> published in 1247. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">Geometry</a> was essential to <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">earliest extant Chinese maps</a> date to the 4th century BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu199390–93_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu199390–93-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet it was not until the time of <a href="/wiki/Pei_Xiu" title="Pei Xiu">Pei Xiu</a> (224–271) that topographical <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a>, a formal rectangular grid system, and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu199396–97_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu199396–97-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b538–540_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b538–540-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions#R" title="List of Chinese inventions">Following a long tradition</a>, Shen Kuo created a <a href="/wiki/Raised-relief_map" title="Raised-relief map">raised-relief map</a>, while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1:900,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199522_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199522-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETemple1986179_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETemple1986179-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 3 ft (0.91 m) squared map of 1137—carved into a stone block—followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square, and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China, extending all the way to India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bpp._547–549,_Plate_LXXXI_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bpp._547–549,_Plate_LXXXI-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the world's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155, which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally made Chinese maps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bp._549,_Plate_LXXXII_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bp._549,_Plate_LXXXII-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Gazetteer" title="Gazetteer">gazetteers</a> had existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (Chinese: <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">tujing</i></span>) since the Sui dynasty, the illustrated gazetteer became much more common during the Song dynasty, when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political, administrative, and military purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett1996406,_409–412_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett1996406,_409–412-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movable_type_printing">Movable type printing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Movable type printing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">History of printing in East Asia</a></div> <p>The innovation of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> printing was made by the artisan <a href="/wiki/Bi_Sheng" title="Bi Sheng">Bi Sheng</a> (990–1051), first described by the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i> of 1088.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e201–203_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e201–203-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199527_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199527-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collection of Bi Sheng's original clay-fired <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">typeface</a> was passed on to one of Shen Kuo's nephews, and was carefully preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199527_199-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199527-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c33_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c33-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Movable type enhanced the already widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock methods of printing</a> thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public. The advancement of printing deeply affected education and the scholar-official class, since more books could be made faster while mass-produced, printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The enhancement of widespread printing and <a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">print culture</a> in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites, the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159–160_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159–160-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately trumped by the use of woodblock printing due to the limitations of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>, yet movable type printing continued to be used and was improved in later periods. The Yuan scholar-official <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1290–1333</span>) implemented a faster typesetting process, improved Bi's baked-clay movable type character set with a wooden one, and experimented with tin-metal movable type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e206–208,_217_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e206–208,_217-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wealthy printing patron <a href="/wiki/Hua_Sui" title="Hua Sui">Hua Sui</a> (1439–1513) of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> established China's first metal movable type (using bronze) in 1490.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e212–213_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e212–213-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1638, the <i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Gazette" title="Peking Gazette">Peking Gazette</a></i> switched their printing process from woodblock to movable type printing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet it was during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> that massive printing projects began to employ movable type printing. This includes the printing of sixty-six copies of a 5,020 volume long encyclopedia in 1725, the <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i>, which necessitated the crafting of 250,000 movable type characters cast in bronze.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e215–216_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e215–216-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century the European style <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> replaced the old Chinese methods of movable type, while traditional woodblock printing in modern East Asia is used sparsely and for aesthetic reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydraulic_and_nautical_engineering">Hydraulic and nautical engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hydraulic and nautical engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Science and technology of the Song dynasty</a></div> <p>The most important nautical innovation of the Song period seems to have been the introduction of the magnetic mariner's <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, which permitted accurate navigation on the open sea regardless of the weather.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199522_193-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199522-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magnetized compass needle – known in Chinese as the "south-pointing needle" – was first described by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> in his 1088 <i>Dream Pool Essays</i> and first mentioned in active use by sailors in <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yu_(author)" title="Zhu Yu (author)">Zhu Yu</a>'s 1119 <i>Pingzhou Table Talks</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canal_lock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of the pound lock system, from a bird's eye perspective and from a side perspective. The bird's eye view illustrates that water enters the enclosed area through two culverts on either side of the upper lock gate. The side view diagram illustrates how the elevation is higher before reaching the top gate than it is afterward." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Canal_lock.svg/200px-Canal_lock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Canal_lock.svg/300px-Canal_lock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Canal_lock.svg/400px-Canal_lock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A plan and side view of a canal <a href="/wiki/Pound_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Pound lock">pound lock</a>, a concept pioneered in 984 by the Assistant Commissioner of Transport for <a href="/wiki/Huainan" title="Huainan">Huainan</a>, the engineer Qiao Weiyo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There were other considerable advancements in <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">hydraulic engineering</a> and nautical technology during the Song dynasty. The 10th-century invention of the <a href="/wiki/Pound_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Pound lock">pound lock</a> for canal systems allowed different water levels to be raised and lowered for separated segments of a canal, which significantly aided the safety of canal traffic and allowed for larger barges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350–351_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350–351-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was the Song-era innovation of <a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_(partition)" title="Bulkhead (partition)">watertight bulkhead compartments</a> that allowed damage to <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hulls</a> without sinking the ships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d463_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d463-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If ships were damaged, the Chinese of the 11th century employed <a href="/wiki/Drydock" class="mw-redirect" title="Drydock">drydocks</a> to repair them while suspended out of the water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d660_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d660-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song used crossbeams to brace the ribs of ships in order to strengthen them in a skeletal-like structure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stern" title="Stern">Stern</a>-mounted <a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">rudders</a> had been mounted on Chinese ships since the 1st century, as evidenced by a preserved Han tomb model of a ship. In the Song period, the Chinese devised a way to mechanically raise and lower rudders in order for ships to travel in a wider range of water depths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song arranged the protruding teeth of anchors in a circular pattern instead of in one direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Graff and Robin Higham state that this arrangement "[made] them more reliable" for anchoring ships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_engineering_and_architecture">Structural engineering and architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Structural engineering and architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Architecture of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:147px;max-width:147px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:212px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A thin, thirteen story brick building with small, slightly curved eaves between each story. The bricks are a dark grey color, resembling the color of iron." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg/145px-%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg/218px-%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg/290px-%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E9%93%81%E5%A1%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2198" data-file-height="3233" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Pagoda" title="Iron Pagoda">Iron Pagoda</a> of Kaifeng, built in 1049</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:161px;max-width:161px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:212px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wide, octagonal pagoda. It has four tall, functional floors made of brick, and an additional five, short, purely decorative floors made of wood. Each floor is separated by an eave, and the top five-floor's eaves look as if they were simply stacked right on top of one another." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg/159px-Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg/239px-Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg/318px-Quyang_Pagoda_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Xiude Temple Pagoda in <a href="/wiki/Quyang" class="mw-redirect" title="Quyang">Quyang</a>, Hebei</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Architecture during the Song period reached new heights of sophistication. Authors such as <a href="/wiki/Yu_Hao" title="Yu Hao">Yu Hao</a> and Shen Kuo wrote books outlining the field of architectural layouts, craftsmanship, and <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a> in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively. Shen Kuo preserved the written dialogues of Yu Hao when describing technical issues such as slanting <a href="/wiki/Strut" title="Strut">struts</a> built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind bracing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d141_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d141-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen Kuo also preserved Yu's specified dimensions and units of measurement for various building types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d82–84_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d82–84-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The architect <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty#Treatise_of_Li_Jie" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Li Jie</a> (1065–1110), who published the <i><a href="/wiki/Yingzao_Fashi" title="Yingzao Fashi">Yingzao Fashi</a></i> ('Treatise on Architectural Methods') in 1103, greatly expanded upon the works of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by the central government agencies and by craftsmen throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19984–6_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19984–6-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He addressed the standard methods of construction, design, and applications of moats and fortifications, stonework, greater woodwork, lesser woodwork, wood-carving, turning and drilling, sawing, bamboo work, tiling, wall building, painting and decoration, brickwork, glazed tile making, and provided proportions for <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> formulas in <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d85_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d85-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19985_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19985-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book, Li provided detailed and vivid illustrations of architectural components and cross-sections of buildings. These illustrations displayed various applications of <a href="/wiki/Corbel" title="Corbel">corbel</a> brackets, <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilever</a> arms, <a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">mortise and tenon</a> work of tie beams and cross beams, and diagrams showing the various building types of halls in graded sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d96–100,_108–109_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d96–100,_108–109-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also outlined the standard units of measurement and standard dimensional measurements of all building components described and illustrated in his book.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19981–6_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19981–6-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:200px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wide, octagonal pagoda. It has four tall, functional floors made of brick, and an additional five, short, purely decorative floors made of wood. Each floor is separated by an eave, and the top five-floor's eaves look as if they were simply stacked right on top of one another." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg/150px-Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg/225px-Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg/300px-Zhengding_Lingxiao_Pagoda_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The 42-metre (138 ft) tall, brick and wood <a href="/wiki/Lingxiao_Pagoda" title="Lingxiao Pagoda">Lingxiao Pagoda</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zhengding" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengding">Zhengding</a>, Hebei, built in 1045.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:200px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Zhengding Tianning Si Lingxiao Ta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg/134px-Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg/201px-Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg/268px-Zhengding_Tianning_Si_Lingxiao_Ta_2013.08.31_17-36-55.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Close-up view of the <a href="/wiki/Lingxiao_Pagoda" title="Lingxiao Pagoda">Lingxiao Pagoda</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Grandiose building projects were supported by the government, including the erection of towering Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Chinese_pagoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese pagoda">Chinese pagodas</a> and the construction of enormous bridges (wood or stone, <a href="/wiki/Trestle_bridge" title="Trestle bridge">trestle</a> or segmental <a href="/wiki/Arch_bridge" title="Arch bridge">arch bridge</a>). Many of the pagoda towers built during the Song period were erected at heights that exceeded ten stories. Some of the most famous are the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Pagoda" title="Iron Pagoda">Iron Pagoda</a> built in 1049 during the Northern Song and the <a href="/wiki/Liuhe_Pagoda" title="Liuhe Pagoda">Liuhe Pagoda</a> built in 1165 during the Southern Song, though there were others. The tallest is the <a href="/wiki/Liaodi_Pagoda" title="Liaodi Pagoda">Liaodi Pagoda</a> built in 1055 in <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, towering 84 m (276 ft) in total height. Some of the bridges reached lengths of 1,220 m (4,000 ft), with many being wide enough to allow two lanes of cart traffic simultaneously over a waterway or ravine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d151–153_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d151–153-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government also oversaw construction of their own administrative offices, palace apartments, city fortifications, ancestral temples, and Buddhist temples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d84_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d84-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The professions of the architect, craftsman, carpenter, and structural engineer were not seen as professionally equal to that of a Confucian scholar-official. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years in China, in many cases from a father craftsman to his son. Structural engineering and architecture schools were known to have existed during the Song period; one prestigious engineering school was headed by the renowned bridge-builder <a href="/wiki/Cai_Xiang" title="Cai Xiang">Cai Xiang</a> (1012–1067) in medieval <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> province.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d153_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d153-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:159px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Goddess Temple Jinsi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG/213px-Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG" decoding="async" width="213" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG/320px-Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG/426px-Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Temple of the Saintly Mother, <a href="/wiki/Jinci" title="Jinci">Jin Temple</a>, Taiyuan, built in 1032</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:123px;max-width:123px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:159px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Yingzao Fashi 1 desmear" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG/121px-Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG" decoding="async" width="121" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG/182px-Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG/242px-Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Bracket_(architecture)" title="Bracket (architecture)">Bracket</a> arm clusters containing <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevers</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty#Literature" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Li Jie's</a> building manual <i><a href="/wiki/Yingzao_Fashi" title="Yingzao Fashi">Yingzao Fashi</a></i>, printed in 1103.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Besides existing buildings and technical literature of building manuals, <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty#Architecture_in_Song_artwork" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Song dynasty artwork</a> portraying <a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscapes</a> and other buildings aid modern-day scholars in their attempts to reconstruct and realize the nuances of Song architecture. Song dynasty artists such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Cheng_(painter)" title="Li Cheng (painter)">Li Cheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fan_Kuan" title="Fan Kuan">Fan Kuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xi" title="Guo Xi">Guo Xi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong of Song</a>, and Ma Lin painted close-up depictions of buildings as well as large expanses of cityscapes featuring <a href="/wiki/Arch_bridge" title="Arch bridge">arched bridges</a>, halls and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_pavilion" title="Chinese pavilion">pavilions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">pagoda towers</a>, and distinct <a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chinese city walls</a>. The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was known for his criticism relating to architecture, saying that it was more important for an artist to capture a holistic view of a landscape than it was to focus on the angles and corners of buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Shen criticized the work of the painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of "seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large" in portraying buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were also pyramidal tomb structures in the Song era, such as the Song imperial tombs located in Gongxian, <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 100 km (62 mi) from Gongxian is another Song dynasty tomb at Baisha, which features "elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction, from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets, that adorn interior walls."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375_222-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two large chambers of the Baisha tomb also feature conical-shaped roofs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993376_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993376-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flanking the avenues leading to these tombs <a href="/wiki/File:Songling2.jpg" title="File:Songling2.jpg">are lines of Song dynasty stone statues</a> of officials, tomb guardians, animals, and <a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">legendary creatures</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">History of Chinese archaeology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu_Ding.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A heavily tarnished bronze bowl adorned with several carvings of squares that curl in on themselves at the bottom. It has three stubby, unadorned legs and two small, square handles coming off from the top rim." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/220px-Liu_Ding.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/330px-Liu_Ding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/440px-Liu_Ding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1881" data-file-height="1901" /></a><figcaption>Scholars of the Song dynasty claim to have collected ancient relics dating back as far as the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, such as this <a href="/wiki/Ding_(vessel)" title="Ding (vessel)">bronze <i>ding</i> vessel</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to the Song gentry's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting, scholar-officials during the Song became highly interested in retrieving ancient relics from archaeological sites, in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholar-officials of the Song period claimed to have discovered ancient bronze vessels that were created as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (1600–1046 BCE), which bore the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracle bone script</a> of the Shang era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200633_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200633-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some attempted to recreate these bronze vessels by using imagination alone, not by observing tangible evidence of relics; this practice was criticized by Shen Kuo in his work of 1088.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet Shen Kuo had much more to criticize than this practice alone. Shen objected to the idea of his peers that ancient relics were products created by famous "sages" in lore or the <a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">ancient aristocratic class</a>; Shen rightfully attributed the discovered handicrafts and vessels from ancient times as the work of artisans and commoners from previous eras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also disapproved of his peers' pursuit of archaeology simply to enhance state ritual, since Shen not only took an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> approach with the study of archaeology, but he also emphasized the study of functionality and investigating what was the ancient relics' original processes of manufacture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen used ancient texts and existing models of <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary spheres</a> to create one based on ancient standards; Shen described ancient weaponry such as the use of a <a href="/wiki/Sight_(device)" title="Sight (device)">scaled sighting device</a> on crossbows; while experimenting with <a href="/wiki/Bar_(music)" title="Bar (music)">ancient musical measures</a>, Shen suggested hanging <a href="/wiki/Bianzhong" title="Bianzhong">an ancient bell</a> by using a hollow handle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the gentry's overriding interest in archaeology simply for reviving ancient state rituals, some of Shen's peers took a similar approach to the study of archaeology. His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a> (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze which pioneered ideas in early <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a> and archaeology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 11th century, Song scholars discovered the ancient shrine of Wu Liang (78–151 CE), a scholar of the Han dynasty; they produced rubbings of the carvings and <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> decorating the walls of his tomb so that they could be analyzed elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2000142_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2000142-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the unreliability of historical works written after the fact, the epigrapher and poet <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mingcheng" title="Zhao Mingcheng">Zhao Mingcheng</a> (1081–1129) stated "... the inscriptions on stone and bronze are made at the time the events took place and can be trusted without reservation, and thus discrepancies may be discovered."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian R.C. Rudolph states that Zhao's emphasis on consulting contemporary sources for accurate dating is parallel with the concern of the German historian <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a> (1795–1886),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170_227-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was in fact emphasized by many Song scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963172_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963172-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Song scholar Hong Mai (1123–1202) heavily criticized what he called the court's "ridiculous" archaeological catalogue <i>Bogutu</i> compiled during the Huizong reign periods of Zheng He and Xuan He (1111–1125).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170–171_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170–171-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hong Mai obtained old vessels from the Han dynasty and compared them with the descriptions offered in the catalogue, which he found so inaccurate he stated he had to "hold my sides with laughter."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hong Mai pointed out that the erroneous material was the fault of Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Cai_Jing" title="Cai Jing">Cai Jing</a>, who prohibited scholars from reading and consulting <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">written histories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171_230-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(middle)#Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (middle)">Emperors' family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Books_of_Song" title="Four Great Books of Song">Four Great Books of Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhao" title="House of Zhao">House of Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_You" title="Lu You">Lu You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Clan" title="Tang Clan">Tang Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_premodern_China" title="Taxation in premodern China">Taxation in premodern China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianchao_Daguo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tianchao Daguo">Tianchao Daguo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_Cave_Kiln" title="Tiger Cave Kiln">Tiger Cave Kiln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Song dynasty">Timeline of the Song dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Margin" title="Water Margin">Water Margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Tianxiang" title="Wen Tianxiang">Wen Tianxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Gong" title="Zeng Gong">Zeng Gong</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge20154–5_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLorge2015">Lorge 2015</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997493_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaagepera1997">Taagepera 1997</a>, p. 493.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee201529,_327-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee201529,_327_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChaffee2015">Chaffee 2015</a>, pp. 29, 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015625-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015625_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChaffee2015">Chaffee 2015</a>, p. 625.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBroadberry" class="citation web cs1">Broadberry, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109144034/https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf">"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: A study in historical national accounting, 980–1850"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Economic History Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%2C+Europe+and+the+Great+Divergence%3A+A+study+in+historical+national+accounting%2C+980%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Economic+History+Association&rft.aulast=Broadberry&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Feha%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F05%2FBroadberry.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988115-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1988115_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198876-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198876_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015435-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaffee2015435_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChaffee2015">Chaffee 2015</a>, p. 435.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2015294-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2015294_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2015">Liu 2015</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006156_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199896-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199896_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook 1998</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurand1960" class="citation journal cs1">Durand, John (1960). "The Population Statistics of China, A.D. 2–1953". <i>Population Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 209–256. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2172247">2172247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Population+Statistics+of+China%2C+A.D.+2%E2%80%931953&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-256&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2172247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Durand&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007103–104-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007103–104_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007">Veeck et al. 2007</a>, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b518-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b518_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, p. 518.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c469–471-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c469–471_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, pp. 469–471.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999138-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999138_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall198523-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall198523_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall1985">Hall 1985</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1984173,_316-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1984173,_316_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSastri1984">Sastri 1984</a>, pp. 173, 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShen1996158-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996158_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShen1996">Shen 1996</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2008258-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrose2008258_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrose2008">Brose 2008</a>, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-halsall_2000-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-halsall_2000_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Halsall2000" class="citation web cs1">Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html">"East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E."</a> <i>Fordham.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fordham.edu&rft.atitle=East+Asian+History+Sourcebook%3A+Chinese+Accounts+of+Rome%2C+Byzantium+and+the+Middle+East%2C+c.+91+B.C.E.+%E2%80%93+1643+C.E.&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Paul+Halsall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Feastasia%2Fromchin1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote199969-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote199969_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMote1999">Mote 1999</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006154-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006154_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote199970–71-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote199970–71_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMote1999">Mote 1999</a>, pp. 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2018-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2018_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2018">Chen 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19958-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19958_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19959-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19959_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008207-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008207_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2008">Anderson 2008</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2008">Anderson 2008</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208–209-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2008208–209_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2008">Anderson 2008</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006163_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006164_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19953–4-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19953–4_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1996" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, J. A. G. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchina0000robe_l0n0/page/148/mode/2up"><i>A History of China</i></a>. New York: St Martin's. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312163341" title="Special:BookSources/9780312163341"><bdi>9780312163341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780312163341&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=J.+A.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchina0000robe_l0n0%2Fpage%2F148%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006165_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2014-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2014_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2014">Chen 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang200014-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang200014_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2000">Wang 2000</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19955-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19955_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaludan1998136_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaludan1998">Paludan 1998</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShen1996159–161_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShen1996">Shen 1996</a>, pp. 159–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d476_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevathes199443–47-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevathes199443–47_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevathes1994">Levathes 1994</a>, pp. 43–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a134-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a134_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986a">Needham 1986a</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006239-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006239_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997385-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997385_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmbreeGluck1997">Embree & Gluck 1997</a>, p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdshead200490–91-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdshead200490–91_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdshead2004">Adshead 2004</a>, pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198880-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198880_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006235-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006235_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006236_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a139_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986a">Needham 1986a</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haw-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaw2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Haw" title="Stephen G. Haw">Haw, Stephen G.</a> (2013). "The deaths of two Khaghans: a comparison of events in 1242 and 1260". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London</i>. <b>76</b> (3): 361–371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X13000475">10.1017/S0041977X13000475</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24692275">24692275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.atitle=The+deaths+of+two+Khaghans%3A+a+comparison+of+events+in+1242+and+1260&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=361-371&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X13000475&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24692275%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Haw&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rossabi-45-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi-45_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi2009" class="citation book cs1">Rossabi, Morris (2009). <i>Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times</i>. University of California Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520261327" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520261327"><bdi>978-0520261327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khubilai+Khan%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0520261327&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006240-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006240_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198849-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198849_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198850–51-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198850–51_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198856-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198856_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198882-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198882_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198882_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198888-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198888_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198894-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198894_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198890-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198890_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/"><i>China in 1000 CE: The Most Advanced Society in the World</i>, in Ebrey, Patricia, & Conrad Schirokauer, consultants, <i>The Song dynasty in China (960–1279): Life in the Song Seen through a 12th-century Scroll</i> ([§] <i>Asian Topics on Asia for Educators</i>) (Asia for Educators, Columbia Univ.)</a>, as accessed October 6 & 9, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006167_62-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200689-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200689_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d35-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d35_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d36-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d36_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999155-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999155_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Fenjia: household division and inheritance in Qing and Republican China Written", David Wakefield <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o2c26kQGZIIC&pg=PA14">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2001" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Lillian M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://works.swarthmore.edu/context/fac-history/article/1293/viewcontent/jinh.2001.32.1.130.pdf">"Women and Property in China, 960-1949 (review)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 160–162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh.2001.32.1.160">10.1162/jinh.2001.32.1.160</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142559461">142559461</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/16192">16192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Women+and+Property+in+China%2C+960-1949+%28review%29&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=160-162&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh.2001.32.1.160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142559461%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Lillian+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworks.swarthmore.edu%2Fcontext%2Ffac-history%2Farticle%2F1293%2Fviewcontent%2Fjinh.2001.32.1.130.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Study on the Daughters' Rights to Possess and Arrange Their Parents' Property during the Period from Tang to Song dynasty <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-TSSF201003024.htm">http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-TSSF201003024.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140307185832/http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-TSSF201003024.htm">Archived</a> 2014-03-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200671-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200671_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin19951-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19951_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin19951_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006172-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006172_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen200313-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen200313_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2003">Sen 2003</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196282–83-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196282–83_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d465_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-China-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-China_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-China_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China">"China"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F111803%2FChina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962222–225-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962222–225_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 222–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199769–70-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199769–70_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWest1997">West 1997</a>, pp. 69–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962223-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962223_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1988162-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi1988162_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199776-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199776_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWest1997">West 1997</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, pp. 145–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999147_84-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982417–418_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHartwell1982">Hartwell 1982</a>, pp. 417–418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHymes198635–36_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHymes1986">Hymes 1986</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159_88-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982405–413-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982405–413_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHartwell1982">Hartwell 1982</a>, pp. 405–413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982416–420-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982416–420_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHartwell1982">Hartwell 1982</a>, pp. 416–420.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006106_91-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006101–106-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006101–106_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, pp. 101–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994196–199-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuan1994196–199_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYuan1994">Yuan 1994</a>, pp. 196–199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162–163-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006162–163_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999148_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006104-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006104_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196292–93-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196292–93_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 92–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196260–61,_68–69-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196260–61,_68–69_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 60–61, 68–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006161_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKnight1992155–157-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKnight1992155–157_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcKnight1992">McKnight 1992</a>, pp. 155–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962107_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199530–31-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199530–31_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin1995pp._30–31,_footnote_27-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin1995pp._30–31,_footnote_27_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, pp. 30–31, footnote 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962170-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962170_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESung198112,_72-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESung198112,_72_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSung1981">Sung 1981</a>, pp. 12, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002239-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002239_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBai2002">Bai 2002</a>, pp. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002250-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002250_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBai2002">Bai 2002</a>, pp. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBai2002254-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBai2002254_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBai2002">Bai 2002</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200225–26-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200225–26_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2002">Graff & Higham 2002</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge200543-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge200543_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLorge2005">Lorge 2005</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELorge200545-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorge200545_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLorge2005">Lorge 2005</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130–131-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006130–131_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, pp. 130–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006131-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006131_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECai201181–82-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECai201181–82_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCai2011">Cai 2011</a>, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2006129-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2006129_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200287-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200287_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2002">Graff & Higham 2002</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286–87_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2002">Graff & Higham 2002</a>, pp. 86–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d422-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d422_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 422.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer1957291_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchafer1957">Schafer 1957</a>, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e19-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e19_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e119-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e119_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e122–124-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e122–124_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 122–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82–84-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82–84_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200681–83-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200681–83_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, pp. 81–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198574–76-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett198574–76_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHargett1985">Hargett 1985</a>, pp. 74–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBol200144-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBol200144_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBol2001">Bol 2001</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_149-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_149_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey, Cambridge, 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999151-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999151_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006168_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195993-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195993_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright1959">Wright 1959</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006169-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006169_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195988–89-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195988–89_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright1959">Wright 1959</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962215-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962215_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962127–30-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962127–30_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 127–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962129-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962129_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962134–137_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 134–137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYen-Mah2008102-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYen-Mah2008102_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYen-Mah2008">Yen-Mah 2008</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198878-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198878_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198878_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199773-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199773_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWest1997">West 1997</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1962135–136-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1962135–136_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 135–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199786-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199786_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWest1997">West 1997</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006157_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c23-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c23_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2015-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2015_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2015">Liu 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196288,_94-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196288,_94_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, pp. 88, 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001178–179,_181–183-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2001178–179,_181–183_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2001">Wagner 2001</a>, pp. 178–179, 181–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006158_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997339-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997339_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmbreeGluck1997">Embree & Gluck 1997</a>, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e48_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet196238-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet196238_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGernet1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_cambridge_142-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_cambridge_142_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebrey, <i>Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>, 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208180239/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_print.html">"Islam in China (650–present): Origins"</a>, <i>Religion & Ethics – Islam</i>, BBC, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_print.html">the original</a> on February 8, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-01</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion+%26+Ethics+%E2%80%93+Islam&rft.atitle=Islam+in+China+%28650%E2%80%93present%29%3A+Origins&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fhistory%2Fchina_print.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolas1980-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGolas1980_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGolas1980">Golas 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e80-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e80_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e82_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e220–221-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e220–221_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 220–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e192-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e192_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi198879-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossabi198879_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossabi1988">Rossabi 1988</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e117-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e117_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e173–174-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e173–174_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 173–174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e174–175-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e174–175_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 174–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c281–282-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c281–282_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283–284-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c283–284_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, pp. 283–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c291-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c291_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c287-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c287_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d569_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 569.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208_170-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b208_170-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199532-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199532_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a136-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a136_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986a">Needham 1986a</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c446-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c446_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 446.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohn20031-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohn20031_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMohn2003">Mohn 2003</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997843-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmbreeGluck1997843_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmbreeGluck1997">Embree & Gluck 1997</a>, p. 843.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChanClanceyLoy200215-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChanClanceyLoy200215_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChanClanceyLoy2002">Chan, Clancey & Loy 2002</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b614-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b614_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, p. 614.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199523–24-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199523–24_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c98-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c98_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199517-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199517_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199517_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c445-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c445_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c448-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c448_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c165,_445-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c165,_445_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, pp. 165, 445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160279b0">"Book Review: The Soochow Astronomical Chart"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>160</b> (4061): 279. 30 August 1947. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160279b0">10.1038/160279b0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015071688480">2027/mdp.39015071688480</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9218319">9218319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+The+Soochow+Astronomical+Chart&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=4061&rft.pages=279&rft.date=1947-08-30&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015071688480&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9218319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F160279b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F160279b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b278,_280,_428-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b278,_280,_428_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 278, 280, 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b134–137-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b134–137_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 134–137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b46,_59–60,_104-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b46,_59–60,_104_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 46, 59–60, 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b43-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b43_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b62–63-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b62–63_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu199390–93-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu199390–93_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsu1993">Hsu 1993</a>, pp. 90–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu199396–97-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu199396–97_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsu1993">Hsu 1993</a>, pp. 96–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b538–540-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986b538–540_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 538–540.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199522-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199522_193-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199522_193-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETemple1986179-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETemple1986179_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTemple1986">Temple 1986</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bpp._547–549,_Plate_LXXXI-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bpp._547–549,_Plate_LXXXI_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, pp. 547–549, Plate LXXXI.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bp._549,_Plate_LXXXII-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986bp._549,_Plate_LXXXII_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986b">Needham 1986b</a>, p. 549, Plate LXXXII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett1996406,_409–412-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargett1996406,_409–412_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHargett1996">Hargett 1996</a>, pp. 406, 409–412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e201–203-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e201–203_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 201–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivin199527-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199527_199-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivin199527_199-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivin1995">Sivin 1995</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c33-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c33_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986c">Needham 1986c</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159–160-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006159–160_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, pp. 159–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e206–208,_217-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e206–208,_217_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 206–208, 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e212–213-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e212–213_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 212–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook 1998</a>, p. xxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e215–216-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986e215–216_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986e">Needham 1986e</a>, pp. 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350–351-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d350–351_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, pp. 350–351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d463-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d463_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d660-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d660_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 660.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham200286_210-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2002">Graff & Higham 2002</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d141-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d141_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d82–84-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d82–84_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19984–6-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19984–6_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuo1998">Guo 1998</a>, pp. 4–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d85-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d85_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19985-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19985_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuo1998">Guo 1998</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d96–100,_108–109-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d96–100,_108–109_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, pp. 96–100, 108–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuo19981–6-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuo19981–6_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuo1998">Guo 1998</a>, pp. 1–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d151–153-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d151–153_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, pp. 151–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d84-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d84_219-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d153-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d153_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1986d115_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedham1986d">Needham 1986d</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993375_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinhardt1993">Steinhardt 1993</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993376-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinhardt1993376_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinhardt1993">Steinhardt 1993</a>, p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraserHaber1986227_224-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFraserHaber1986">Fraser & Haber 1986</a>, p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200633-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman200633_225-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2000142-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2000142_226-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2000">Hansen 2000</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170_227-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170_227-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudolph1963">Rudolph 1963</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963172-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963172_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudolph1963">Rudolph 1963</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170–171-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963170–171_229-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudolph1963">Rudolph 1963</a>, pp. 170–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171_230-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudolph1963171_230-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudolph1963">Rudolph 1963</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdshead2004" class="citation cs2">Adshead, S. A. M. (2004), <i>T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History</i>, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3456-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3456-7"><bdi>978-1-4039-3456-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%27ang+China%3A+The+Rise+of+the+East+in+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-3456-7&rft.aulast=Adshead&rft.aufirst=S.+A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span> (hardback).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2008" class="citation cs2">Anderson, James A. (2008), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Treacherous Factions': Shifting Frontier Alliances in the Breakdown of Sino-Vietnamese Relations on the Eve of the 1075 Border War", in Wyatt, Don J. (ed.), <i>Battlefronts Real and Imagined: War, Border, and Identity in the Chinese Middle Period</i>, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 191–226, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6084-9"><bdi>978-1-4039-6084-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Treacherous+Factions%27%3A+Shifting+Frontier+Alliances+in+the+Breakdown+of+Sino-Vietnamese+Relations+on+the+Eve+of+the+1075+Border+War&rft.btitle=Battlefronts+Real+and+Imagined%3A+War%2C+Border%2C+and+Identity+in+the+Chinese+Middle+Period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=191-226&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6084-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBai2002" class="citation cs2">Bai, Shouyi (2002), <i>An Outline History of China</i> (Revised ed.), Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-119-02347-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-119-02347-2"><bdi>978-7-119-02347-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+History+of+China&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-7-119-02347-2&rft.aulast=Bai&rft.aufirst=Shouyi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBol2001" class="citation cs2">Bol, Peter K. (2001), "The Rise of Local History: History, Geography, and Culture in Southern Song and Yuan Wuzhou", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>61</b> (1): 37–76, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3558587">10.2307/3558587</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3558587">3558587</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Local+History%3A+History%2C+Geography%2C+and+Culture+in+Southern+Song+and+Yuan+Wuzhou&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-76&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3558587&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3558587%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bol&rft.aufirst=Peter+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrook1998" class="citation cs2">Brook, Timothy (1998), <a href="/wiki/The_Confusions_of_Pleasure:_Commerce_and_Culture_in_Ming_China" class="mw-redirect" title="The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China"><i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i></a>, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3"><bdi>978-0-520-22154-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confusions+of+Pleasure%3A+Commerce+and+Culture+in+Ming+China&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22154-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrose2008" class="citation cs2">Brose, Michael C. (2008), "People in the Middle: Uyghurs in the Northwest Frontier Zone", in Wyatt, Don J. (ed.), <i>Battlefronts Real and Imagined: War, Border, and Identity in the Chinese Middle Period</i>, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 253–289, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6084-9"><bdi>978-1-4039-6084-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=People+in+the+Middle%3A+Uyghurs+in+the+Northwest+Frontier+Zone&rft.btitle=Battlefronts+Real+and+Imagined%3A+War%2C+Border%2C+and+Identity+in+the+Chinese+Middle+Period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=253-289&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6084-9&rft.aulast=Brose&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCai2011" class="citation cs2">Cai, Yanxin (2011) [2010], <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinesearchitect0000caiy"><i>Chinese Architecture</i></a></span>, Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press (first published by China Intercontinental Press), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18644-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18644-5"><bdi>978-0-521-18644-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Architecture&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28first+published+by+China+Intercontinental+Press%29&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-18644-5&rft.aulast=Cai&rft.aufirst=Yanxin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinesearchitect0000caiy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanClanceyLoy2002" class="citation cs2">Chan, Alan Kam-leung; Clancey, Gregory K.; Loy, Hui-Chieh (2002), <i>Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine</i>, Singapore: <a href="/wiki/Singapore_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore University Press">Singapore University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-259-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-259-9"><bdi>978-9971-69-259-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Perspectives+on+East+Asian+Science%2C+Technology+and+Medicine&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=Singapore+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-9971-69-259-9&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Alan+Kam-leung&rft.au=Clancey%2C+Gregory+K.&rft.au=Loy%2C+Hui-Chieh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaffee2015" class="citation cs2">Chaffee, John W. (2015), <i>The Cambridge History of China Volume 5 Part Two Sung China, 960-1279</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China+Volume+5+Part+Two+Sung+China%2C+960-1279&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chaffee&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2014" class="citation cs2">Chen, Yuan Julian (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/23276848">"Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China"</a>, <i>Journal of Song-Yuan Studies</i>, <b>44</b>: 325–364, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsys.2014.0000">10.1353/sys.2014.0000</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147099574">147099574</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Song-Yuan+Studies&rft.atitle=Legitimation+Discourse+and+the+Theory+of+the+Five+Elements+in+Imperial+China&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=325-364&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fsys.2014.0000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147099574%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuan+Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F23276848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2018" class="citation cs2">Chen, Yuan Julian (2018), "Frontier, Fortification, and Forestation: Defensive Woodland on the Song-Liao Border in the Long Eleventh Century", <i>Journal of Chinese History</i>, <b>2</b> (2): 313–334, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjch.2018.7">10.1017/jch.2018.7</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+History&rft.atitle=Frontier%2C+Fortification%2C+and+Forestation%3A+Defensive+Woodland+on+the+Song-Liao+Border+in+the+Long+Eleventh+Century&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=313-334&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fjch.2018.7&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuan+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>, Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0"><bdi>978-0-618-13384-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-13384-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbrey1999" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre"><i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i></a>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66991-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66991-7"><bdi>978-0-521-66991-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66991-7&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeillustr00ebre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span> (paperback).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmbreeGluck1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ainslie_Embree" title="Ainslie Embree">Embree, Ainslie Thomas</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gluck" title="Carol Gluck">Gluck, Carol</a> (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/asiainwesternwor00ains"><i>Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching</i></a>, Armonk: ME Sharpe, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-264-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-264-9"><bdi>978-1-56324-264-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+Western+and+World+History%3A+A+Guide+for+Teaching&rft.place=Armonk&rft.pub=ME+Sharpe&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-56324-264-9&rft.aulast=Embree&rft.aufirst=Ainslie+Thomas&rft.au=Gluck%2C+Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fasiainwesternwor00ains&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="citation cs2">Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1992], <i>China: A New History</i> (2nd enlarged ed.), Cambridge; London: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01828-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01828-0"><bdi>978-0-674-01828-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+History&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+London&rft.edition=2nd+enlarged&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01828-0&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Merle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraserHaber1986" class="citation cs2">Fraser, Julius Thomas; Haber, Francis C. (1986), <i>Time, Science, and Society in China and the West</i>, Amherst, MA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Press" title="University of Massachusetts Press">University of Massachusetts Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-495-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-495-8"><bdi>978-0-87023-495-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time%2C+Science%2C+and+Society+in+China+and+the+West&rft.place=Amherst%2C+MA&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87023-495-8&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Julius+Thomas&rft.au=Haber%2C+Francis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGernet1962" class="citation cs2">Gernet, Jacques (1962), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gern"><i>Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276</i></a>, Translated by H. M. Wright, Stanford: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0720-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0720-6"><bdi>978-0-8047-0720-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+China+on+the+Eve+of+the+Mongol+Invasion%2C+1250%E2%80%931276&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0720-6&rft.aulast=Gernet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinchina00gern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolas1980" class="citation cs2">Golas, Peter (1980), "Rural China in the Song", <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, <b>39</b> (2): 291–325, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2054291">10.2307/2054291</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2054291">2054291</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162997737">162997737</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Rural+China+in+the+Song&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=291-325&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162997737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2054291%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2054291&rft.aulast=Golas&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraffHigham2002" class="citation cs2">Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin (2002), <i>A Military History of China</i>, Boulder: Westview Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+China&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=David+Andrew&rft.au=Higham%2C+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo1998" class="citation cs2">Guo, Qinghua (1998), "Yingzao Fashi: Twelfth-Century Chinese Building Manual", <i>Architectural History</i>, <b>41</b>: 1–13, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1568644">10.2307/1568644</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1568644">1568644</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192365949">192365949</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Architectural+History&rft.atitle=Yingzao+Fashi%3A+Twelfth-Century+Chinese+Building+Manual&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192365949%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1568644%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1568644&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Qinghua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1985" class="citation cs2">Hall, Kenneth (1985), <i>Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia</i>, Hawaii: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0959-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0959-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-0959-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maritime+trade+and+state+development+in+early+Southeast+Asia&rft.place=Hawaii&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-0959-1&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2000" class="citation web cs1">Halsall, Paul (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html">"East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E."</a> <i>Fordham.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fordham.edu&rft.atitle=East+Asian+History+Sourcebook%3A+Chinese+Accounts+of+Rome%2C+Byzantium+and+the+Middle+East%2C+c.+91+B.C.E.+%E2%80%93+1643+C.E.&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Feastasia%2Fromchin1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2000" class="citation cs2">Hansen, Valerie (2000), <i>The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600</i>, New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97374-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97374-7"><bdi>978-0-393-97374-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Open+Empire%3A+A+History+of+China+to+1600&rft.place=New+York+%26+London&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-393-97374-7&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargett1985" class="citation cs2">Hargett, James M. (1985), "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)", <i>Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews</i>, <b>7</b> (1/2): 67–93, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F495194">10.2307/495194</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/495194">495194</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Literature%3A+Essays%2C+Articles%2C+Reviews&rft.atitle=Some+Preliminary+Remarks+on+the+Travel+Records+of+the+Song+Dynasty+%28960%E2%80%931279%29&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=67-93&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F495194&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F495194%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hargett&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargett1996" class="citation cs2">——— (1996), "Song Dynasty Local Gazetteers and Their Place in The History of Difangzhi Writing", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>56</b> (2): 405–442, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2719404">10.2307/2719404</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2719404">2719404</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Song+Dynasty+Local+Gazetteers+and+Their+Place+in+The+History+of+Difangzhi+Writing&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=405-442&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2719404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2719404%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hargett&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwell1982" class="citation cs2">Hartwell, Robert M. (1982), "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750-1550", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>42</b> (2): 365–442, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718941">10.2307/2718941</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718941">2718941</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Demographic%2C+Political%2C+and+Social+Transformations+of+China%2C+750-1550&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=365-442&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718941%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymes1986" class="citation cs2">Hymes, Robert P. (1986), <i>Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30631-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30631-7"><bdi>978-0-521-30631-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statesmen+and+Gentlemen%3A+The+Elite+of+Fu-Chou%2C+Chiang-Hsi%2C+in+Northern+and+Southern+Sung&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30631-7&rft.aulast=Hymes&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsu1993" class="citation cs2">Hsu, Mei-ling (1993), "The Qin Maps: A Clue to Later Chinese Cartographic Development", <i>Imago Mundi</i>, <b>45</b>: 90–100, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085699308592766">10.1080/03085699308592766</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imago+Mundi&rft.atitle=The+Qin+Maps%3A+A+Clue+to+Later+Chinese+Cartographic+Development&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=90-100&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085699308592766&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Mei-ling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevathes1994" class="citation cs2">Levathes, Louise (1994), <i>When China Ruled the Seas</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-70158-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-70158-1"><bdi>978-0-671-70158-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+China+Ruled+the+Seas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-671-70158-1&rft.aulast=Levathes&rft.aufirst=Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2015" class="citation cs2">Liu, William Guangling (2015), <i>The Chinese Market Economy 1000-1500</i>, SUNY Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5567-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5567-9"><bdi>978-1-4384-5567-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Market+Economy+1000-1500&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-5567-9&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=William+Guangling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorge2005" class="citation cs2">Lorge, Peter (2005), <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795</i> (1st ed.), New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Politics+and+Society+in+Early+Modern+China%2C+900%E2%80%931795&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lorge&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorge2015" class="citation cs2">Lorge, Peter (2015), <i>The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08475-9"><bdi>978-1-107-08475-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reunification+of+China%3A+Peace+through+War+under+the+Song+Dynasty&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-08475-9&rft.aulast=Lorge&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKnight1992" class="citation cs2">McKnight, Brian E. (1992), <i>Law and Order in Sung China</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Order+in+Sung+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McKnight&rft.aufirst=Brian+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohn2003" class="citation cs2">Mohn, Peter (2003), <i>Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction</i>, New York: Springer-Verlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-43183-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-43183-1"><bdi>978-3-540-43183-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magnetism+in+the+Solid+State%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-540-43183-1&rft.aulast=Mohn&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMote1999" class="citation cs2">Mote, F. W. (1999), <i>Imperial China: 900–1800</i>, Harvard: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China%3A+900%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Harvard&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=F.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986a" class="citation cs2">Needham, Joseph (1986a), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+1%2C+Introductory+Orientations&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986b" class="citation cs2">——— (1986b), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+3%2C+Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986c" class="citation cs2">——— (1986c), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+2%3A+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986d" class="citation cs2">——— (1986d), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+3%3A+Civil+Engineering+and+Nautics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986e" class="citation cs2">——— (1986e), <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7: Military Technology; The Gunpowder Epic</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+5%2C+Chemistry+and+Chemical+Technology%2C+Part+7%3A+Military+Technology%3B+The+Gunpowder+Epic&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaludan1998" class="citation cs2">Paludan, Ann (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofchine00palu"><i>Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors</i></a>, London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05090-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05090-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Chinese+Emperors&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05090-3&rft.aulast=Paludan&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofchine00palu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeers2006" class="citation cs2">Peers, C. J. (2006), <i>Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BCE–CE 1840</i>, Oxford: Osprey Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soldiers+of+the+Dragon%3A+Chinese+Armies+1500+BCE%E2%80%93CE+1840&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Peers&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi1988" class="citation cs2">Rossabi, Morris (1988), <i>Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times</i>, Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05913-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05913-9"><bdi>978-0-520-05913-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khubilai+Khan%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05913-9&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolph1963" class="citation cs2">Rudolph, R. C. (1963), "Preliminary Notes on Sung Archaeology", <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, <b>22</b> (2): 169–177, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2050010">10.2307/2050010</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2050010">2050010</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164153713">164153713</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Preliminary+Notes+on+Sung+Archaeology&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169-177&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164153713%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2050010%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2050010&rft.aulast=Rudolph&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSastri1984" class="citation cs2">Sastri, Nilakanta, K.A. (1984), <i>The CōĻas</i>, Madras: University of Madras</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+C%C5%8D%C4%BBas&rft.place=Madras&rft.pub=University+of+Madras&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Sastri&rft.aufirst=Nilakanta%2C+K.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchafer1957" class="citation cs2">Schafer, Edward H. (1957), "War Elephants in Ancient and Medieval China", <i>Oriens</i>, <b>10</b> (2): 289–291, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1579643">10.2307/1579643</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1579643">1579643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens&rft.atitle=War+Elephants+in+Ancient+and+Medieval+China&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=289-291&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1579643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1579643%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=Edward+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2003" class="citation cs2">Sen, Tansen (2003), <i>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400</i>, Manoa: Asian Interactions and Comparisons, a joint publication of the University of Hawaii Press and the Association for Asian Studies, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2593-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2593-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-2593-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%2C+Diplomacy%2C+and+Trade%3A+The+Realignment+of+Sino-Indian+Relations%2C+600%E2%80%931400&rft.place=Manoa&rft.pub=Asian+Interactions+and+Comparisons%2C+a+joint+publication+of+the+University+of+Hawaii+Press+and+the+Association+for+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2593-5&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Tansen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShen1996" class="citation cs2">Shen, Fuwei (1996), <i>Cultural flow between China and the outside world</i>, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-119-00431-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-119-00431-0"><bdi>978-7-119-00431-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+flow+between+China+and+the+outside+world&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-7-119-00431-0&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=Fuwei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSivin1995" class="citation cs2">Sivin, Nathan (1995), <i>Science in Ancient China</i>, Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+Ancient+China&rft.place=Brookfield%2C+Vermont&rft.pub=VARIORUM%2C+Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sivin&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhardt1993" class="citation cs2">Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1993), "The Tangut Royal Tombs near Yinchuan", <i>Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture</i>, <b>X</b>: 369–381, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1523201">10.2307/1523201</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523201">1523201</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas%3A+An+Annual+on+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.atitle=The+Tangut+Royal+Tombs+near+Yinchuan&rft.volume=X&rft.pages=369-381&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1523201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1523201%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Steinhardt&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Shatzman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSung1981" class="citation cs2">Sung, Tz'u (1981), <i>The Washing Away of Wrongs: Forensic Medicine in Thirteenth-Century China</i>, translated by Brian E. McKnight, Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-800-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-800-9"><bdi>978-0-89264-800-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Washing+Away+of+Wrongs%3A+Forensic+Medicine+in+Thirteenth-Century+China&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-89264-800-9&rft.aulast=Sung&rft.aufirst=Tz%27u&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a></i>, <b>41</b> (3): 475–504, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=475-504&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3cn68807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple1986" class="citation cs2">Temple, Robert (1986), <i>The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention</i>, with a foreword by Joseph Needham, New York: Simon and Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62028-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62028-8"><bdi>978-0-671-62028-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3%2C000+Years+of+Science%2C+Discovery%2C+and+Invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-671-62028-8&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007" class="citation cs2">Veeck, Gregory; Pannell, Clifton W.; Smith, Christopher J.; Huang, Youqin (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000veec"><i>China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change</i></a>, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5402-3"><bdi>978-0-7425-5402-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Geography%3A+Globalization+and+the+Dynamics+of+Political%2C+Economic%2C+and+Social+Change&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5402-3&rft.aulast=Veeck&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Pannell%2C+Clifton+W.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Christopher+J.&rft.au=Huang%2C+Youqin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinasgeographyg0000veec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2001" class="citation cs2">Wagner, Donald B. (2001), "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China", <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>, <b>44</b> (2): 175–197, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852001753731033">10.1163/156852001753731033</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=The+Administration+of+the+Iron+Industry+in+Eleventh-Century+China&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-197&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852001753731033&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2000" class="citation cs2">Wang, Lianmao (2000), <i>Return to the City of Light: Quanzhou, an eastern city shining with the splendour of medieval culture</i>, Fujian People's Publishing House</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Return+to+the+City+of+Light%3A+Quanzhou%2C+an+eastern+city+shining+with+the+splendour+of+medieval+culture&rft.pub=Fujian+People%27s+Publishing+House&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Lianmao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest1997" class="citation cs2">West, Stephen H. (1997), "Playing With Food: Performance, Food, and The Aesthetics of Artificiality in The Sung and Yuan", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>57</b> (1): 67–106, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2719361">10.2307/2719361</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2719361">2719361</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Playing+With+Food%3A+Performance%2C+Food%2C+and+The+Aesthetics+of+Artificiality+in+The+Sung+and+Yuan&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-106&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2719361&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2719361%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1959" class="citation cs2">Wright, Arthur F. (1959), <i>Buddhism in Chinese History</i>, Stanford: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Chinese+History&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Arthur+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYen-Mah2008" class="citation cs2">Yen-Mah, Adeline (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinalandofdrago00maha"><i>China; Land of Dragon and Emperors</i></a>, New York: Random House, Inc., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-73748-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-73748-7"><bdi>978-0-385-73748-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3B+Land+of+Dragon+and+Emperors&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-385-73748-7&rft.aulast=Yen-Mah&rft.aufirst=Adeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinalandofdrago00maha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuan1994" class="citation cs2">Yuan, Zheng (1994), "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment", <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>, <b>34</b> (2): 193–213, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F369121">10.2307/369121</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/369121">369121</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144538656">144538656</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Local+Government+Schools+in+Sung+China%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=193-213&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144538656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F369121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F369121&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Zheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bol, Peter K. (1992). <i>"This Culture of Ours": Intellectual Transitions in T'ang and Sung China</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1920-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1920-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-1920-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22This+Culture+of+Ours%22%3A+Intellectual+Transitions+in+T%27ang+and+Sung+China&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1920-9&rft.aulast=Bol&rft.aufirst=Peter+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Cotterell, Arthur (2007), <i>The Imperial Capitals of China – An Inside View of the Celestial Empire</i>, London: Pimlico, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-009-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-009-5"><bdi>978-1-84595-009-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Capitals+of+China+%E2%80%93+An+Inside+View+of+the+Celestial+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84595-009-5&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Gascoigne, Bamber (2003), <i>The Dynasties of China: A History</i>, New York: Carroll & Graf, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84119-791-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84119-791-3"><bdi>978-1-84119-791-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynasties+of+China%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84119-791-3&rft.aulast=Gascoigne&rft.aufirst=Bamber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Gernet, Jacques (1982), <i>A history of Chinese civilization</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24130-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24130-4"><bdi>978-0-521-24130-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Chinese+civilization&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24130-4&rft.aulast=Gernet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Kruger, Rayne (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allunderheavenco0000krug"><i>All Under Heaven: A Complete History of China</i></a>, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-86533-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-86533-0"><bdi>978-0-470-86533-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Under+Heaven%3A+A+Complete+History+of+China&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-470-86533-0&rft.aulast=Kruger&rft.aufirst=Rayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallunderheavenco0000krug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Dieter (2009). <i>The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03146-3"><bdi>978-0-674-03146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Confucian+Rule%3A+The+Song+Transformation+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03146-3&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rossabi, Morris (1983). <i>China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04383-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04383-1"><bdi>978-0-520-04383-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+among+Equals%3A+The+Middle+Kingdom+and+Its+Neighbors%2C+10th%E2%80%9314th+Centuries&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04383-1&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASong+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Song_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Song Dynasty">Song Dynasty</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=006_elm.inc&issue=006">Song dynasty at China Heritage Quarterly</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120903075459/http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/models/chinahist/song.html">Song dynasty at bcps.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/timelines/china/song.html">Song and Liao artwork</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-sung.cfm">Song dynasty art with video commentary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907063837/http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-sung.cfm">Archived</a> 2008-09-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11383/">The Newly Compiled Overall Geographical Survey</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> </b><br />960–1279 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Song_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Song_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Song dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Song_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Song dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Song_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Song dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Song_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Song dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="History of the Song dynasty">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Song dynasty">Timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chenqiao_mutiny" title="Chenqiao mutiny">Chenqiao mutiny</a></li> <li>Unification <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Song_conquest_of_Later_Shu" title="Song conquest of Later Shu">Later Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_conquest_of_Southern_Han" title="Song conquest of Southern Han">Southern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_conquest_of_Southern_Tang" title="Song conquest of Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaoliang_River" title="Battle of Gaoliang River">Gaoliang River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_C%E1%BB%93_Vi%E1%BB%87t_war" title="Song–Đại Cồ Việt war">Song–Đại Cồ Việt war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93Xia_wars" title="Song–Xia wars">Song–Xia wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanyuan_Treaty" title="Chanyuan Treaty">Chanyuan Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ze" title="Wang Ze">Wang Ze rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nong_Zhigao_rebellions" title="Nong Zhigao rebellions">Nong Zhigao rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Song–Tibet relations">Song–Tibet relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93Viet_war_(1075%E2%80%931077)" class="mw-redirect" title="Song–Viet war (1075–1077)">Song–Viet war (1075–1077)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_La" title="Fang La">Fang La rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Conducted_at_Sea" title="Alliance Conducted at Sea">Alliance Conducted at Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin%E2%80%93Song_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin–Song Wars">Jin–Song Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jingkang_incident" title="Jingkang incident">Jingkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Huangtiandang" title="Battle of Huangtiandang">Huangtiandang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_De%27an" title="Siege of De'an">De'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yancheng" title="Battle of Yancheng">Yancheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shaoxing" title="Treaty of Shaoxing">Treaty of Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangdao" title="Battle of Tangdao">Tangdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caishi" title="Battle of Caishi">Caishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caizhou" title="Siege of Caizhou">Caizhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Song_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Song China">Mongol conquest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Diaoyucheng" title="Siege of Diaoyucheng">Diaoyucheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang" title="Battle of Xiangyang">Xiangyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Yamen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Painting by Song painter Ma Lin"><img alt="Painting by Song painter Ma Lin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg/50px-Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg/75px-Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg/100px-Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1864" data-file-height="1818" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Song dynasty">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(middle)#Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (middle)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination#Song_dynasty_(960–1279)" title="Imperial examination">Imperial examinations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China#Song_dynasty_(960–1279)" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Administrative units</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Prefectures" title="Sixteen Prefectures">Sixteen Prefectures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Military history of the Song dynasty">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Military_Affairs" title="Bureau of Military Affairs">Bureau of Military Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingli_Reforms" title="Qingli Reforms">Qingli Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Policies_(Song_dynasty)" title="New Policies (Song dynasty)">New Policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baojia_system" title="Baojia system">Baojia system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Bureaus" title="Three Bureaus">Three Bureaus</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_State_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State Affairs">Department of State Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menxia_Sheng" title="Menxia Sheng">Chancellery</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Secretariat-Chancellery" title="Secretariat-Chancellery">Secretariat-Chancellery</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Six Ministries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel">Ministry of Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)">Ministry of Revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Ministry of Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)">Ministry of War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)">Ministry of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Works_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Works (imperial China)">Ministry of Works</a></li></ol> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Culture of the Song dynasty">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Society of the Song dynasty">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Song_dynasty" title="Religion in the Song dynasty">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_poetry" title="Song poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Kilns" title="Five Great Kilns">Five Great Kilns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ding_ware" title="Ding ware">Ding ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_ware" title="Ge ware">Ge ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_ware" title="Guan ware">Guan ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun_ware" title="Jun ware">Jun ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ru_ware" title="Ru ware">Ru ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longquan_celadon" title="Longquan celadon">Longquan celadon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cizhou_ware" title="Cizhou ware">Cizhou ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingbai_ware" title="Qingbai ware">Qingbai ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaozhou_ware" title="Yaozhou ware">Yaozhou ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jian_ware" title="Jian ware">Jian ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_Hebei#Great_Bodhisattva_of_Zhengding_(971)" title="Four Treasures of Hebei">Great Bodhisattva of Zhengding</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Books_of_Song" title="Four Great Books of Song">Four Great Books of Song</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dongjing_Meng_Hua_Lu" title="Dongjing Meng Hua Lu">Dongjing Meng Hua Lu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a> (989–1052)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Shu" title="Yan Shu">Yan Shu</a> (991–1055)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_Qi" title="Song Qi">Song Qi</a> (998–1061)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mei_Yaochen" title="Mei Yaochen">Mei Yaochen</a> (1002–1060)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a> (1007–1072)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Xun" title="Su Xun">Su Xun</a> (1009–1066)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a> (1011–1077)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Xiang" title="Cai Xiang">Cai Xiang</a> (1012–1067)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a> (1017–1073)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Gong" title="Zeng Gong">Zeng Gong</a> (1019–1083)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a> (1019–1086)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a> (1022–1077)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Hao" title="Cheng Hao">Cheng Hao</a> (1032–1085)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> (1033–1107)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi">Su Shi</a> (1037–1101)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Zhe" title="Su Zhe">Su Zhe</a> (1039–1112)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Tingjian" title="Huang Tingjian">Huang Tingjian</a> (1045–1105)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Jing" title="Cai Jing">Cai Jing</a> (1047–1126)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Bangyan" title="Zhou Bangyan">Zhou Bangyan</a> (1056–1121)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Qingzhao" title="Li Qingzhao">Li Qingzhao</a> (1084–1155)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Bian" title="Zhu Bian">Zhu Bian</a> (1085–1144)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yu_(author)" title="Zhu Yu (author)">Zhu Yu</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1111–1117</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_You" title="Lu You">Lu You</a> (1125–1209)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Chengda" title="Fan Chengda">Fan Chengda</a> (1126–1193)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Wanli" title="Yang Wanli">Yang Wanli</a> (1127–1206)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> (1130–1200)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_Qiji" title="Xin Qiji">Xin Qiji</a> (1140–1207)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Rukuo" title="Zhao Rukuo">Zhao Rukuo</a> (1170–1231)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Painters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Kuan" title="Fan Kuan">Fan Kuan</a> (960–1030)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Daoning" title="Xu Daoning">Xu Daoning</a> (970–1053)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Chang" title="Zhao Chang">Zhao Chang</a> (10th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Yuanji" title="Yi Yuanji">Yi Yuanji</a> (1000–1064)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Tong" title="Wen Tong">Wen Tong</a> (1019–1079)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xi" title="Guo Xi">Guo Xi</a> (1020–1090)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Shen_(Song_dynasty)" title="Wang Shen (Song dynasty)">Wang Shen</a> (1036–1093)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Gonglin" title="Li Gonglin">Li Gonglin</a> (1049–1106)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cui_Bai" title="Cui Bai">Cui Bai</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050–1080</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi_Fu" title="Mi Fu">Mi Fu</a> (1051–1107)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong</a> (1082–1135)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a> (1085–1145)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Hanchen" title="Su Hanchen">Su Hanchen</a> (1094-1172)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ximeng" title="Wang Ximeng">Wang Ximeng</a> (1096–1119)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Di" title="Li Di">Li Di</a> (1100–1197)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Boju" title="Zhao Boju">Zhao Boju</a> (1120–1182)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Kai" title="Liang Kai">Liang Kai</a> (1140–1210)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Tinggui" title="Lin Tinggui">Lin Tinggui</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1174–1189</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Jichang" title="Zhou Jichang">Zhou Jichang</a> (12th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhun_Shifan" title="Wuzhun Shifan">Wuzhun Shifan</a> (1178–1249)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Song_(painter)" title="Li Song (painter)">Li Song</a> (1190–1230)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mengjian" title="Zhao Mengjian">Zhao Mengjian</a> (1199–1295)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqi" title="Muqi">Muqi</a> (1210–1269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_Kai" title="Gong Kai">Gong Kai</a> (1222–1307)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuan" title="Qian Xuan">Qian Xuan</a> (1235–1305)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a> (1021–1086)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">Banknote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency)" title="Jiaozi (currency)">Jiaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(currency)" title="Guanzi (currency)">Guanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizi_(currency)" title="Huizi (currency)">Huizi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty_coinage" title="Southern Song dynasty coinage">Southern Song dynasty coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa_rice" title="Champa rice">Champa rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanhai_One" title="Nanhai One">Nanhai One</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Fan_Zhi" title="Zhu Fan Zhi">Zhu Fan Zhi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_weapons_in_the_Song_dynasty" title="Gunpowder weapons in the Song dynasty">Gunpowder weapons</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wujing_Zongyao" title="Wujing Zongyao">Wujing Zongyao</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Early Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive">Endless power transmitting chain drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">Astronomical clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">Movable type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lock_(water_navigation)" title="Lock (water navigation)">Pound lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_dock" title="Dry dock">Dry dock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_(partition)" title="Bulkhead (partition)">Watertight bulkhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_reel" title="Fishing reel">Fishing reel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianchi_basin" title="Tianchi basin">Tianchi basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horner%27s_method" title="Horner's method">Horner's method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Architecture of the Song dynasty">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liaodi_Pagoda" title="Liaodi Pagoda">Liaodi Pagoda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yingzao_Fashi" title="Yingzao Fashi">Yingzao Fashi</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_entomology" title="Forensic entomology">Forensic entomology</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Collected_Cases_of_Injustice_Rectified" title="Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified">Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inventors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Inventors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bi_Sheng" title="Bi Sheng">Bi Sheng</a> (972–1051)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sixun" title="Zhang Sixun">Zhang Sixun</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 10th c.</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Xian" title="Jia Xian">Jia Xian</a> (1010–1070)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_Ci" title="Song Ci">Song Ci</a> (1186–1249)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ye_(mathematician)" title="Li Ye (mathematician)">Li Ye</a> (1192-1279)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Jiushao" title="Qin Jiushao">Qin Jiushao</a> (1202–1261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing">Guo Shoujing</a> (1231–1316)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Administrative_divisions_of_the_Song_dynasty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Administrative_divisions_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Template:Administrative divisions of the Song dynasty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Administrative_divisions_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Template talk:Administrative divisions of the Song dynasty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Administrative_divisions_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Administrative divisions of the Song dynasty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Administrative_divisions_of_the_Song_dynasty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative divisions of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Song dynasty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Jingji (京畿)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Upper" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81if%C4%93ng" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāifēng">Kāifēng</a> (開封)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jingdong_Circuit" title="Jingdong Circuit">Jingdong</a> East (京東東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jǐ'nán</a> (濟南)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%ABngzh%C5%8Du" class="mw-redirect" title="Qīngzhōu">Qīngzhōu</a> (青州) | <a href="/wiki/Mi_Prefecture" title="Mi Prefecture">Mìzhōu</a> (密州) | <a href="/wiki/Yi_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Yi Prefecture (Shandong)">Yízhōu</a> (沂州) | <a href="/wiki/Deng_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Deng Prefecture (Shandong)">Dēngzhōu</a> (登州) | <a href="/wiki/Lai_Prefecture" title="Lai Prefecture">Láizhōu</a> (萊州) | <a href="/wiki/Wei_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Wei Prefecture (Shandong)">Wéizhōu</a> (濰州) | <a href="/wiki/Zi_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Zi Prefecture (Shandong)">Zīzhōu</a> (淄州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pizhou" title="Pizhou">Huáiyáng</a> (淮陽)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Jingdong West (京東西)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Shangqiu" title="Shangqiu">Yīngtiān</a> (應天)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Yan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan Province">Yǎnzhōu</a> (兗州) | <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xúzhōu</a> (徐州) | <a href="/wiki/Cao_Prefecture" title="Cao Prefecture">Cáozhōu</a> (曹州) | <a href="/wiki/Yun_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Yun Prefecture (Shandong)">Yùnzhōu</a> (鄆州) | Jìzhōu (濟州) | Shànzhōu (單州) | <a href="/wiki/Pu_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Pu Prefecture (Shandong)">Púzhōu</a> (濮州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jingxi_Circuit" title="Jingxi Circuit">Jingxi</a> South (京西南)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Xiangyang" title="Xiangyang">Xiāngzhōu</a> (襄州) | <a href="/wiki/Suizhou" title="Suizhou">Suízhōu</a> (隨州) | <a href="/wiki/Tang_Prefecture_(Henan)" title="Tang Prefecture (Henan)">Tángzhōu</a> (唐州) | <a href="/wiki/Deng_Prefecture_(Henan)" title="Deng Prefecture (Henan)">Dèngzhōu</a> (鄧州) | <a href="/wiki/Jun_Prefecture" title="Jun Prefecture">Jūnzhōu</a> (均州) | Fángzhōu (房州) | <a href="/wiki/Jin_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Jin Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Jīnzhou</a> (金州) | <a href="/wiki/Ying_Prefecture_(Hubei)" title="Ying Prefecture (Hubei)">Yǐngzhōu</a> (郢州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Laohekou" title="Laohekou">Guānghuà</a> (光化)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Jingxi North (京西北)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Henan_Prefecture" title="Henan Prefecture">Hénán</a> (河南) | <a href="/wiki/Xuchang" title="Xuchang">Yǐngchāng</a> (潁昌)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Prefecture" title="Zheng Prefecture">Zhèngzhōu</a> (鄭州) | <a href="/wiki/Hua_Prefecture_(Henan)" title="Hua Prefecture (Henan)">Huázhōu</a> (滑州) | <a href="/wiki/Mengzhou" title="Mengzhou">Mèngzhōu</a> (孟州) | <a href="/wiki/Runan_County" title="Runan County">Càizhōu</a> (蔡州) | <a href="/wiki/Chen_Prefecture_(Henan)" title="Chen Prefecture (Henan)">Chénzhōu</a> (陳州) | <a href="/wiki/Ying_Prefecture_(Anhui)" title="Ying Prefecture (Anhui)">Yǐngzhōu</a> (穎州) | <a href="/wiki/Ruzhou" title="Ruzhou">Rǔzhōu</a> (汝州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Xinyang" title="Xinyang">Xìnyáng</a> (信陽)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hebei_Circuit" title="Hebei Circuit">Hebei</a> East (河北東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Daming_County" title="Daming County">Dàmíng</a> (大名)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chan_Prefecture" title="Chan Prefecture">Chánzhōu</a> (澶州) | <a href="/wiki/Cang_Prefecture" title="Cang Prefecture">Cāngzhōu</a> (滄州) | Jìzhōu (冀州) | <a href="/wiki/Hejian" title="Hejian">Yíngzhōu</a> (瀛州) | <a href="/wiki/Bo_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Bo Prefecture (Shandong)">Bózhōu</a> (博州) | <a href="/wiki/Di_Prefecture" title="Di Prefecture">Dìzhōu</a> (棣州) | <a href="/wiki/Mo_Prefecture" title="Mo Prefecture">Mòzhōu</a> (莫州) | <a href="/wiki/Xiong_County" title="Xiong County">Xióngzhōu</a> (雄州) | <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A0_Prefecture" title="Bà Prefecture">Bàzhōu</a> (霸州) | <a href="/wiki/De_Prefecture" title="De Prefecture">Dézhōu</a> (德州) | <a href="/wiki/Bin_Prefecture_(Shandong)" title="Bin Prefecture (Shandong)">Bīnzhōu</a> (濱州) | Ēnzhōu (恩州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_County" title="Qing County">Qiánníng</a> (乾寧) | <a href="/wiki/Dezhou" title="Dezhou">Yǒngjìng</a> (永靜) | <a href="/wiki/Wen%27an_County" title="Wen'an County">Bǎodìng</a> (保定) | <a href="/wiki/Bazhou_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Bazhou City">Xìn'ān</a> (信安)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Hebei West (河北西)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Zhengding_County" title="Zhengding County">Zhēndìng</a> (真定)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Xiāngzhōu</a> (相州) | Dìngzhōu (定州) | <a href="/wiki/Xing_Prefecture_(Hebei)" title="Xing Prefecture (Hebei)">Xíngzhōu</a> (邢州) | <a href="/wiki/Huai_Prefecture" title="Huai Prefecture">Huáizhōu</a> (懷州) | Wèizhōu (衛州) | <a href="/wiki/Ming_Prefecture_(Hebei)" title="Ming Prefecture (Hebei)">Míngzhōu</a> (洺州) | <a href="/wiki/Shen_Prefecture" title="Shen Prefecture">Shēnzhōu</a> (深州) | <a href="/wiki/Ci_County" title="Ci County">Cízhōu</a> (磁州) | <a href="/wiki/Anguo" title="Anguo">Qízhōu</a> (祁州) | Zhàozhōu (趙州) | <a href="/wiki/Bao_Prefecture" title="Bao Prefecture">Bǎozhōu</a> (保州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Xushui_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Xushui District">Ānsù</a> (安肅) | <a href="/wiki/Li_County,_Hebei" title="Li County, Hebei">Yǒngníng</a> (永寧) | Guǎngxìn (廣信) | <a href="/wiki/Anxin_County" title="Anxin County">Shùn'ān</a> (順安)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Hedong (河東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Tàiyuán</a> (太原)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Changzhi" title="Changzhi">Lùzhōu</a> (潞州) | <a href="/wiki/Jin_Prefecture_(Shanxi)" title="Jin Prefecture (Shanxi)">Jìnzhōu</a> (晉州) | <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_County" title="Xinjiang County">Jiàngzhōu</a> (絳州) | <a href="/wiki/Jincheng" title="Jincheng">Zézhōu</a> (澤州) | <a href="/wiki/Dai_Prefecture" title="Dai Prefecture">Dàizhōu</a> (代州) | <a href="/wiki/Xinzhou" title="Xinzhou">Xīnzhōu</a> (忻州) | <a href="/wiki/Fen_Prefecture" title="Fen Prefecture">Fénzhōu</a> (汾州) | <a href="/wiki/Xiyang_County" title="Xiyang County">Liáozhōu</a> (遼州) | <a href="/wiki/Xianzhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Xianzhou">Xiànzhōu</a> (憲州) | <a href="/wiki/Lan_Prefecture_(Shanxi)" title="Lan Prefecture (Shanxi)">Lánzhōu</a> (嵐州) | Shízhōu (石州) | <a href="/wiki/Xi_County,_Shanxi" title="Xi County, Shanxi">Xízhōu</a> (隰州) | <a href="/wiki/Shenmu" title="Shenmu">Línzhōu</a> (麟州) | Fǔzhōu (府州) | <a href="/wiki/Hohhot" title="Hohhot">Fēngzhōu</a> (豐州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Qin_County" title="Qin County">Wēishèng</a> (威勝) | <a href="/wiki/Pingding_County" title="Pingding County">Píngdìng</a> (平定) | <a href="/wiki/Kelan_County" title="Kelan County">Kělán</a> (岢嵐) | <a href="/wiki/Ningwu_County" title="Ningwu County">Nínghuà</a> (寧化) | <a href="/wiki/Hequ_County" title="Hequ County">Huǒshān</a> (火山) | <a href="/wiki/Baode_County" title="Baode County">Bǎodé</a> (保德)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Yongxing Army (永興軍)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jingzhao" title="Jingzhao">Jīngzhào</a> (京兆) | Hézhōng (河中)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Yuncheng" title="Yuncheng">Xìezhōu</a> (解州) | <a href="/wiki/Sh%C7%8En_Prefecture" title="Shǎn Prefecture">Shǎnzhōu</a> (陝州) | <a href="/wiki/Shangzhou_District" title="Shangzhou District">Shāngzhōu</a> (商州) | <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B3_Prefecture" title="Guó Prefecture">Guózhōu</a> (虢州) | <a href="/wiki/Tong_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Tong Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Tóngzhōu</a> (同州) | <a href="/wiki/Hua_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Hua Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Huázhōu</a> (華州) | <a href="/wiki/Yaozhou_District" title="Yaozhou District">Yàozhōu</a> (耀州) |<a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yánzhōu</a> (延州) | <a href="/wiki/Fu_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Fu Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Fūzhōu</a> (鄜州) | <a href="/wiki/Huangling_County" title="Huangling County">Fāngzhōu</a> (坊州) | <a href="/wiki/Q%C3%ACng_Prefecture" title="Qìng Prefecture">Qìngzhōu</a> (慶州) | <a href="/wiki/Huan_County" title="Huan County">Huánzhōu</a> (環州) | <a href="/wiki/Bin_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Bin Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Bīnzhōu</a> (邠州) | <a href="/wiki/Ning_Prefecture" title="Ning Prefecture">Níngzhōu</a> (寧州) | <a href="/wiki/Danzhou_(modern_Shaanxi)" title="Danzhou (modern Shaanxi)">Dānzhōu</a> (丹州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Zhidan_County" title="Zhidan County">Bǎoān</a> (保安)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Qinfeng (秦鳳)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Baoji" title="Baoji">Fèngxiáng</a> (鳳翔)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Q%C3%ADn_Prefecture" title="Qín Prefecture">Qínzhōu</a> (秦州) | <a href="/wiki/Long_County,_Shaanxi" title="Long County, Shaanxi">Lǒngzhōu</a> (隴州) | <a href="/wiki/Cheng_County" title="Cheng County">Chéngzhōu</a> (成州) | <a href="/wiki/Feng_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Feng Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Fèngzhōu</a> (鳳州) | <a href="/wiki/Jing_Prefecture_(Gansu)" title="Jing Prefecture (Gansu)">Jīngzhōu</a> (涇州) | <a href="/wiki/Wei_Prefecture_(Gansu)" title="Wei Prefecture (Gansu)">Wèizhōu</a> (渭州) | <a href="/wiki/Zhenyuan_County,_Gansu" title="Zhenyuan County, Gansu">Yuánzhōu</a> (原州) | <a href="/wiki/Lintao_County" title="Lintao County">Xīzhōu</a> (熙州) | Hézhōu (河州) | <a href="/wiki/Min_County" title="Min County">Mínzhōu</a> (岷州) | Lánzhōu (蘭州) | <a href="/wiki/Jie_Prefecture_(Gansu)" title="Jie Prefecture (Gansu)">Jiēzhōu</a> (階州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Longde_County" title="Longde County">Déshùn</a> (德順) | <a href="/wiki/Guyuan" title="Guyuan">Zhènróng</a> (鎮戎) | <a href="/wiki/Longxi_County" title="Longxi County">Tōngyuǎn</a> (通遠)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Liangzhe_Circuit" title="Liangzhe Circuit">Liangzhe</a> (兩浙)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lower" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hang_Prefecture" title="Hang Prefecture">Hángzhōu</a> (杭州) | <a href="/wiki/Yue_Prefecture_(Zhejiang)" title="Yue Prefecture (Zhejiang)">Yuèzhōu</a> (越州) | <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Sūzhōu</a> (蘇州) | <a href="/wiki/Run_Prefecture" title="Run Prefecture">Rùnzhōu</a> (潤州) | <a href="/wiki/Hu_Prefecture" title="Hu Prefecture">Húzhōu</a> (湖州) | <a href="/wiki/Jinhua" title="Jinhua">Wùzhōu</a> (婺州) | <a href="/wiki/Ming_Prefecture_(Zhejiang)" title="Ming Prefecture (Zhejiang)">Míngzhōu</a> (明州) | <a href="/wiki/Wen_Prefecture_(Zhejiang)" title="Wen Prefecture (Zhejiang)">Wēnzhōu</a> (溫州) | <a href="/wiki/Linhai" title="Linhai">Táizhōu</a> (台州) | <a href="/wiki/Chu_Prefecture_(Zhejiang)" title="Chu Prefecture (Zhejiang)">Chǔzhōu</a> (處州) | <a href="/wiki/Quzhou" title="Quzhou">Qúzhōu</a> (衢州) | <a href="/wiki/Mu_Prefecture" title="Mu Prefecture">Mùzhōu</a> (睦州) | <a href="/wiki/Xiu_Prefecture" title="Xiu Prefecture">Xiùzhōu</a> (秀州) | <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A1ng_Prefecture" title="Cháng Prefecture">Chángzhōu</a> (常州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Huainan_Circuit" title="Huainan Circuit">Huainan</a> East (淮南東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lower" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Yángzhōu (揚州) | <a href="/wiki/Bo_Prefecture_(Anhui_and_Henan)" title="Bo Prefecture (Anhui and Henan)">Bózhōu</a> (亳州) | <a href="/wiki/Suzhou,_Anhui" title="Suzhou, Anhui">Sùzhōu</a> (宿州) | <a href="/wiki/Chu_Prefecture_(Jiangsu)" title="Chu Prefecture (Jiangsu)">Chǔzhōu</a> (楚州) | <a href="/wiki/Hai_Prefecture" title="Hai Prefecture">Hǎizhōu</a> (海州) | <a href="/wiki/Taizhou,_Jiangsu" title="Taizhou, Jiangsu">Tàizhōu</a> (泰州) | <a href="/wiki/Si_Prefecture_(Huai_valley)" class="mw-redirect" title="Si Prefecture (Huai valley)">Sìzhōu</a> (泗州) | <a href="/wiki/Chuzhou" title="Chuzhou">Chúzhōu</a> (滁州) | <a href="/wiki/Yizheng" title="Yizheng">Zhēnzhōu</a> (真州) | <a href="/wiki/Nantong" title="Nantong">Tōngzhōu</a> (通州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Huainan West (淮南西)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Shòuchūn (壽春)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lu_Prefecture_(Anhui)" title="Lu Prefecture (Anhui)">Lúzhōu</a> (廬州) | <a href="/wiki/Qizhou_(modern_Hubei)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qizhou (modern Hubei)">Qízhōu</a> (蘄州) | <a href="/wiki/Hezhou_(Anhui)" title="Hezhou (Anhui)">Hézhōu</a> (和州) | <a href="/wiki/Shu_Prefecture" title="Shu Prefecture">Shūzhōu</a> (舒州) | <a href="/wiki/Hao_Prefecture" title="Hao Prefecture">Háozhōu</a> (濠州) | <a href="/wiki/Gu%C4%81ng_Prefecture" title="Guāng Prefecture">Guāngzhōu</a>(光州) | <a href="/wiki/Huang_Prefecture" title="Huang Prefecture">Huángzhōu</a> (黃州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Wúwéi (無為)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jiangnan_Circuit" title="Jiangnan Circuit">Jiangnan</a> East (江南東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Jiāngníng</a> (江寧)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng" title="Xuancheng">Xuánzhōu</a> (宣州) | <a href="/wiki/She_County,_Anhui" title="She County, Anhui">Shèzhōu</a> (歙州) | <a href="/wiki/Chizhou" title="Chizhou">Chízhōu</a> (池州) | <a href="/wiki/Jiujiang" title="Jiujiang">Jiāngzhōu</a> (江州) | <a href="/wiki/Shangrao_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangrao County">Rāozhou</a> (饒州) | <a href="/wiki/Xin_River" title="Xin River">Xìnzhōu</a> (信州) | Tàipíngzhōu (太平州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Guangde_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangde County">Guǎngdé</a> (廣德) | <a href="/wiki/Lushan_City" title="Lushan City">Nánkāng</a> (南康)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Jiangnan West (江南西)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Hóngzhōu</a> (洪州) | <a href="/wiki/Ganzhou" title="Ganzhou">Qiánzhōu</a> (虔州) | <a href="/wiki/Ji%27an" title="Ji'an">Jízhōu</a> (吉州) | <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Prefecture" title="Yuan Prefecture">Yuánzhōu</a> (袁州) | <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou,_Jiangxi" title="Fuzhou, Jiangxi">Fǔzhōu</a> (撫州) | <a href="/wiki/Gao%27an" title="Gao'an">Yúnzhōu</a> (筠州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Yangxin_County,_Hubei" title="Yangxin County, Hubei">Xīngguó</a> (興國) | <a href="/wiki/Dayu_County" title="Dayu County">Ānnán</a> (南安) | <a href="/wiki/Zhangshu" title="Zhangshu">Línjiāng</a> (臨江) | <a href="/wiki/Nancheng_County" title="Nancheng County">Jiànchāng</a> (建昌)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jinghu_North_Circuit" title="Jinghu North Circuit">Jinghu North</a> (荊湖北)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jiangling_County" title="Jiangling County">Jiānglín</a> (江陵)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang District">Èzhōu</a> (鄂州) | <a href="/wiki/An_Prefecture" title="An Prefecture">Ānzhōu</a> (安州) | <a href="/wiki/Fu_Prefecture_(Hubei)" title="Fu Prefecture (Hubei)">Fùzhōu</a> (復州) | <a href="/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Dǐngzhōu</a> (鼎州) | <a href="/wiki/Li_County,_Hunan" title="Li County, Hunan">Lǐzhōu</a> (澧州) | <a href="/wiki/Xi%C3%A1_Prefecture" title="Xiá Prefecture">Xiázhōu</a> (峽州) | <a href="/wiki/Yue_Prefecture_(Hunan)" title="Yue Prefecture (Hunan)">Yuèzhōu</a> (岳州) | <a href="/wiki/Gui_Prefecture_(Hubei)" title="Gui Prefecture (Hubei)">Guīzhōu</a> (歸州) | <a href="/wiki/Chenzhou_(modern_Huaihua,_Hunan)" title="Chenzhou (modern Huaihua, Hunan)">Chénzhōu</a> (辰州) | Yuánzhōu (沅州) | <a href="/wiki/Jingzhou_Miao_and_Dong_Autonomous_County" title="Jingzhou Miao and Dong Autonomous County">Chéngzhōu</a> (誠州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Jinghu_South_Circuit" title="Jinghu South Circuit">Jinghu South</a> (荊湖南)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Tan_Prefecture_(Hunan)" title="Tan Prefecture (Hunan)">Tánzhōu</a> (潭州) | <a href="/wiki/Hengyang" title="Hengyang">Héngzhōu</a> (衡州) | <a href="/wiki/Dao_Prefecture" title="Dao Prefecture">Dàozhōu</a> (道州) | <a href="/wiki/Yongzhou" title="Yongzhou">Yǒngzhōu</a> (永州) | <a href="/wiki/Chenzhou" title="Chenzhou">Chēnzhōu</a> (郴州) | <a href="/wiki/Shao_Prefecture" title="Shao Prefecture">Shàozhōu</a> (邵州) | <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_County" title="Quanzhou County">Quánzhōu</a> (全州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inspectorate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Guiyang_County" title="Guiyang County">Guìyáng</a> (桂陽)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Fujian_Circuit" title="Fujian Circuit">Fujian</a> (福建)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou" title="Fuzhou">Fúzhōu</a> (福州) | <a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou" title="Jian'ou">Jiànzhōu</a> (建州) | <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quánzhōu</a> (泉州) | <a href="/wiki/Yanping_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanping District">Nánjiànzhōu</a> (南劍州) | <a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou" title="Zhangzhou">Zhāngzhōu</a> (漳州) | Tīngzhōu (汀州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Shaowu" title="Shaowu">Shàowǔ</a> (邵武) | <a href="/wiki/Xinghua_Prefecture" title="Xinghua Prefecture">Xīnghuà</a> (興化)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Chengdu (成都)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chéngdū</a> (成都)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Qiong_Prefecture_(Sichuan)" title="Qiong Prefecture (Sichuan)">Qióngzhōu</a> (邛州) | <a href="/wiki/Meishan" title="Meishan">Méizhōu</a> (眉州) | <a href="/wiki/Chongzhou" title="Chongzhou">Shǔzhōu</a> (蜀州) | <a href="/wiki/Pengzhou" title="Pengzhou">Péngzhōu</a> (彭州) | <a href="/wiki/Mianyang" title="Mianyang">Miánzhōu</a> (綿州) | <a href="/wiki/Guanghan" title="Guanghan">Hànzhōu</a> (漢州) | <a href="/wiki/Leshan" title="Leshan">Jiāzhōu</a> (嘉州) | <a href="/wiki/Jianyang,_Sichuan" title="Jianyang, Sichuan">Jiǎnzhōu</a> (簡州) | Lízhōu (黎州) | <a href="/wiki/Ya%27an" title="Ya'an">Yǎzhōu</a> (雅州) | <a href="/wiki/Mao_Prefecture" title="Mao Prefecture">Màozhōu</a> (茂州) | <a href="/wiki/Li_County,_Sichuan" title="Li County, Sichuan">Wēizhōu</a> (威州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dujiangyan_City" title="Dujiangyan City">Yǒngkāng</a> (永康) | <a href="/wiki/Anzhou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Anzhou District">Shíquán</a> (石泉)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inspectorate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Renshou_County" title="Renshou County">Língjǐng</a> (陵井)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Zizhou (梓州)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Santai_County" title="Santai County">Zǐzhōu</a> (梓州) | <a href="/wiki/Suinin" class="mw-redirect" title="Suinin">Suìzhōu</a> (遂州) | <a href="/wiki/Gu%C7%92_Prefecture" title="Guǒ Prefecture">Guǒzhōu</a> (果州) | <a href="/wiki/Zi_Prefecture_(Sichuan)" title="Zi Prefecture (Sichuan)">Zīzhōu</a> (資州) | <a href="/wiki/Pu_Prefecture_(Sichuan)" title="Pu Prefecture (Sichuan)">Pǔzhōu</a> (普州) | <a href="/wiki/Ch%C4%81ng_Prefecture" title="Chāng Prefecture">Chāngzhōu</a> (昌州) |<a href="/wiki/Yibin" title="Yibin">Róngzhōu</a> (戎州) | <a href="/wiki/Luzhou" title="Luzhou">Lúzhōu</a> (瀘州) | <a href="/wiki/Hezhou_(Chongqing)" title="Hezhou (Chongqing)">Hézhōu</a> (合州) | <a href="/wiki/Rong_County,_Sichuan" title="Rong County, Sichuan">Róngzhōu</a> (榮州) | <a href="/wiki/Qu_County" title="Qu County">Qúzhōu</a> (渠州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Huáiān (懷安) | <a href="/wiki/Guang%27an" title="Guang'an">Guǎng'ān</a> (廣安)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inspectorate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fushun_County,_Sichuan" title="Fushun County, Sichuan">Fùshùn</a> (富順)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Lizhou_Circuit" title="Lizhou Circuit">Lizhou</a> (利州)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hanzhong" title="Hanzhong">Xīngyuán</a> (興元)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Guangyuan" title="Guangyuan">Lìzhōu</a> (利州) | <a href="/wiki/Yang_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Yang Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Yángzhōu</a> (洋州) | Làngzhōu (閬州) | <a href="/wiki/Jiange_County" title="Jiange County">Jiànzhōu</a> (劍州) | <a href="/wiki/B%C4%81_Prefecture" title="Bā Prefecture">Bāzhōu</a> (巴州) | <a href="/wiki/Wen_Prefecture_(Gansu)" title="Wen Prefecture (Gansu)">Wénzhōu</a> (文州) | <a href="/wiki/Xing_Prefecture_(Shaanxi)" title="Xing Prefecture (Shaanxi)">Xīngzhōu</a> (興州) | <a href="/wiki/Peng%27an_County" title="Peng'an County">Péngzhōu</a> (蓬州) | <a href="/wiki/Pingwu_County" title="Pingwu County">Lóngzhōu</a> (龍州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Kuizhou (夔州)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Kuizhou" title="Kuizhou">Kuízhōu</a> (夔州) | <a href="/wiki/Pengshui_Miao_and_Tujia_Autonomous_County" title="Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County">Qiánzhōu</a> (黔州) | <a href="/wiki/Enshi_City" title="Enshi City">Shīzhōu</a> (施州) | <a href="/wiki/Zhong_County" title="Zhong County">Zhōngzhōu</a> (忠州) | <a href="/wiki/Wanzhou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Wanzhou District">Wànzhōu</a> (萬州) | <a href="/wiki/Dazhou" title="Dazhou">Dázhōu</a> (達州) | <a href="/wiki/Fuling_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuling District">Fúzhōu</a> (涪州) | <a href="/wiki/Y%C3%BA_Prefecture" title="Yú Prefecture">Yúzhōu</a> (渝州) | <a href="/wiki/Kaizhou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaizhou District">Kāizhōu</a> (開州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Yunyang_County" title="Yunyang County">Yún'ān</a> (雲安) | <a href="/wiki/Liangping_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Liangping District">Liángshān</a> (梁山) | <a href="/wiki/Nanchuan_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchuan District">Nánpíng</a> (南平)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inspectorate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_County" title="Wuxi County">Dàníng</a> (大寧)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Guangnan_East_Circuit" title="Guangnan East Circuit">Guangnan East</a> (廣南東)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lower" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guǎngzhōu</a> (廣州) | <a href="/wiki/Shaoguan" title="Shaoguan">Sháozhōu</a> (韶州) | Xúnzhōu (循州) | <a href="/wiki/Chaozhou" title="Chaozhou">Cháozhōu</a> (潮州) | <a href="/wiki/Lian_Prefecture_(Guangdong)" title="Lian Prefecture (Guangdong)">Liánzhōu</a> (連州) | <a href="/wiki/Meizhou" title="Meizhou">Méizhōu</a> (梅州) | <a href="/wiki/Nanxiong" title="Nanxiong">Xióngzhōu</a> (雄州) | <a href="/wiki/Ying_Prefecture_(Guangdong)" title="Ying Prefecture (Guangdong)">Yīngzhōu</a> (英州) | <a href="/wiki/Hezhou" title="Hezhou">Hèzhōu</a> (賀州) | <a href="/wiki/Feng_Prefecture_(Guangdong)" title="Feng Prefecture (Guangdong)">Fēngzhōu</a> (封州) | <a href="/wiki/Duan_Prefecture" title="Duan Prefecture">Duānzhōu</a> (端州) | <a href="/wiki/Xinxing_County" title="Xinxing County">Xīnzhōu</a> (新州) | <a href="/wiki/Luoding" title="Luoding">Kāngzhōu</a> (康州) | <a href="/wiki/Yangjiang" title="Yangjiang">Nán'ēnzhōu</a> (南恩州) | <a href="/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huìzhōu</a> (惠州)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Guangnan_West_Circuit" title="Guangnan West Circuit">Guangnan West</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Gui_Prefecture_(Guangxi)" title="Gui Prefecture (Guangxi)">Guìzhōu</a> (桂州) | <a href="/wiki/Rong_County,_Guangxi" title="Rong County, Guangxi">Róngzhōu</a> (容州) | <a href="/wiki/Nanning" title="Nanning">Yōngzhōu</a> (邕州) | <a href="/wiki/Rongshui_Miao_Autonomous_County" title="Rongshui Miao Autonomous County">Róngzhōu</a> (融州) | <a href="/wiki/Xiangzhou_County" title="Xiangzhou County">Xiàngzhōu</a> (象州) | <a href="/wiki/Pingle_County" title="Pingle County">Zhāozhōu</a> (昭州) | <a href="/wiki/Teng_County" title="Teng County">Téngzhōu</a> (藤州) | <a href="/wiki/Gong_Prefecture" title="Gong Prefecture">Gōngzhōu</a> (龔州) | <a href="/wiki/Guiping" title="Guiping">Xúnzhōu</a> (潯州) | <a href="/wiki/Liuzhou" title="Liuzhou">Liǔzhōu</a> (柳州) | Guìzhōu (貴州) | <a href="/wiki/Yi_Prefecture_(Guangxi)" title="Yi Prefecture (Guangxi)">Yízhōu</a> (宜州) | <a href="/wiki/Binyang_County" title="Binyang County">Bīnzhōu</a> (賓州) | <a href="/wiki/Heng_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Heng County">Héngzhōu</a> (橫州) | <a href="/wiki/Huazhou,_Guangdong" title="Huazhou, Guangdong">Huàzhōu</a> (化州) | <a href="/wiki/Gaozhou" title="Gaozhou">Gāozhōu</a> (高州) | <a href="/wiki/Lei_Prefecture" title="Lei Prefecture">Léizhōu</a> (雷州) | <a href="/wiki/Q%C4%ABn_Prefecture" title="Qīn Prefecture">Qīnzhōu</a> (欽州) | <a href="/wiki/Bai_Prefecture" title="Bai Prefecture">Báizhōu</a> (白州) | <a href="/wiki/Yulin_Prefecture" title="Yulin Prefecture">Yùlínzhōu</a> (鬱林州) | <a href="/wiki/Lian_Prefecture_(Guangxi)" title="Lian Prefecture (Guangxi)">Liánzhōu</a> (廉州) | <a href="/wiki/Qiong_Prefecture_(Hainan)" title="Qiong Prefecture (Hainan)">Qióngzhōu</a> (瓊州)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Danzhou" title="Danzhou">Chānghuà</a> (昌化) | <a href="/wiki/Wanning" title="Wanning">Wàn'ān</a> (萬安) | Zhūyái (朱崖)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7462#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4215904-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="China--History--Song dynasty, 960-1279"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85024066">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007285789205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&oldid=1254763815#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&oldid=1254763815#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Song_dynasty" title="Category:Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:10th-century_establishments_in_China" title="Category:10th-century establishments in China">10th-century establishments in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:11th_century_in_China" title="Category:11th century in China">11th century in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:12th_century_in_China" title="Category:12th century in China">12th century in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1279_disestablishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1279 disestablishments in Asia">1279 disestablishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:13th-century_disestablishments_in_China" title="Category:13th-century disestablishments in China">13th-century disestablishments in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:960_establishments" title="Category:960 establishments">960 establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Confucian_dynasties" title="Category:Confucian dynasties">Confucian dynasties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dynasties_of_China" title="Category:Dynasties of China">Dynasties of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Chinese_history" title="Category:Former countries in Chinese history">Former countries in Chinese history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_East_Asia" title="Category:Medieval East Asia">Medieval East Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1279" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in 1279">States and territories disestablished in 1279</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_960s" title="Category:States and territories established in the 960s">States and territories established in the 960s</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-numeric_formatnum_arguments" title="Category:Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments">Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2023">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Featured_articles" title="Category:Featured articles">Featured articles</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 November 2024, at 15:30<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Song_dynasty&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-67847f4bfd-g5hq8","wgBackendResponseTime":143,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.545","walltime":"4.086","ppvisitednodes":{"value":31458,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":605903,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":36316,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":53,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":455731,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3285.600 1 -total"," 28.51% 936.825 287 Template:Sfn"," 15.03% 493.679 65 Template:Citation"," 13.84% 454.813 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 9.74% 320.119 1 Template:Reflist"," 6.30% 207.002 34 Template:Navbox"," 5.47% 179.713 1 Template:History_of_China"," 5.37% 176.454 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.24% 139.272 308 Template:Main_other"," 4.12% 135.518 3 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.087","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22144639,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdshead2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBai2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBol2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroadberry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrose2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCai2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaffee2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChanClanceyLoy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurand1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbrey1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmbreeGluck1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraserHaber1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGernet1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolas1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraffHigham2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHargett1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHargett1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartwell1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaw2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsu1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHymes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevathes1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorge2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorge2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKnight1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohn2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMote1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986e\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaludan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Halsall2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeers2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossabi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudolph1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSastri1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchafer1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSivin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinhardt1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSung1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemple1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeeckPannellSmithHuang2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYen-Mah2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuan1994\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Administrative divisions of the Song dynasty\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Bpmfsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 65,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 3,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 7,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"Est.\"] = 4,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Fl\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"History of China\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 1,\n [\"Increase\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Langn\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 11,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 2,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Project MUSE\"] = 1,\n [\"R.\"] = 3,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 287,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Song dynasty topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Tonesup\"] = 1,\n [\"Trans\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","520","22.8"],["?","460","20.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","220","9.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","6.1"],["type","140","6.1"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","3.5"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:4383\u003E","40","1.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::loadPackage","40","1.8"],["mw.executeModule \u003Cmw.lua:467\u003E","40","1.8"],["[others]","420","18.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5857dfdcd6-g6nx4","timestamp":"20241203065112","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Song dynasty","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song.2C_1127.E2.80.931279","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7462","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7462","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-03-09T07:06:15Z","dateModified":"2024-11-01T15:30:52Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/69\/China_-_Song_Dynasty-en.svg","headline":"former imperial dynasty of China"}</script> </body> </html>