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href="#Sociological_approaches_to_the_study_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sociological approaches to the study of law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociological_approaches_to_the_study_of_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sociological approaches to the study of law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sociological_approaches_to_the_study_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_sociology_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_sociology_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Modern sociology of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_sociology_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Law and Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sociological jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociological_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-legal_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-legal_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Socio-legal studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-legal_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology_of_law_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology_of_law_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sociology of law in Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology_of_law_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devising_a_sociological_concept_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devising_a_sociological_concept_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Devising a sociological concept of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devising_a_sociological_concept_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Western_sociology_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Western_sociology_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Non-Western sociology of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Western_sociology_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Contemporary perspectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary perspectives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Legal pluralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autopoiesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autopoiesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Autopoiesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autopoiesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Legal cultures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Feminism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Globalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Globalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Globalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Globalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_associations_or_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_associations_or_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Professional associations or societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_associations_or_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_centres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_centres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Research centres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_centres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociology of law</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="علم اجتماع القانون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم اجتماع القانون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquq_sosiologiyas%C4%B1" title="Hüquq sosiologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquq sosiologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="আইনের সমাজতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইনের সমাজতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сацыялогія права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сацыялогія права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Социология на правото – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Социология на правото" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie_pr%C3%A1va" title="Sociologie práva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociologie práva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retssociologi" title="Retssociologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Retssociologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtssoziologie" title="Rechtssoziologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rechtssoziologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolog%C3%ADa_del_derecho" title="Sociología del derecho – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sociología del derecho" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzenbidearen_soziologia" title="Zuzenbidearen soziologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zuzenbidearen soziologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82" title="جامعه‌شناسی حقوق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه‌شناسی حقوق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie_du_droit" title="Sociologie du droit – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sociologie du droit" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolox%C3%ADa_do_dereito" title="Socioloxía do dereito – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Socioloxía do dereito" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%ED%95%99" title="법사회학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법사회학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="विधिक समाजशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विधिक समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi_hukum" title="Sosiologi hukum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sosiologi hukum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia_del_diritto" title="Sociologia del diritto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sociologia del diritto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyoloji_dwa" title="Sosyoloji dwa – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sosyoloji dwa" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%97s_sociologija" title="Teisės sociologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teisės sociologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtssociologie" title="Rechtssociologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rechtssociologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="法社会学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法社会学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rettssosiologi" title="Rettssosiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rettssosiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socjologia_prawa" title="Socjologia prawa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Socjologia prawa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia_do_direito" title="Sociologia do direito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sociologia do direito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Социология права – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социология права" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociol%C3%B3gia_pr%C3%A1va" title="Sociológia práva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sociológia práva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Социологија права – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Социологија права" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikeussosiologia" title="Oikeussosiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oikeussosiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A4ttssociologi" title="Rättssociologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rättssociologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukuk_sosyolojisi" title="Hukuk sosyolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hukuk sosyolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Соціологія права – Ukrainian" lang="uk" 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href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_of_India,_inside_bulidings_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg/338px-Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="338" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg/507px-Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg/676px-Supreme_Court_of_India%2C_inside_bulidings_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Legal systems and society. <b>Top-left</b>: Congresswoman Marcy Kaptur (D-OH), Dean of the Ohio Delegation, spoke at a press conference at the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> to defend voter rights in <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>. <b>Top-right</b>: Protests and press outside the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court of the United Kingdom</a>. <b>Bottom-right</b>: upclose image of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a>.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg/220px-Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg/330px-Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg/440px-Fontaine_de_la_Justice_Palud_Lausanne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3459" data-file-height="4915" /></a><figcaption>Fountain de la Justice which features the attributes of jurisprudence and justice. Switzerland.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a 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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>sociology of law</b>, <b>legal sociology</b>, or <b>law and society</b> is often described as a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> or an interdisciplinary approach within <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">legal studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some see sociology of law as belonging "necessarily" to the field of sociology,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but others tend to consider it a field of research caught up between the disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> and sociology.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still others regard it as neither a subdiscipline of sociology nor a branch of legal studies but as a field of research on its own right within the broader social science tradition. Accordingly, it may be described without reference to mainstream sociology as "the systematic, theoretically grounded, empirical study of law as a set of social practices or as an aspect or field of social experience".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been seen as treating law and justice as fundamental institutions of the basic structure of society mediating "between political and economic interests, between culture and the normative order of society, establishing and maintaining interdependence, and constituting themselves as sources of consensus, coercion and social control".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Irrespective of whether sociology of law is defined as a sub-discipline of sociology, an approach within legal studies or a field of research in its own right, it remains intellectually dependent mainly on the traditions, methods and theories of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> proper, <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">administration of justice</a>, and processes that define the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> system, as well as to a lesser extent, on other <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>. As such, it reflects social theories and employs social scientific methods to study <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal institutions">legal institutions</a> and legal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sociological study of law, therefore, understands <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> from differing perspectives. Those perspectives are analytical or positive, historical, and theoretical.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More specifically, sociology of law consists of various approaches to the study of law in society, which empirically examine and theorize the interaction between law, legal, non-legal institutions and social factors.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas of socio-legal inquiry include the social development of legal institutions, forms of <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>, legal <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulation</a>, the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">legal cultures</a>, the social construction of legal issues, <a href="/wiki/Legal_profession" title="Legal profession">legal profession</a> and the relation between law and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>. </p><p>More than often sociology of law benefits from research conducted within other fields such as <a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">comparative law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">critical legal studies</a>, jurisprudence, <a href="/wiki/Legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal theory">legal theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">law and economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_and_literature" title="Law and literature">law and literature</a>. Its object and that of jurisprudence focused on institutional questions conditioned by social and political situations converge - for example, in the interdisciplinary dominions of criminology and of economic analysis of law - contributing to stretch out the power of legal norms but also making their impacts a matter of scientific concern.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intellectual_origins">Intellectual origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Intellectual origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Veber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Veber.jpg/175px-Veber.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Veber.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The roots of the sociology of law can be traced back to the works of sociologists and jurists of the turn of the previous century. The relationship between law and society was sociologically explored in the seminal works of both <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>. The writings on law by these classical sociologists are foundational to the entire sociology of law today.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of other scholars, mainly jurists, also employed social scientific theories and methods in an attempt to develop sociological theories of law. Notably among these were <a href="/wiki/Leon_Petrazycki" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Petrazycki">Leon Petrazycki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a>. </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, a so-called "legal rational form" as a type of domination within society, is not attributable to people but to abstract norms.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He understood the body of coherent and calculable law in terms of a <a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">rational-legal authority</a>. Such coherent and calculable law formed a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state and developed in parallel with the growth of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central to the development of modern law is the formal rationalisation of law on the basis of general procedures that are applied equally and fairly to all. Modern rationalised law is also codified and impersonal in its application to specific cases. In general, Weber's standpoint can be described as an external approach to law that studies the empirical characteristics of law, as opposed to the internal perspective of the legal sciences and the moral approach of the philosophy of law.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/175px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a></i> that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">compensation</a> grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, law has undergone a transformation from repressive law to restitutive law. Restitutive law operates in societies in which there is a high degree of individual variation and emphasis on personal rights and responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Durkheim, law is an indicator of the mode of integration of a society, which can be mechanical, among identical parts, or organic, among differentiated parts such as in industrialized societies. Durkheim also argued that a sociology of law should be developed alongside, and in close connection with, a sociology of morals, studying the development of value systems reflected in law.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law</i>, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a> developed a sociological approach to the study of law by focusing on how social networks and groups organized social life.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He explored the relationship between law and general social norms and distinguished between "positive law," consisting of the compulsive norms of state requiring official enforcement, and "living law," consisting of the rules of conduct that people in fact obeyed and which dominated social life. The latter emerged spontaneously as people interacted with each other to form social associations.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The centre of gravity of legal development therefore from time immemorial has not lain in the activity of the state, but in society itself, and must be sought there at the present time".</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Eugen Ehrlich, <i>Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law</i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>This was subjected to criticism by the advocates of legal positivism such as the jurist <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</a> for its distinction between "law created by the state and law produced by the organisational imperatives of non-state social associations".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Kelsen, Ehrlich had confused <i>Sein</i> ("is") and <i>Sollen</i> ("ought").<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some argued that Ehrlich was distinguishing between positive (or state) law, which lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law', what Ehrlich called "living law", that regulate everyday life, generally preventing conflicts from reaching lawyers and courts.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg/175px-Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg/263px-Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg/350px-Leon_Petrazycki_ii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petrazycki" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Petrazycki">Leon Petrazycki</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petrazycki" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Petrazycki">Leon Petrazycki</a> distinguished between forms of "official law," supported by the state, and "intuitive law," consisting of legal experiences that, in turn, consist of a complex of psychic processes in the mind of the individual with no reference to outside authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Petrazycki's work addressed sociological problems and his method was empirical, since he maintained that one could gain knowledge of objects or relationships only by observation. However, he couched his theory in the language of cognitive psychology and moral philosophy rather than sociology. Consequently, his contribution to the development of sociology of law remains largely unrecognized.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Petrazycki's "intuitive law" influenced not only the development of Georges Gurvitch's concept of "social law" (see below), which in turn has left its mark on socio-legal theorising, but also the work of later socio-legal scholars. Among those who were directly inspired by Petrazycki's work is the Polish legal sociologist <a href="/wiki/Adam_Podg%C3%B3recki" title="Adam Podgórecki">Adam Podgórecki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Geiger" title="Theodor Geiger">Theodor Geiger</a> developed a close-knit analysis of the Marxist theory of law. He highlighted how law becomes a "factor in social transformation in democratic societies of the kind that are governed by the consent expressed by universal suffrage of the population practised at regular intervals".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geiger went on to develop the salient characteristics of his antimetaphysical thinking, until he exceeded it with practical <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>. Geiger's nihilism of values paved the way for a form of <a href="/wiki/Legal_nihilism" title="Legal nihilism">legal nihilism</a>, which encourages the construction of a sober democracy "that is capable of raising conflict to the intellectual level and of anaesthetising feelings, as it is aware of its own inability to make any proclamation of value, ethics or policy about the nature of truth".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a> was interested in the fusion of simultaneous manifestation of law in various forms and at various levels of social interaction. His aim was to devise the concept of "social law" as a law of integration and cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gurvitch's social law was an integral part of his general sociology. "It is also one of the early sociological contributions to the theory of legal pluralism, since it challenged all conceptions of law based on a single source of legal, political, or moral authority".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a discipline, the sociology of law had an early reception in Argentina. As a local movement of legal scholars steeming from the work of <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Cossio" title="Carlos Cossio">Carlos Cossio</a>, South American researchers have focused on comparative law and sociological insights, constitutional law and society, human rights, and psycho-social approaches to the legal practices.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legal writers in colonial India mostly compiled indigenous customs and religious traditions, largely ignoring the common law of the legal system that was replacing indigenous law. Only after legislative authority was established did Indian legal scholars under the influence of <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">John Austin</a> begin to describe this phenomenon of codification and common law. Most works focused on litigation, but one writer, <a href="/wiki/Ashutosh_Mukherjee" title="Ashutosh Mukherjee">Ashutosh Mukherjee</a> stood out: "The law is neither trade nor solemn jugglery but a living science in the proper sense of the word".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociological_approaches_to_the_study_of_law">Sociological approaches to the study of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sociological approaches to the study of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_sociology_of_law">Modern sociology of law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern sociology of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sociology of law became clearly established as an academic field of learning and empirical research after the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II, the study of law was not central in sociology, although some well-known sociologists did write about the role of law in society. In the work of <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, for instance, law is conceived as an essential mechanism of social control.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the criticisms that were developed against functionalism, other sociological perspectives of law emerged. Critical sociologists,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed a perspective of law as an instrument of power. However, other theorists in the sociology of law, such as <a href="/wiki/Philip_Selznick" title="Philip Selznick">Philip Selznick</a>, argued that modern law became increasingly responsive to a society's needs and had to be approached morally as well.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still other scholars, most notably the American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Donald_Black_(sociologist)" title="Donald Black (sociologist)">Donald Black</a>, developed a resolutely scientific theory of law on the basis of a paradigm of <a href="/wiki/Pure_sociology" title="Pure sociology">pure sociology</a>. As "pure science" sociology of law is not concentrated on offenders, but on the <i>functions</i> or consequences of disorder, violence and criminality, approached as products of the physical and social environment determined by law, morality, education and all other forms of social organization.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, as ´´applied science´´ it is focused on the solution of concrete problems, which is why - given the theoretical and methodological shortcomings of the study of causes and effects particularly in crime-related matters - the attention of contemporary sociologists is absorbed in the identification and analysis of <i>risk factors</i> (e.g., turning children and youth in potential offenders) and <i>protective factors</i> (tending to bring about "normal" personalities and ´"good" community members)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Equally broad in orientation, but again different, is the <a href="/wiki/Autopoietic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Autopoietic system">autopoietic systems</a> theory of the German sociologist <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a>, who presents law or "the legal system" as one of the ten <i>function systems</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Differentiation_(sociology)" title="Differentiation (sociology)">functional differentiation</a>) of society.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roth_and_Schutz_2015_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roth_and_Schutz_2015-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All collective human life is directly or indirectly shaped by law. Law is like knowledge, an essential and all-pervasive fact of the social condition.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Niklas Luhmann, <i>A Sociological Theory of Law</i><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Social philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> disagrees with Luhmann and argues that the law can do a better job as a 'system' institution' by representing more faithfully the interests of everyday people in the 'lifeworld'. Yet another sociological theory of law and lawyers is that of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a> and his followers, who see law as a social field in which actors struggle for cultural, symbolic and economic capital and in so doing develop the reproductive professional <i>habitus</i> of the lawyer.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several continental European countries empirical research in sociology of law developed strongly from the 1960s and 1970s. In Poland the work of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Podg%C3%B3recki" title="Adam Podgórecki">Adam Podgórecki</a> and his associates (often influenced by <a href="/wiki/Petrazycki" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrazycki">Petrazycki</a>'s ideas) was especially notable; in Sweden empirical research in sociology of law in this period was pioneered especially by <a href="/wiki/Per_Stjernquist" title="Per Stjernquist">Per Stjernquist</a>, and in Norway by <a href="/wiki/Vilhelm_Aubert" title="Vilhelm Aubert">Vilhelm Aubert</a>. </p><p>In more recent years, a very wide range of theories has emerged in the sociology of law as a result of the proliferation of theories in sociology at large. Among the recent influences can be mentioned the work of the French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, the German social theorist <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">neo-Marxism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>. The variety of theoretical influences in the sociology of law has also marked the broader law and society field. The multi-disciplinary law and society field remains very popular, while the disciplinary speciality field of the sociology of law is also "better organized than ever in institutional and professional respects".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_and_Society">Law and Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Law and Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Law and Society is an American movement, which was established after the Second World War through the initiative mainly of sociologists who had a vested interest in the study of law.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rationale of the Law and Society movement is subtly summed up in two short sentences by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Friedman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Friedman">Lawrence Friedman</a>: "Law is a massive vital presence in the United States. It is too important to be left to lawyers".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its founders believed that the "study of law and legal institutions in their social context could be constituted as a scholarly field distinguished by its commitment to interdisciplinary dialogue and multidisciplinary research methods".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, “the basic assumption underlying this work is that law is not autonomous — that is, independent of society.” Whereas “conventional legal scholarship looks inside the legal system to answer questions of society,” the “law and society movement looks outside, and treats the degree of autonomy, if any, as an empirical question.”<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, law and society scholarship expresses a deep concern with the impact that laws have on society once they enter into force, a concern that is either ignored or under addressed in conventional legal scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Law_and_Society_Association" title="Law and Society Association">Law and Society Association</a> in 1964 and of the <i>Law and Society Review</i> in 1966 guaranteed continuity in the scholarly activities of the Law and Society movement and allowed its members to influence legal education and policy-making in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On one view, the main difference between the sociology of law and Law and Society is that the latter does not limit itself theoretically or methodologically to sociology and tries instead to accommodate insights from all social science disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Not only does it provides a home for sociologists and social anthropologists and political scientists with an interest in law, it also tries to incorporate psychologists and economists who study law."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From another point of view, both sociology of law and Law and Society should be seen as multi-disciplinary or trans-disciplinary enterprises although sociology of law has special ties to the methods, theories and traditions of sociology.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1970s and 1980s a number of original empirical studies were conducted by Law and Society scholars on conflict and dispute resolution. In his early work, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Felstiner" title="Bill Felstiner">William Felstiner</a>, for example, focused on alternative ways to solve conflicts (avoidance, mediation, litigation etc.). Together with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Abel_(lawyer)" title="Richard Abel (lawyer)">Richard Abel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austin_Sarat" title="Austin Sarat">Austin Sarat</a>, Felstiner developed the idea of a disputes pyramid and the formula "naming, blaming, claiming", which refers to different stages of conflict resolution and levels of the pyramid.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociological_jurisprudence">Sociological jurisprudence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sociological jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sociology of law is usually distinguished from sociological jurisprudence. As a form of jurisprudence, the latter is not primarily concerned with contributing directly to social science and instead engages directly with juristic debates involving legal practice and legal theory. Sociological jurisprudence focuses juristic attention on variation in legal institutions and practices and on the social sources and effects of legal ideas. It draws intellectual resources from social theory and relies explicitly on social science research in understanding evolving forms of regulation and the cultural significance of law.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In its pioneer form it was developed in the United States by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was influenced by the work of pioneer legal sociologists, such as the Austrian jurist <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a> and the Russian-French sociologist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although distinguishing between different branches of the social scientific studies of law allows us to explain and analyse the development of the sociology of law in relation to mainstream sociology and legal studies, it can be argued that such potentially artificial distinctions are not necessarily fruitful for the development of the field as whole. On this view, for the social scientific studies of law to transcend the theoretical and empirical limits that currently define their scope, they need to go beyond artificial distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socio-legal_studies">Socio-legal studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Socio-legal studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'Socio-legal studies' in the UK has grown mainly out of the interest of law schools in promoting interdisciplinary studies of law.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether regarded as an emerging discipline, sub-discipline or a methodological approach, it is often viewed in light of its relationship to, and oppositional role within, law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It should not, therefore, be confused with the legal sociology of many West European countries or the Law and Society scholarship in the US, which foster much stronger disciplinary ties with social sciences. In the past, it has been presented as the applied branch of the sociology of law and criticised for being empiricist and atheoretical.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Max Travers, for example, regards socio-legal studies as a subfield of social policy, 'mainly concerned with influencing or serving government policy in the provision of legal services'<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and adds that it "has given up any aspirations it once had to develop general theories about the policy process".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable practitioners of socio-legal studies include <a href="/wiki/Carol_Smart" title="Carol Smart">Professor Carol Smart</a>, co-director of the <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lewis_Building#External_links" title="Arthur Lewis Building">Morgan Centre for the Study of Relationships and Personal Life</a>, (named after the sociologist, <a href="/wiki/David_Morgan_(sociologist)" title="David Morgan (sociologist)">David Morgan</a>), as well as <a href="/wiki/Mavis_Maclean" title="Mavis Maclean">Professor Mavis Maclean</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Eekelaar" title="John Eekelaar">John Eekelaar</a> who are joint directors of the Oxford Centre for Family Law and Policy (OXFLAP). </p><p><b>Socio-legal methods of investigation</b> </p><p>The sociology of law has no methods of investigation which have been developed specifically for conducting socio-legal research. Instead, it employs a wide variety of social scientific methods, including qualitative and quantitative research techniques, to explore law and legal phenomena. Positivistic<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as interpretive (such as discourse analysis) and ethnographic<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> approaches to data collection and analysis is used within the socio-legal field.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociology_of_law_in_Britain">Sociology of law in Britain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sociology of law in Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sociology of law was a small, but developing, sub-field of British sociology and legal scholarship at the time when Campbell and Wiles wrote their review of law and society research in 1976. Unfortunately, despite its initial promise, it has remained a small field. Very few empirical sociological studies are published each year. Nevertheless, there have been some excellent studies, representing a variety of sociological traditions as well as some major theoretical contributions. The two most popular approaches during the 1960s and 1970s were interactionism and Marxism. </p><p><b>Symbolic interactionism and Marxism</b> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Interactionism</a> had become popular in America in the 1950s and 1960s as a politically radical alternative to structural-functionalism. Instead of viewing society as a system regulating and controlling the actions of individuals, interactionists argued that sociology should address what people were doing in particular situations, and how they understood their own actions.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sociology of deviance, which included topics such as crime, homosexuality, and mental illness, became the focus for these theoretical debates. Functionalists had portrayed crime as a problem to be managed by the legal system. Labeling theorists, by contrast, focused on the process of law-making and enforcement: how crime was constructed as a problem. A number of British sociologists, and some researchers in law schools, have drawn on these ideas in writing about law and crime.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most influential sociological approach during this period was, however, Marxism—which claimed to offer a scientific and comprehensive understanding of society as a whole in the same way as structural-functionalism, although with the emphasis on the struggle between different groups for material advantage, rather than value-consensus. This approach caught the imagination of many people with left-wing political views in law schools, but it also generated some interesting empirical studies. These included historical studies about how particular statutes were used to advance the interests of dominant economic groups, and also Pat Carlen's memorable ethnography,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which combined analytic resources from Marxism and interactionism, especially the sociology of Erving Goffman, in writing about magistrates' courts. </p><p><b>The Oxford Centre for Socio-Legal Studies</b> </p><p>The 1980s were also a fruitful time for empirical sociology of law in Britain, mainly because Donald Harris deliberately set out to create the conditions for a fruitful exchange between lawyers and sociologists at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> Centre for Socio-Legal Studies. He was fortunate enough to recruit a number of young and talented social scientists, including J. Maxwell Atkinson and Robert Dingwall who were interested in ethnomethodology, conversation analysis, and the sociology of the professions, and Doreen McBarnet who became something of a cult figure on the left after publishing her doctoral thesis,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which advanced a particularly clear and vigorous Marxist analysis of the criminal justice system. Ethnomethodology has not previously been mentioned in this review, and tends to be overlooked by many reviewers in this field since it cannot easily be assimilated to their theoretical interests. One can note, however, that it has always offered a more radical and thorough-going way of theorizing action than interactionism (although the two approaches have a lot in common when compared to traditions that view society as a structural whole, like Marxism or structural-functionalism). During his time at the center, J. Maxwell Atkinson collaborated with Paul Drew, a sociologist at the University of York, in what became the first conversation analytic study of courtroom interaction, using transcripts of coroner's hearings in Northern Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another area of interest developed at Oxford during this period was the sociology of the professions. Robert Dingwall and Philip Lewis<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> edited what remains an interesting and theoretically diverse collection, bringing together specialists from the sociology of law and medicine. The best known study to date has, however, been published by the American scholar <a href="/wiki/Richard_Abel_(lawyer)" title="Richard Abel (lawyer)">Richard Abel</a><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who employed ideas and concepts from functionalist, Marxist, and Weberian sociology to explain the high incomes and status that British lawyers enjoyed for most of the twentieth century. </p><p><b>Recent developments</b> </p><p>Since the 1980s, relatively few empirical studies of law and legal institutions have been conducted by British sociologists, i.e. studies which are empirical and at the same time engage with the theoretical concerns of sociology.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are, however, some exceptions. To begin with, sociology of law, along with so many areas of academic work, has been enlivened and renewed through engagement with feminism. There has been a great deal of interest in the implications of Foucault's ideas on governmentality for understanding law,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in continental thinkers such as Niklas Luhmann and Pierre Bourdieu. Again, one can argue that rather fewer empirical studies have been produced than one might have hoped, but a great deal of interesting work has been published. </p><p>A second exception is to be found in the works of researchers who have employed resources from ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism in studying legal settings.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of research is clearly sociological rather than socio-legal research because it continually engages in debate with other theoretical traditions in sociology. Max Travers' doctoral thesis about the work of a firm of criminal lawyers took other sociologists, and especially Marxists, to task for not addressing or respecting how lawyers and clients understand their own actions (a standard argument used by ethnomethodologists in debates with structural traditions in the discipline). It also, however, explored issues raised by legal thinkers in their critique of structural traditions in sociology of law: the extent to which social science can address the content of legal practice. </p><p>Despite the relatively limited developments in recent empirical research, theoretical debates in sociology of law have been important in British literature during recent decades, with contributions from <a href="/wiki/David_Nelken" title="David Nelken">David Nelken</a> exploring the problems of a comparative sociology of law and the potential of the idea of legal cultures,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Roger Cotterrell</a> seeking to develop a new view of the relations of law and community to replace what he sees as outdated 'law and society' paradigms,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/David_Schiff" title="David Schiff">David Schiff</a> and Richard Nobles, examining the potential of Luhmannian systems theory and the extent to which law can be seen as an autonomous social field rather than as intimately interrelated with other aspects of the social.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also significant has been the burgeoning field of socio-legal research on regulation and government,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to which British scholars have been prominent contributors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Devising_a_sociological_concept_of_law">Devising a sociological concept of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Devising a sociological concept of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to the traditional understanding of law (see the separate entry on <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>), the sociology of law does not normally view and define the law only as a system of rules, doctrine and decisions, which exist independently of the society out of which it has emerged. The rule-based aspect of law is, admittedly, important, but provides an inadequate basis for describing, analysing and understanding law in its societal context.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, legal sociology regards law as a set of institutional practices which have evolved over time and developed in relation to, and through interaction with, cultural, economic and socio-political structures and institutions. As a modern social system, law does strive to gain and retain its autonomy to function independently of other social institutions and systems such as religion, polity and economy. Yet, it remains historically and functionally linked to these other institutions. Thus, one of the objectives of the sociology of law remains to devise empirical methodologies capable of describing and explaining modern law's interdependence with other social institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social evolution has converted law into a mighty – perhaps the most important – reference of civilised life by substituting traditional bonds conditioned by identities of “blood” or territory for a new type of subordination specifically legal and voluntary between actors that are equal and free. The degree of abstraction of rules and legal principles increases constantly, the system acquires autonomy and control over its own dynamics, allowing the normative order of society to manage without religious legitimation and the authority of customs. In modern societies law is thus distinguished by </p><p>(1) its autonomy in relation to politics, religion, nonlegal institutions and other academic disciplines; it is a set of fixed rules which thanks to the power of the state acquires binding force and remains effective, imposing norms of conduct to individuals, social groups and entire societies; and also a social technique, a system of behaviour regulation endowed with a very special and artificial linguistic form kept at safe distance from vague and fluid colloquial language, in a permanent state of transformation; </p><p>(2) its corporations and professional guilds of lawmakers, judges, solicitors, legal scholars; </p><p>(3) its idealised institutions, conceived less by tradition than by force of systematisation; and </p><p>(4) its process of education oriented towards explanation and evaluation of juridical entities, rules, regulations, statutes etc.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some influential approaches within the sociology of law have challenged definitions of law in terms of official (state) law (see for example <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a>'s concept of "living law" and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a>'s "social law"). From this standpoint, law is understood broadly to include not only the legal system and formal (or official) legal institutions and processes, but also various informal (or unofficial) forms of nomativity and regulation which are generated within groups, associations and communities. The sociological studies of law are, thus, not limited to analysing how the rules or institutions of the legal system interact with social class, gender, race, religion, sexuality and other social categories. They also focus on how the internal normative orderings of various groups and "communities", such as the community of lawyers, businessmen, scientists, members of political parties, or members of the Mafia, interact with each other. In short, law is studied as an integral and constitutive part of social institutions, groupings and communities. This approach is developed further under the section on legal pluralism.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-Western_sociology_of_law">Non-Western sociology of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Non-Western sociology of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When we speak of the non-Western world, we are referring to areas where cultures have developed that are substantially outside the Greek-Judeo-Christian tradition of Western culture. It thus includes East Asia (China, Japan, South Korea), Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa. </p><p>The interest in the sociology of law continues to be more widespread in Western countries. Some important research has been produced by Indian scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but we find only a limited amount of socio-legal work by researchers from, for example, the Middle East or central and northern parts of Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the global spread of sociological studies of law appears uneven and concentrated, above all, in industrialised nations with democratic political systems. In this sense, the global expansion of legal sociology “is not taking place uniformly across national boundaries and appears to correlate with a combination of factors such as national wealth/poverty and form of political organisation, as well as historical factors such as the growth of the welfare state... However, none of these factors alone can explain this disparity”.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_perspectives">Contemporary perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contemporary perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_pluralism">Legal pluralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legal pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a> is a concept developed by legal sociologists and social anthropologists "to describe multiple layers of law, usually with different sources of legitimacy, that exist within a single state or society".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also defined "as a situation in which two or more legal systems coexist in the same social field".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal pluralists define law broadly to include not only the system of courts and judges backed by the coercive power of the state, but also the "non-legal forms of normative ordering".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal pluralism consists of many different methodological approaches and as a concept, it embraces "diverse and often contested perspectives on law, ranging from the recognition of different legal orders within the nation-state, to a more far reaching and open-ended concept of law that does not necessarily depend on state recognition for validity. This latter concept of law may come into being whenever two or more legal systems exist in the same social field".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The ideology of legal positivism has had such a powerful hold on the imagination of lawyers and social scientists that its picture of the legal world has been able successfully to masquerade as fact and has formed the foundation stone of social and legal theory.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John Griffiths, "What is Legal Pluralism"<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Legal pluralism has occupied a central position in socio-legal theorising from the very beginning of the sociology of law. The sociological theories of <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a> were early sociological contributions to legal pluralism. It has, moreover, provided the most enduring topic of socio-legal debate over many decades within both the sociology of law and legal anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has received more than its share of criticism from the proponents of the various schools of <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">legal positivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The critics often ask: "How is law distinguished in a pluralist view from other normative systems? What makes a social rule system legal?".<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The controversy arises mainly "from the claim that the only true law is the law made and enforced by the modern state".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This standpoint is also known as "legal centralism". From a legal centralist standpoint, John Griffiths writes, "law is and should be the law of the state, uniform for all persons, exclusive of all other law, and administrated by a single set of state institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, according to legal centralism, "customary laws and religious laws are not properly called 'law' except in so far as state has chosen to adopt and treat any such normative order as part of its own law".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A distinction is often made between the "weak" and the "strong" versions of legal pluralism. The "weak" version does not necessarily question the main assumptions of "legal centralism", but only recognises that within the domain of the Western state law other legal systems, such as customary or Islamic law, may also have an autonomous (co-)existence.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the "weak" version does not consider other forms of normative ordering as law. As Tamanaha, one of the critics of legal pluralism, puts it: "Normative ordering is, well, normative ordering. Law is something else, something that we isolate out and call law…".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "strong" version, on the other hand, rejects all legal centralist and formalist models of law, as "a myth, an ideal, a claim, an illusion,"<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regarding state law as one among many forms of law or forms of social ordering. It insists that modern law is plural, that it is private as well as public, but most importantly "the national (public official) legal system is often a secondary rather than the primary locus of regulation".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The criticism directed at legal pluralism often uses the basic assumptions of legal positivism to question the validity of theories of legal pluralism which aim at criticising those very (positivistic) assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Roger Cotterrell</a> explains, the pluralist conception should be understood as part of "the legal sociologist's effort to broaden perspectives on law. A legal sociologist's specification of law might be different from that presupposed by a lawyer in practice, but it will relate (indeed, in some way incorporate) the latter because it must (if it is to reflect legal experience) take account of lawyers' perspectives on law. Thus a pluralist approach in legal theory is likely to recognise what lawyers typically recognize as law, but may see this law as one species of a larger genus, or treat lawyers' conception of law as reflecting particular perspectives determined by particular objectives".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autopoiesis">Autopoiesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Autopoiesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a> originally coined the concept of <a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">autopoiesis</a> within theoretical biology to describe the self-reproduction of living cells through self-reference.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept was later borrowed, reconstructed in sociological terms, and introduced into the sociology of law by <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luhmann's systems theory transcends the classical understanding of object/subject by regarding communication (and not 'action') as the basic element of any social system. He breaks with traditional systems theory of Talcott Parsons and descriptions based on cybernetic feedback loops and structural understandings of self-organisation of the 1960s. This allows him to work towards devising a solution to the problem of the humanised 'subject'.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Perhaps the most challenging idea incorporated in the theory of autopoiesis is that social systems should not be defined in terms of human agency or norms, but of communications. Communication is in turn the unity of utterance, information and understanding and constitutes social systems by recursively reproducing communication. This sociologically radical thesis, which raises the fear of a dehumanised theory of law and society, attempts to highlight the fact that social systems are constituted by communication."<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Roger Cotterrell</a>, "Luhmann... treats the theory as the basis for all general sociological analysis of social systems and their mutual relations.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But its theoretical claims about law's autonomy are very powerful postulates, presented in advance of (and even, perhaps, in place of) the kind of detailed empirical study of social and legal change that comparatists and most legal sociologists are likely to favour. The postulates of autopoiesis theory do not so much guide empirical research as explain conclusively how to interpret whatever this research may discover."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_cultures">Legal cultures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Legal cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a> is one of the central concepts of the sociology of law. The study of legal cultures may, at the same time, be regarded as one of the general approaches within the sociology of law. </p><p>As a concept, it refers to "relatively stable patterns of legally-oriented social behaviour and attitudes," and as such is regarded as a subcategory of the concept of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a relatively new concept which, according to <a href="/wiki/David_Nelken" title="David Nelken">David Nelken</a>, can be traced to "terms like legal tradition or legal style, which have a much longer history in comparative law or in early political science. It presupposes and invites us to explore the existence of systematic variations in patterns in 'law in the books' and 'law in action,' and, above all, in the relation between them".<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an approach, it focuses on the cultural aspects of law, legal behaviour and legal institutions and, thus, has affinity with <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, legal pluralism, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">comparative law</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Lawrence M. Friedman</a> is among socio-legal scholars who introduced the idea of legal culture into the sociology of law. For Friedman, legal culture "refers to public knowledge of and attitudes and behaviour patterns toward the legal system".<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also consist of "bodies of custom organically related to the culture as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Friedman stresses the plurality of legal cultures and points out that one can explore legal cultures at different levels of abstraction, e.g. at the level of the legal system, the state, the country, or the community. Friedman is also known for introducing the distinction between the "internal" and "external" legal cultures. Somewhat oversimplified, the former refers to the general attitudes and perceptions of law among the functionaries of the legal system, such as the judiciary, while the latter can refer to the attitude of the citizenry to the legal system or to law and order generally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminism">Feminism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Feminism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Law has always been regarded as one of the important sites of engagement for feminism. As pointed out by Ruth Fletcher feminist engagement with the law has taken many forms through the years, which also indicates their successful merging of theory and practice: "Through litigation, campaigns for reform and legal education, feminists have engaged explicitly with law and the legal profession. In taking on the provisions of specialist advice services, women's groups have played a role in making law accessible to those in need. By subjecting legal concepts and methods to critical analysis, feminists have questioned the terms of legal debate."<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Globalization">Globalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Globalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a> is often defined in terms of economic processes which bring about radical cultural developments at the level of world society. Although law is an essential ingredient of the process of globalization - and important studies of law and globalization were already conducted in the 1990s by, for example, Yves Dezalay and Bryant Garth<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Volkmar Gessner<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - law's importance for creating and maintaining the globalization processes are often neglected within the sociology of globalization and remain, arguably, somewhat underdeveloped within the sociology of law.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As pointed out by Halliday and Osinsky, "<a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a> cannot be understood apart from global business regulation and the legal construction of the markets on which it increasingly depends. Cultural globalization cannot be explained without attention to intellectual property rights institutionalized in law and global governance regimes. The globalization of protections for vulnerable populations cannot be comprehended without tracing the impact of international criminal and humanitarian law or international tribunals. Global contestation over the institutions of democracy and state building cannot be meaningful unless considered in relation to constitutionalism."<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The socio-legal approaches to the study of globalization and global society often overlap with, or make use of, studies of legal cultures and legal pluralism.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_associations_or_societies">Professional associations or societies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Professional associations or societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_Committee_on_Sociology_of_Law" title="Research Committee on Sociology of Law">Research Committee on Sociology of Law</a><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Institute_for_the_Sociology_of_Law" title="International Institute for the Sociology of Law">International Institute for the Sociology of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Society_Association" title="Law and Society Association">Law and Society Association</a></li> <li>The Law and Society Association of Australia and New Zealand Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.lsaanz.org/index.html">[2]</a></li> <li>Canadian Law and Society Association / Association canadienne droit et société (CLSA/ACDS) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.acds-clsa.org/">[3]</a></li> <li>RT 13 (Thematic Network) sociology of law of the French Sociological Association <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.afs-socio.fr/rt13.html">[4]</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Sociedad argentina de sociología jurídica</i></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://sasju.dyndns.org/">[5]</a></li> <li>Associazione di studi su diritto e società (Italy) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.dirittoesocieta.it">[6]</a></li> <li>Japanese Association of Sociology of Law <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/hosha/english/eindex.htm">[7]</a></li> <li>Brazilian Sociology of Law Association (ABraSD) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.abrasd.com.br/">[8]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals">Journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Nordic Journal of Law and Justice</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.retfaerd.org/">[9]</a></li> <li><i>Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziologie</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.luciusverlag.com/zeitschriften/ztschr_rechtssoziologie/zeitschrift_fuer_rechtssoziologie.htm">[10]</a></li> <li><i>Law & Social Inquiry</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0897-6546">[11]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Society_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Law and Society Review">Law and Society Review</a></i></li> <li><i>The Journal of Law and Society</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0263-323x">[12]</a></li> <li><i>Journal of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_legal_studies" title="Empirical legal studies">Empirical Legal Studies</a></i></li> <li><i>Canadian Journal of Law and Society / Revue Canadienne Droit et Société</i> (since 1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.utpjournals.com/cjls/cjls.html">[13]</a></li> <li><i>Canadian Journal of Women and the Law</i> (since 1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.utpjournals.com/cjwl/cjwl.html">[14]</a></li> <li><i>Droit et Société</i> (Paris, France, since 1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/publications/revue/revue-en-ligne.htm">[15]</a></li> <li><i>International Journal of the Sociology of Law</i> (since 1978)</li> <li><i>Oñati Socio-legal Series</i> (Oñati, Spain, since 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://opo.iisj.net/index.php/osls/index">[16]</a></li> <li><i>Revista Brasileira de Sociologia do Direito</i> (Brasil, since 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://revista.abrasd.com.br/index.php/rbsd/index">[17]</a></li> <li><i>Revue interdisciplinaire d'études juridiques</i> (Brussels, Belgium, since 1978)</li> <li><i>Social & Legal Studies</i> (London, United Kingdom, since 1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://sls.sagepub.com/">[18]</a></li> <li><i>Sociologia del Diritto</i> (Milan, Italy, since 1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.francoangeli.it/riviste/sommario.asp?IDRivista=51">[19]</a></li> <li><i>Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziologie</i> The German Journal of Law and Society <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/zfrs">[20]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_centres">Research centres</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Research centres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Foundation" title="American Bar Foundation">American Bar Foundation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.buffalo.edu/baldycenter/">Baldy Center for Law and Social Policy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abrasd.com.br">Brazilian Sociology of Law Association (ABraSD), Brazil</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soclaw.lu.se/o.o.i.s/4047">Sociology of Law Institute, Lund University, Sweden</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unige.ch/droit/cetel/">Centre d'étude, de technique et d'évaluation législatives Université de Genève</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/cls/">Centre for Law and Society, School of Law, University of Edinburgh</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uct.ac.za/depts/slr/">Centre for Socio-Legal Research - University of Cape Town, South Africa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csls.org.za/">Centre for Socio-Legal Studies - University of Natal, South Africa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csls.ox.ac.uk/">Center for Socio-Legal Studies - University of Oxford</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.berkeley.edu/centers/csls/">Center for the Study of Law and Society, California, Berkeley, USA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eall.eu/">European Academy for Law and Legislation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fljs.org">Foundation for Law, Justice and Society, Wolfson College, Oxford</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/global_law/">Institute of Global Law</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meiji.ac.jp/dai_in/law/support/html/english/e_index.html">Institute of Law and Social Sciences, Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.wisc.edu/ils/">Institute for Legal Studies, University of Wisconsin, USA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisj.net/">International Institute for the Sociology of Law, Oñati</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newcastle.edu.au/school/law/jprc/index.html">Justice Policy Research Centre</a> - University of Newcastle, Australia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923213253/http://www.u-paris2.fr/52075380/0/fiche___laboratoire/%26RH%3DLABO">Laboratoire de sociologie juridique</a> (<a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthéon-Assas University">Panthéon-Assas University</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uow.edu.au/law/LIRC">Legal Intersections Research Centre</a> - University of Wollongong, Australia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opj.ces.uc.pt/portugues/apresentacao/">Observatório Permanente da Justiça Portuguesa</a> (Coimbra)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spsw.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/static/Oxflap/">Oxford Centre for Family Law and Policy, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keele.ac.uk/research/lpj/index.htm">Research Institute for Law, Politics & Justice Keele University</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilhelm_Aubert" title="Vilhelm Aubert">Vilhelm Aubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erhard_Blankenburg" title="Erhard Blankenburg">Erhard Blankenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Carbonnier" title="Jean Carbonnier">Jean Carbonnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Roger Cotterrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Felstiner" title="Bill Felstiner">William L.F. Felstiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Lawrence M. Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Geiger" title="Theodor Geiger">Theodor Geiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkmar_Gessner" title="Volkmar Gessner">Volkmar Gessner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_James_Sumner_Maine" title="Henry James Sumner Maine">Henry James Sumner Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mathiesen" title="Thomas Mathiesen">Thomas Mathiesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nelken" title="David Nelken">David Nelken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Podg%C3%B3recki" title="Adam Podgórecki">Adam Podgórecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Selznick" title="Philip Selznick">Philip Selznick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_Stjernquist" title="Per Stjernquist">Per Stjernquist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renato_Treves" title="Renato Treves">Renato Treves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Timasheff" title="Nicholas Timasheff">Nicholas Timasheff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For various definitions of the sociology of law,see Ehrlich 1936 (orig 1912); Timasheff 1939; Pound 1943; Selznick 1965, Aubert 1969 and 1980, Black 1972, Stjernquist 1983, Hydén 1986, Tomasic 1987, Ferrari 1989, Podgorecki 1991, Cotterrell 1992, Banakar 2003 and 2011; Mathiesen 2005, Deflem 2008, Travers 2009, Nelken 2009, Scuro 2010, Banakar and Travers 2013, Banakar 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Deflem 2008:3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2003 and 2009, Banakar and Travers 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scuro 2010: 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar and Travers 2005, pp. 1-25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTimasheff1937" class="citation journal cs1">Timasheff, N. S. (1937-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/217681">"What Is "Sociology of Law"?"</a>. <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>. <b>43</b> (2): 225–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F217681">10.1086/217681</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602">0002-9602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144690399">144690399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=What+Is+%22Sociology+of+Law%22%3F&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=225-235&rft.date=1937-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144690399%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0002-9602&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F217681&rft.aulast=Timasheff&rft.aufirst=N.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1086%2F217681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Black 1976; Cotterrell 1992; Hunt 1993; Santos 2002; Banakar 2003; Banakar and Travers 2002; Ferrari 1989; Luhmann 1985; Trevino 2008; Travers 2009, Nelken 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scuro 2010:12,217-235</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posner, Richard A., 1973, <i>Economic Analysis of Law</i>, Boston:Little Brown</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deflem, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Max_Rheinstein" title="Max Rheinstein">Rheinstein</a>, <i>Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society</i>, 336</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jary, <i>Collins Dictionary of Sociology</i>, 636</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion on Weber's typology see Kronman 1983: 8-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, <i>The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a detailed discussion of <a href="/wiki/Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheim">Durkheim's</a> sociology of law see Cotterrell 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehrlich 1936 (orig. 1912).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ziegert 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehrlich, 1936: 390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion see Banakar 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a presentation of this debate and references to the original sources of the debate see van Klink 2006. For an analysis of the debate between Kelsen and Ehrlich see Banakar 2008. Banakar argues that Kelsen could not help but miss the point that Ehrlich was making by his distinction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rottleuthner, <i>La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne</i>, 109<br />* Rottleuthner, <i>Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts</i>, 521</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Petrazycki1955.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2006; also see Podgórecki 1980; Kurczewski 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Podgórecki 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghezzi 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghezzi 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Gurvitch, Georges, <i>L'idée du droit social</i> (1932)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an overview, see Lista, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhat" class="citation book cs1">Bhat, P. Ishwara. <i>Idea and Methods of Legal Research</i>. OUP India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Idea+and+Methods+of+Legal+Research&rft.pub=OUP+India&rft.aulast=Bhat&rft.aufirst=P.+Ishwara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion on the emergence of the "sociological movement" in law after World War II see Deflem 2009: 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trevino, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion see Cotterrell 1992: 122-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Selznik, 1969.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scuro, 2019: 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scuro, 2004: 214-215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Luhmann 2004 and 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roth_and_Schutz_2015-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roth_and_Schutz_2015_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Steffen_Roth" title="Steffen Roth">Steffen Roth</a> and Anton Schutz: <i>Ten systems. Toward a canon of function systems.</i> In: <i>Cybernetics and Human Knowing</i>, Vol. 22, No. 4., 2015. Vorversion verfügbar (englisch; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2508950">online</a> auf ssrn.com).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Niklas Luhmann, 1985: 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Dezalay and Garth 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deflem 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman 1986:780.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarat et al, 1998:2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman 2019: 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman 2019: 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Munger 1998 and Simon 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example see Friedman 1975.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion see Banakar 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"See, Felstiner, Abel and Sarat 1981.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For full discussion see Cotterrell 2018</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaigman2005" class="citation book cs1">Faigman, David L. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/laboratoryofjust0000faig"><i>Laboratory of Justice: The Supreme Court's 200-Year Struggle to Integrate Science and the Law</i></a></span>. Henry Holt. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/laboratoryofjust0000faig/page/97">97</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805072747" title="Special:BookSources/9780805072747"><bdi>9780805072747</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laboratory+of+Justice%3A+The+Supreme+Court%27s+200-Year+Struggle+to+Integrate+Science+and+the+Law&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780805072747&rft.aulast=Faigman&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flaboratoryofjust0000faig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pound, Roscoe. "Scope and Purpose of Sociological Jurisprudence." <i>Harv. L. Rev.</i> 24 (1910): 591. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1324392">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilfrid E. Rumble, Jr., "Legal Realism, Sociological Jurisprudence and Mr. Justice Holmes," <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> (1965) 26#4 pp. 547-566 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708499">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Banakar 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell 1976.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Travers 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Travers 2001: 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Black 1976.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Travers 1997, Flood 2005 and 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an overview of various methods see Banakar and Travers 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Becker 1963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Paterson 1982; Flood 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pat Carlen 1976.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doreen McBarnet 1981</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkinson and Drew, 1979</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Dingwall and Philip Lewis 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abel 1988</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Travers 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hunt and Wickham 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Travers 1997; 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nelken 2004; 2007; 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2006; 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nobles and Schiff 2006; 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulcahy2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mulcahy, Linda (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjols.12052">"Eyes of the Law: A Visual Turn in Socio-Legal Studies?"</a>. <i>Journal of Law and Society</i>. <b>44</b> (S1): S111–S128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjols.12052">10.1111/jols.12052</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-6478">1467-6478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Society&rft.atitle=Eyes+of+the+Law%3A+A+Visual+Turn+in+Socio-Legal+Studies%3F&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=S111-S128&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjols.12052&rft.issn=1467-6478&rft.aulast=Mulcahy&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fjols.12052&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2009; Nelken 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion see Banakar and Travers 2005 and Banakar 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scuro, 2019: 13-14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For studies of legal pluralism see Dalberg-Larsen 2000; Merry 1988; Chiba 1989; John Griffiths 1986; Olgiati 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deva, 2005; Baxi, 1986</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an earlier overview of the field, see Ferrari, 1990</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion on the disparity between Western and non-Western sociology of law see Banakar 2011 at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1761466">https://ssrn.com/abstract=1761466</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olgiati 2007; also see Olgiati 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sally Engle Merry 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merry 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Griffiths 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Griffiths, 1986:5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Tamanaha 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2006: 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodman 2008: 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Griffiths 1986: 3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodman 2008: 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Griffiths, 2002: 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamanaha 1993: 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Griffiths 1986: 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galanter 1981: 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Banakar 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2006: 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maturana and Varela 1980.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Ziegert 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banakar and Max Travers 2005: 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotterrell 2006: 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nelken, 2004: 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nelken 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 1975, p. 193. But for criticism of the vagueness of this and other formulations of the concept of legal culture in sociology of law, see Cotterrell, 2006, ch. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 1975, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fletcher 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dezalay and Garth 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gessner and Budak 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For one of the relatively early empirical studies see Dezalay and Garth 1996. For a collection of empirical studies of law and globalization see Gessner and Budak 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halliday and Osinsk 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Teubner 1996; Feest and Nelken 2007, Friedman and Perez-Perdomo 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcsl.iscte.pt/">RCSL</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_law&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abel, Richard L. 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Available at SSRN: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=980957">https://ssrn.com/abstract=980957</a>.</li> <li>Woodman, G. R. (2008) "The possibilities of Co-Existence of Religious Laws with Other Laws" in Mehdi, R. <i>et al.</i> (eds.) <i>Law and Religion in Multucultural Societies</i>. Copenhagen: DJOF Publishing.</li> <li>Ziegert, Klaus A. (2002) "The Thick Description of Law: An Introduction to Niklas Luhmann's Theory of Operatively Closed Systems" in R Banakar and M Travers, (eds), <i>An Introduction to Law and Social Theory</i> (Oxford, Hart Publishing).</li> <li>Ziegert, Klaus A. (1979). "The Sociology behind Eugen Ehrlich's Sociology of Law." <i>International Journal of Sociology of Law</i> 7: 225-73.</li> <li>Zippelius, Reinhold (2012) <i>Grundbegriffe der Rechts- und Staatssoziologie</i>, 3rd. ed. 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive 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title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of 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