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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebellion_of_Bahram_Chobin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion_of_Bahram_Chobin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rebellion of Bahram Chobin</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rebellion_of_Bahram_Chobin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rebellion of Bahram Chobin subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rebellion_of_Bahram_Chobin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overthrow_of_Hormizd_IV_and_accession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overthrow_of_Hormizd_IV_and_accession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overthrow_of_Hormizd_IV_and_accession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Fight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Return to Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_the_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consolidation of the empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consolidation_of_the_empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consolidation of the empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_affairs_and_relations_with_the_Byzantines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_affairs_and_relations_with_the_Byzantines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_affairs_and_relations_with_the_Byzantines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolt_of_Vistahm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_of_Vistahm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Revolt of Vistahm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolt_of_Vistahm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Lakhmid_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_the_Lakhmid_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Lakhmid_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_Iranian_invasion_and_dominance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_Iranian_invasion_and_dominance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Initial Iranian invasion and dominance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_Iranian_invasion_and_dominance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turko-Hephthalite_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turko-Hephthalite_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Turko-Hephthalite invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turko-Hephthalite_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine_counter-offensive_and_resurgence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_counter-offensive_and_resurgence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_counter-offensive_and_resurgence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overthrow_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overthrow_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Overthrow and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overthrow_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_policy_and_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_policy_and_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religious policy and beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_policy_and_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music_during_the_reign_of_Khosrow_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music_during_the_reign_of_Khosrow_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Music during the reign of Khosrow II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music_during_the_reign_of_Khosrow_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rock_reliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rock_reliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Rock reliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rock_reliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khosrow_II_in_Islamic_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khosrow_II_in_Islamic_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Khosrow II in Islamic tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khosrow_II_in_Islamic_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>In art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Family-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Family subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Family_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Family tree</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Khosrow II</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosrau_II." title="Chosrau II. – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Chosrau II." data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="كسرى الثاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كسرى الثاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Xosrov" title="II Xosrov – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="II Xosrov" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="خسرو پرویز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="خسرو پرویز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81" title="দ্বিতীয় খসরু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দ্বিতীয় খসরু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_II_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Хосров II Парвиз – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хосров II Парвиз" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosroes_II" title="Cosroes II – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cosroes II" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husrav_II." title="Husrav II. – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Husrav II." data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrau_2." title="Khosrau 2. – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Khosrau 2." data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosrau_II." title="Chosrau II. – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chosrau II." data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%92%CE%84_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Χοσρόης Β΄ της Περσίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χοσρόης Β΄ της Περσίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosroes_II" title="Cosroes II – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cosroes II" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A4osro_la_2-a" title="Ĥosro la 2-a – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĥosro la 2-a" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosroes_II.a" title="Kosroes II.a – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kosroes II.a" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="خسرو پرویز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خسرو پرویز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosro_II" title="Khosro II – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Khosro II" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%EC%8A%A4%EB%A1%9C_2%EC%84%B8" title="호스로 2세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="호스로 2세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BE_%D4%B2_%D5%93%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%A6" title="Խոսրով Բ Փարվեզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խոսրով Բ Փարվեզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hozroje_II._Parviz" title="Hozroje II. Parviz – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hozroje II. Parviz" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrau_II" title="Khosrau II – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Khosrau II" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosroe_II" title="Cosroe II – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cosroe II" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%27%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99" title="ח'וסרו השני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ח'וסרו השני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_II" title="ხოსრო II – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ხოსრო II" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%86%D0%86" title="Хосров ІІ – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Хосров ІІ" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosroes_II" title="Chosroes II – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chosroes II" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosrovas_II" title="Chosrovas II – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chosrovas II" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._Huszrau_sz%C3%A1sz%C3%A1nida_kir%C3%A1ly" title="II. Huszrau szászánida király – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="II. Huszrau szászánida király" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_II" title="ხოსრო II – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ხოსრო II" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="كسرى التانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كسرى التانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="خسرو پرویز – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="خسرو پرویز" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_II" title="Khusrau II – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Khusrau II" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusro_II" title="Khusro II – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Khusro II" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9B%E3%82%B9%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC2%E4%B8%96" title="ホスロー2世 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ホスロー2世" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrau_II_av_Persia" title="Khosrau II av Persia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Khosrau II av Persia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xusrav_II_Parviz" title="Xusrav II Parviz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xusrav II Parviz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B2" title="خسرو پرويز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="خسرو پرويز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosrow_II_Parwiz" title="Chosrow II Parwiz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chosrow II Parwiz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosroes_II" title="Cosroes II – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cosroes II" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrau_al_II-lea" title="Khosrau al II-lea – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Khosrau al II-lea" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_II_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Хосров II Парвиз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хосров II Парвиз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Khosrow II" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrov_II" title="Khosrov II – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Khosrov II" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husrav_II." title="Husrav II. – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Husrav II." data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozrav_II." title="Kozrav II. – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kozrav II." data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B5_II" title="Хозроје II – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хозроје II" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hozroje_II" title="Hozroje II – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hozroje II" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_II" title="Khusrau II – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Khusrau II" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrov_II" title="Khusrov II – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Khusrov II" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Хусрави Парвиз – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хусрави Парвиз" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._H%C3%BCsrev" title="II. Hüsrev – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="II. Hüsrev" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_II_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7" title="Хосров II Парвіз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хосров II Парвіз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="خسرو پرویز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خسرو پرویز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrau_II" title="Khosrau II – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khosrau II" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%B3%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="霍斯劳二世 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="霍斯劳二世" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xusrew_II" title="Xusrew II – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Xusrew II" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%B3%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="霍斯劳二世 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="霍斯劳二世" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q212732#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Shah of the Sasanian Empire from 590 to 628</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Khosrow II<br /><span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩</span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings_of_Iran_and_non-Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran">King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg/220px-KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg/330px-KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="389" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of Khosrow II, minted in 611</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_shahanshahs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire">Shahanshah</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1st reign</th><td class="infobox-data">590</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">2nd reign</th><td class="infobox-data">591 – 25 February 628</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data">Bahram Chobin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="dday deathdate">628-02-28</span>)</span>28 February 628 (aged 57–58)<br /><a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Consort</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maria_(daughter_of_Maurice)" title="Maria (daughter of Maurice)">Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordiya" title="Gordiya">Gordiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Family">See below</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data">Unnamed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">Ispahbudhan</a> noblewoman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Khosrow II</b> (spelled <b>Chosroes II</b> in classical sources; <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Persian language">Middle Persian</a>: <span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">Husrō</i></span> and <i>Khosrau</i>), commonly known as <b>Khosrow Parviz</b> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">New Persian</a>: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">خسرو پرویز</span></span>, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian king">king</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">shah</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Islamic Iran">Iran</a>, ruling from 590 to 628, with an interruption of one year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrow II was the son of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> (reigned 579–590), and the grandson of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> (reigned 531–579). He was the last king of Iran to have a lengthy reign before the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Iran</a>, which began five years after his execution. He lost his throne, then recovered it with the help of the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a>, and, a decade later, went on to emulate the feats of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenids" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenids">Achaemenids</a>, conquering the rich <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Roman provinces</a> of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589%E2%80%93591" title="Sasanian civil war of 589–591">struggling against usurpers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a>. </p><p>Khosrow II began <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">a war against the Byzantines</a> in 602, ostensibly to avenge the murder of his ally Maurice. Persian forces captured much of the Byzantine Empire's territories, earning Khosrow II the epithet "the Victorious". A <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of the Byzantine capital</a> of Constantinople in 626 was unsuccessful, and <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">allied with Turks</a>, started a risky but successful counterattack deep into Persia's heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the feudal families of the empire supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power as <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a>. This led to <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">a civil war and interregnum</a> in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Byzantines. </p><p>In works of <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Nizami_Ganjavi" title="Nizami Ganjavi">Nizami Ganjavi</a>'s (1141–1209) <i><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_and_Shirin" title="Khosrow and Shirin">Khosrow and Shirin</a></i>, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a king. <i>Khosrow and Shirin</i> tells the story of his love for the originally Aramean princess <a href="/wiki/Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a>, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(word)" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrow (word)"><i>Khosrow</i> (word)</a></div> <p>"Khosrow" is the <a href="/wiki/New_Persian" title="New Persian">New Persian</a> variant of his name used by scholars; his original name was <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, <i>Husraw</i>, itself derived from <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> <i>Haosrauuah</i> ("he who has good fame").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2000_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2000-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name is transliterated in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> as <i>Chosroes</i> (Χοσρόης) and in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> as <i>Kisra</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His name in combination with the epithet "Parviz" is attested in <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> as <i>K‛asre Ambarvez</i> (<a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Juansher" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Juansher">Pseudo-Juansher</a>, writing around the year 800) and in Armenian as <i>Aprouēž Xosrov</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERapp2014341_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2014341-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmittBailey1986_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmittBailey1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khosrow II was born in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>; he was the son of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> and an unnamed noblewoman from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">House of Ispahbudhan</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses of Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her brothers, <a href="/wiki/Vinduyih" title="Vinduyih">Vinduyih</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a>, were to have a profound influence in Khosrow II's early life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow's paternal grandfather was the famed Sasanian shah <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I Anushirvan</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 531–579</span>), whilst his paternal grandmother was the daughter of the <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">khagan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow is first mentioned in the 580s, when he was at <a href="/wiki/Barda,_Azerbaijan" title="Barda, Azerbaijan">Partaw</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>. During his stay there, he served as the governor of the kingdom, and managed to put an end to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Iberia</a> and make it into a <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia" title="Sasanian Iberia">Sasanian province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Khosrow II also served as the governor of <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> sometime before his accession to the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansman1986277–278_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansman1986277–278-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rebellion_of_Bahram_Chobin">Rebellion of Bahram Chobin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rebellion of Bahram Chobin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overthrow_of_Hormizd_IV_and_accession">Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hormidziv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hormidziv.jpg/220px-Hormidziv.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hormidziv.jpg/330px-Hormidziv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hormidziv.jpg/440px-Hormidziv.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">Drachma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a> disgraced and dismissed. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589-591" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian civil war of 589-591">responded by rebelling</a>, and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor for <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, and afterwards set out for the Sasanian capital of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a> was based on acceptance that the halo of kingship, the <i><a href="/wiki/Xwarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Xwarrah">xwarrah</a></i>, was given to the first Sasanian shah, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 224–242</span>) and his family following the latter's conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200896_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200896-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who according to the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Joshua_the_Stylite" title="Joshua the Stylite">Joshua the Stylite</a>, both "equally hated Hormizd".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._49_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._49-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrow then took a <a href="/wiki/Carrot_and_stick" title="Carrot and stick">carrot and stick</a> attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram Chobin, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016241_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016241-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fight">Fight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_(2_of_8).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg/220px-The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg/330px-The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg/440px-The_Night_Attack_of_Bahram_Chubina_on_the_Army_of_Khusraw_Parvis_LACMA_M.2009.44.3_%282_of_8%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1395" /></a><figcaption>Bahram Chobin fighting Sasanian loyalists near <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bahram Chobin, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached the <a href="/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal" title="Nahrawan Canal">Nahrawan Canal</a> near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram Chobin's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram Chobin's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and a <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinue</a> of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram Chobin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram Chobin declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian king <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 224–242</span>) had usurped the throne of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Arsacids</a>, and that he now was restoring their rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bahram Chobin tried to support his cause with the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">apocalyptic</a> belief that by the end of <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a>'s millennium, chaos and destructive wars with the Hephthalites/Huns and the Romans occurs and then a savior would appear. Indeed, the Sasanians had misidentified Zoroaster's era with that of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> (312 BC), which put Bahram Chobin's life almost at the end of Zoroaster's millennium, he was therefore hailed by many as the promised savior Kay Bahram Varjavand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram was to re-establish the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Empire">Arsacid Empire</a> and commenced a new millennium of dynastic rule. He started minting coins, where he is on the front imitated as an exalted figure, bearded and wearing a <a href="/wiki/Crenellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crenellation">crenellation</a>-shaped crown with two crescents of the moon, whilst the reverse shows the traditional <a href="/wiki/Fire_altar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire altar">fire altar</a> flanked by two attendants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, many nobles and priests still chose to side with the inexperienced and less dominant Khosrow II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to get the attention of the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (r. 582–602), Khosrow II went to <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a>, and sent a message to the Sasanian occupied city of <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Silvan, Diyarbakır">Martyropolis</a> to stop their resistance against the Byzantines, but with no avail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002172_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002172-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then sent a message to Maurice, and requested his help to regain the Sasanian throne, which the Byzantine emperor agreed with; in return, the Byzantines would re-gain sovereignty over the cities of <a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Amida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Carrhae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvan, Turkey">Martyropolis</a>. Furthermore, Iran was required to stop intervening in the affairs of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, effectively ceding control of <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazistan</a> to the Byzantines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_Iran">Return to Iran</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Return to Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg/220px-The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg/330px-The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg/440px-The_battle_between_kusrau_parvis_and_Bhram_Chubineh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the forces of Bahram Chobin and Khosrow II fighting.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 591, Khosrow moved to <a href="/wiki/Viran%C5%9Fehir" title="Viranşehir">Constantia</a> and prepared to invade Bahram Chobin's territories in Mesopotamia, while Vistahm and Vinduyih were raising an army in <a href="/wiki/Adurbadagan" title="Adurbadagan">Adurbadagan</a> under the observation of the Byzantine commander <a href="/wiki/John_Mystacon" title="John Mystacon">John Mystacon</a>, who was also raising an army in Armenia. After some time, Khosrow, along with the Byzantine commander of the south, <a href="/wiki/Comentiolus" title="Comentiolus">Comentiolus</a>, invaded Mesopotamia. During this invasion, <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and Martyropolis quickly defected to them,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Bahram Chobin's commander Zatsparham was defeated and killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Bahram Chobin's other commanders, Bryzacius, was captured in <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosil</a> and had his nose and ears cut off, and was thereafter sent to Khosrow, where he was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris1992251_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris1992251-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawlinson2004509_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlinson2004509-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow II and the Byzantine general <a href="/wiki/Narses_(magister_militum_per_Orientem)" title="Narses (magister militum per Orientem)">Narses</a> then penetrated deeper into Bahram's territory, seizing Dara and then <a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a> in February, where Khosrow was re-proclaimed king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after this, Khosrow sent one of his Iranian supporters, Mahbodh, to capture Ctesiphon, which he managed to accomplish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002174_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002174-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/300px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/450px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/600px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2710" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Roman-Sasanian frontier during Late Antiquity, including the 591 border that was established between the two empires after Khosrow II's victory over Bahram Chobin.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians under <a href="/wiki/Mushegh_II_Mamikonian" title="Mushegh II Mamikonian">Mushegh II Mamikonian</a> invaded Adurbadagan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram Chobin tried to disrupt the force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008128–129_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008128–129-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram Chobin in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by a Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mushegh, however, rejected the offer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bahram Chobin was then defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blarathon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Blarathon">Battle of Blarathon</a>, forcing him to flee with 4,000 men eastwards. He marched towards <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, where he defeated a pursuing army as well as an army led by a <a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">Karenid</a> nobleman at <a href="/wiki/Qumis_(region)" title="Qumis (region)">Qumis</a>. Constantly troubled, he crossed the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus river">Oxus river</a>, where he was received honorably by the Khagan of the Turks, who was most likely Birmudha—the same Turkic prince that Bahram Chobin had defeated and captured a few years earlier during his wars against the Turks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram Chobin entered his service, and was appointed as a commander in the army, achieving further military accomplishments there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016242_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016242-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bahram Chobin became a highly popular figure after saving the Khagan from a conspiracy instigated by the latter's brother Byghu (conceivably an incorrect translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Yabghu" title="Yabghu">yabghu</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow II, however, could not feel safe as long as Bahram Chobin lived, and succeeded in having him assassinated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assassination was reportedly achieved through distribution of presents and bribes between the members of the Turkic royal family, notably the queen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016242_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016242-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What remained of Bahram Chobin's supporters went back to northern Iran and joined the <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Vistahm" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebellion of Vistahm">rebellion of Vistahm</a> (590/1–596 or 594/5–600).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consolidation_of_the_empire">Consolidation of the empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consolidation of the empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_affairs_and_relations_with_the_Byzantines">Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With Khosrow's rule now restored, his aim was to now consolidate his grip over his realm, which included showing tolerance and support to his Christian subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaeeRezakhani201643_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaeeRezakhani201643-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His wife <a href="/wiki/Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a>—a Christian from <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan">Khuzestan</a>—was the most influential of his wives, playing an important role in the royal favour that the Mesopotamian Christians enjoyed. She had a church and monastery constructed near the palace in Ctesiphon, which was used to receive a portion of the treasury for the wages of the clergy and their vestments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arab <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids/Nasrids</a>, a client state located at <a href="/wiki/Al-Hira" title="Al-Hira">al-Hira</a> and its surroundings, could now openly convert to <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christianity">Nestorian Christianity</a> without angering the Sasanian court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Iranians and the Byzantines enjoyed good relations with each other for the first eleven years. This was apparent in their management of the issues that had risen in Armenia. In the 590s, many Armenian nobles and their supporters sought asylum in Iran to avoid being conscripted for <a href="/wiki/Maurice%27s_Balkan_campaigns" title="Maurice's Balkan campaigns">Maurice's Balkan campaigns</a>. The open borders between the two empires meant that nobles could freely immigrate to Iran and get promoted. However, when they showed signs of aspiring to fight the Byzantines, the Iranians worked together with the Byzantines to deal with the issue.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolt_of_Vistahm">Revolt of Vistahm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Revolt of Vistahm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After his victory, Khosrow rewarded his uncles with high positions: <a href="/wiki/Vinduyih" title="Vinduyih">Vinduyih</a> became treasurer and first minister and <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> received the post of <i><a href="/wiki/Spahbed" title="Spahbed">spahbed</a></i> of the East, encompassing <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, which was the traditional homeland of the Ispahbudhan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008131–132_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008131–132-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon, however, Khosrow changed his intentions: trying to disassociate himself from his father's murder, he decided to execute his uncles. The Sasanian monarchs' traditional mistrust of over-powerful magnates and Khosrow's personal resentment of Vinduyih's patronising manner certainly contributed to this decision. Vinduyih was soon put to death, according to a Syriac source captured while trying to flee to his brother in the East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132,_134_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132,_134-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drachm_of_Bistam,_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg/220px-Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg/330px-Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg/440px-Drachm_of_Bistam%2C_595_or_596_Rayy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">Drachma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a>, minted at <a href="/wiki/Ray,_Iran" title="Ray, Iran">Ray</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the news of his brother's murder, Vistahm rose in open revolt. According to <a href="/wiki/Dinawari" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinawari">Dinawari</a>, Vistahm sent a letter to Khosrow announcing his claim to the throne through his Parthian (<a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid dynasty of Parthia">Arsacid</a>) heritage: "You are not worthier to rule than I am. Indeed, I am more deserving on account of my descent from <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius, son of Darius</a>, who fought <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>. You Sasanians deceitfully gained superiority over us [the Arsacids] and usurped our right, and treated us with injustice. Your ancestor Sasan was no more than a shepherd." Vistahm's revolt, like Bahrams's shortly before, found support and spread quickly. Local magnates as well as the remnants of Bahram Chobin's armies flocked to him, especially after he married Bahram's sister <a href="/wiki/Gordiya" title="Gordiya">Gordiya</a>. Vistahm repelled several loyalist efforts to subdue him, and he soon held sway in the entire eastern and northern quadrants of the Iranian realm, a domain stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Oxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus">Oxus</a> river to the region of <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a> in the west. He even campaigned in the east, where he subdued two <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalite</a> princes of <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, Shaug and Pariowk.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132–133,_135_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132–133,_135-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of Vistahm's uprising is uncertain. From his coinage, it is known that his rebellion lasted for seven years. The commonly accepted dates are ca. 590–596, but some scholars like J.D. Howard–Johnston and <a href="/wiki/Parvaneh_Pourshariati" title="Parvaneh Pourshariati">Parvaneh Pourshariati</a> push its outbreak later, in 594/5, to coincide with the Armenian Vahewuni rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Vistahm began to threaten <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a>, Khosrow sent several armies against his uncle, but failed to achieve a decisive result: Vistahm and his followers retreated to the mountainous region of <a href="/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a>, while several Armenian contingents of the royal army rebelled and defected to Vistahm. Finally, Khosrow called upon the services of the Armenian <a href="/wiki/Smbat_IV_Bagratuni" title="Smbat IV Bagratuni">Smbat Bagratuni</a>, who engaged Vistahm near <a href="/wiki/Qumis,_Iran" title="Qumis, Iran">Qumis</a>. During the battle, Vistahm was murdered by Pariowk at Khosrow's urging (or, according to an alternative account, by his wife Gordiya). Nevertheless, Vistahm's troops managed to repel the royal army at Qumis, and it required another expedition by Smbat in the next year to finally end the rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008136–137_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008136–137-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition_of_the_Lakhmid_dynasty">Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 600, Khosrow II executed <a href="/wiki/Al-Nu%27man_III_ibn_al-Mundhir" title="Al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir">Al-Nu'man III</a>, King of the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hira" title="Al-Hira">Al-Hira</a>, presumably because of the Arab king's refusal to give him his daughter <a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4urqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ḥurqah">al-Ḥurqah</a> in marriage and insulting Persian women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandau-Tasseron1996_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandau-Tasseron1996-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert, and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This ultimately facilitated the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a>' invasion and conquest of Lower <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, less than a decade after Khosrow's death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1984330_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1984330-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628"><span id="Byzantine.E2.80.93Sasanian_War_of_602.E2.80.93628"></span>Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_Iranian_invasion_and_dominance">Initial Iranian invasion and dominance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Initial Iranian invasion and dominance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg/220px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg/330px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg/440px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II-es.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2474" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian territories in 620s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Idealized painting of a battle between Heraclius' army and Iranians under Khosrow II ca. 1452" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/300px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/450px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg/600px-Piero_della_Francesca_021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="1895" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Anachronistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anachronistic">anachronistic</a> illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Battle of Nineveh (627)</a> between <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>' army and the Persians under Khosrow II. Fresco by <a href="/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca" title="Piero della Francesca">Piero della Francesca</a>, ca. 1452</figcaption></figure> <p>Toward the beginning of his reign, Khosrow II had good relations with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>. However, when in 602 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> was murdered by his General <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a> (602–610), who usurped the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman (Byzantine)</a> throne, Khosrow launched an offensive against Constantinople: ostensibly to avenge Maurice's death, but his aim clearly included the annexation of as much <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> territory as was feasible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow II, along with <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> and his other best generals, quickly captured <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> in 604, and recaptured lost territory in the north, which made the Sasanian–Byzantine borders go back to the pre-591 frontier before Khosrow gave Maurice territory in return for military aid against <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>. After having reclaimed lost territory, Khosrow withdrew from the battlefield and handed military operations to Shahrbaraz and <a href="/wiki/Shahin_Vahmanzadegan" title="Shahin Vahmanzadegan">Shahin Vahmanzadegan</a>. The Sasanian armies then invaded and plundered <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, and in 608 advanced into <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a>. </p><p>In 610, <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> revolted against <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a> and killed him, crowning himself as Emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. He then tried to negotiate peace with Khosrow II by sending diplomats to his court. Khosrow, however, rejected their offer and said: "That kingdom belongs to me, and I shall enthrone Maurice's son, Theodosius, as emperor. [As for Heraclius], he went and took the rule without our order and now offers us our own treasure as gifts. But I shall not stop until I have him in my hands." Khosrow then had the diplomats executed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 613 and 614, General Shahrbaraz besieged and captured <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> was carried away in triumph. Soon afterwards, Shahin marched through <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, defeating the Byzantines numerous times; he conquered <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a> in 618. The Byzantines could offer but little resistance, as they were torn apart by internal dissensions, and pressed by the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, who were invading the Empire from across the <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 622/3, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and several other islands in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> fell to the Sasanians, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016223_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016223-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005197_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005197-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoss1975725_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoss1975725-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government to <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaegi88_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaegi88-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turko-Hephthalite_invasion">Turko-Hephthalite invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Turko-Hephthalite invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In ca. 606/607, Khosrow recalled <a href="/wiki/Smbat_IV_Bagratuni" title="Smbat IV Bagratuni">Smbat IV Bagratuni</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Sasanian Armenia</a> and sent him to repel the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, who had raided as far as <a href="/wiki/Spahan_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahan (satrapy)">Spahan</a> in central Iran. Smbat, with the aid of an Iranian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Turko-Hephthalites from Iran, and plundered their domains in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">eastern Khorasan</a>, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow then gave Smbat the honorific title <i>Khosrow Shun</i> ("the Joy or Satisfaction of Khosrow"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while his son <a href="/wiki/Varaztirots_II_Bagratuni" title="Varaztirots II Bagratuni">Varaztirots II Bagratuni</a> received the honorific name <i>Javitean Khosrow</i> ("Eternal Khosrow").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008153–154_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008153–154-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a> describes the event as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He [Khosrow] ordered that a huge elephant be adorned and brought to the chamber. He commanded that [Smbat's son] Varaztirots' (who was called Javitean Khosrow by the king), be seated atop [the elephant]. And he ordered treasures scattered on the crowd. He wrote [to Smbat] a hrovartak [expressing] great satisfaction and summoned him to court with great honor and pomp. [Smbat] died in the 28th year of [Khosrow's] reign [618–19].<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoudavar2012_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoudavar2012-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_counter-offensive_and_resurgence">Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg/220px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg/330px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg/440px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Sassanid King <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> being vanquished by the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, from a plaque on a 12th-century French cross. This is only allegorical, as Khosrau II never actually submitted in person to Heraclius.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 622, despite the major progress the Sasanians were making in the area of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> was able to take the field with a powerful force. In 624, he advanced into northern <a href="/wiki/Adurbadagan" title="Adurbadagan">Adurbadagan</a>, where he was welcomed by <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad" title="Rostam Farrokhzad">Rostam Farrokhzad</a> who had rebelled against Khosrow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008152–153_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008152–153-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heraclius then began sacking several cities and temples, including the <a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Soleym%C4%81n" title="Takht-e Soleymān">Adur Gushnasp</a> temple.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 626 Heraclius captured <a href="/wiki/Lazistan" title="Lazistan">Lazistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a>). Later that same year, <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> advanced on <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Bosphoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphoros">Bosphoros</a> and attempted to capture <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> with the help of <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic</a> allies. In this <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of Constantinople in 626</a>, the combined Sassanid, Slavic and Avar forces failed to capture the Byzantine capital city. The Avars did not have the patience or technology to conquer the city. On top of that, the Iranians, who were <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a> experts, were unable to transport their troops and equipment to the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a> where their Slavic and Avar allies were located, due to heavy guarding of the strait by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a>. Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">walls of Constantinople</a> were easily defended against the siege towers and engines. Another reason was that the Persians and Slavs did not have a strong enough navy to skirt the sea walls and establish a channel of communication. The lack of supplies for the Avars eventually caused them to abandon the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003140_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003140-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As this maneuver failed, Shahrbaraz' forces were defeated, and he withdrew his army from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> later in 628. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">Third Perso-Turkic War</a> in 627, Heraclius defeated the Iranian army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Battle of Nineveh</a> and advanced towards <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. Khosrow II fled from his favorite residence, <a href="/wiki/Dastagird" title="Dastagird">Dastagird</a> (near Ctesiphon), without offering resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heraclius then captured <a href="/wiki/Dastagird" title="Dastagird">Dastagird</a> and plundered it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overthrow_and_death">Overthrow and death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Overthrow and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz,_his_hands_bound,_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns,_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg/170px-Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg/255px-Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg/340px-Khusrau_Parv%C3%AEz%2C_his_hands_bound%2C_is_led_by_two_rustics_wearing_straw_hats_with_high_crowns%2C_from_a_pavilion_in_a_garden_where_he_had_taken_refuge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2878" data-file-height="3356" /></a><figcaption>17th-century <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> illustration of Khosrow II's arrest</figcaption></figure> <p>After the capture of Dastagird, the son of Khosrow, Sheroe, was released by the feudal families of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, which included the <a href="/wiki/Ispahbudhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ispahbudhan">Ispahbudhan</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Spahbed" title="Spahbed">spahbed</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> and his two sons <a href="/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad" title="Rostam Farrokhzad">Rostam Farrokhzad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">Mihran</a> family, the Armenian faction represented by <a href="/wiki/Varaztirots_II_Bagratuni" title="Varaztirots II Bagratuni">Varaztirots II Bagratuni</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/Kanadbak" title="Kanadbak">Kanadbak</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kanarang" title="Kanarang">Kanārangīyān family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008173_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008173-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the night of 25 February, the night-watch of the Sasanian capital of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, which would usually shout the name of the reigning shah, shouted the name of Sheroe instead, which indicated a <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> was taking place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sheroe, with Aspad Gushnasp leading his army, captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrow II in the house of a certain Mehr-Sepand (also known as Maraspand). Sheroe, who had now assumed the dynastic name of Kavad II, then ordered Aspad Gushnasp to lead the charge of accusations against the deposed shah. Khosrow, however, dismissed all accusations one by one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1987743_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1987743-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kavad shortly proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir Mardanshah, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stripped the Sasanian dynasty of a future competent ruler, and has been described as a "mad rampage" and "reckless".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three days later he ordered <a href="/wiki/Mihr_Hormozd" title="Mihr Hormozd">Mihr Hormozd</a> to execute Khosrow. However, after the regicide of his father, Kavad also proceeded to have Mihr Hormozd killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._398_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._398-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow's daughters <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a> reportedly criticized and scolded Kavad for his barbaric actions, which made him filled with remorse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._399_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._399-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the support of the Iranian nobles, Kavad then made peace with the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, which made the Byzantines regain all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a <a href="/wiki/War_indemnity" class="mw-redirect" title="War indemnity">war indemnity</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.<sup id="cite_ref-Oman212_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oman212-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in a <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">chaotic civil war</a>, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (<i>Parsig</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthian</a> (<i>Pahlav</i>) noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil war finally ended when Khosrow's eight year old grandson, <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a>, ascended the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008219_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008219-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The young king, however, inherited a disintegrating empire, which was dealt its last blow in 651 during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Arab conquest of Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016284–285_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016284–285-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_policy_and_beliefs">Religious policy and beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Religious policy and beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khosrow II, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of Zoroastrianism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne20152_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne20152-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 5th-century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to homogenize them into a structure of administration where according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly as <i>mard / zan ī šahr</i>, i.e. "man/woman [citizen] of the country".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and (notably) Christians had accepted the concept of Iran and considered themselves part of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his reign there was constant conflict between <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> Christians. Khosrow favored the Monophysites, and ordered all his subjects to adhere to Monophysitism, perhaps under the influence of Shirin and the royal physician <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_of_Sinjar" title="Gabriel of Sinjar">Gabriel of Sinjar</a>, who both supported this faith. Khosrow also dispensed money or gifts to Christian shrines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow's great tolerance to Christianity and friendship with the Christian Byzantines even made some Armenian writers think that Khosrow was a Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His positive policy toward Christians (which, however, was probably politically motivated) made him unpopular with the Zoroastrian priests, and also made Christianity greatly spread around the Sasanian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983171_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983171-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Khosrow's war with the Byzantines, Christian elites and organizations were incorporated into the Sasanian system, as part of his attempt to absorb the Byzantine realm into his expanded empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015200_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015200-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The condition of the Christian nobility reached its pinnacle under Khosrow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mushegh_II_Mamikonian" title="Mushegh II Mamikonian">Mushegh II Mamikonian</a>, a prominent Armenian <i><a href="/wiki/Nakharar" title="Nakharar">nakharar</a></i>, is the first and only Christian nobleman that is praised by courtly historiographers, due to his rejection of the enticements of Bahram Chobin. His decision to choose Khosrow over his native Armenia, gained him a place in the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>, the national epic of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Smbat_IV_Bagratuni" title="Smbat IV Bagratuni">Smbat IV Bagratuni</a> likewise led an illustrious career under Khosrow, rising to the office of frontier commander of <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Gorgan</a>, possibly the most vital and contested area of the Sasanian realm. As a reward for his accomplishments in the east, Smbat was appointed the leader of the military jurisdiction in the Caucasus. Furthermore, his aristocratic house–the <a href="/wiki/Bagratuni_dynasty" title="Bagratuni dynasty">Bagratunids</a>–was made the pillar of Sasanian authority in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrow also paid attention to the Zoroastrians, and had various <a href="/wiki/Fire_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire temples">fire temples</a> constructed. However, this did not help the Zoroastrian church, which was in a heavy decline during his reign. According to <a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Frye" title="Richard N. Frye">Richard N. Frye</a>, the Zoroastrian church under Khosrow "was noted for its devotion to luxury more than its devotion to thought."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983172_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983172-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music_during_the_reign_of_Khosrow_II">Music during the reign of Khosrow II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Music during the reign of Khosrow II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khosrow II's reign was considered a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">music</a>. Before Khosrow II there were many other Sasanian kings that showed particular interest in music, like <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Gur" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahram Gur">Bahram Gur</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>. Notable musicians during the reign of Khosrow II were <a href="/wiki/Barbad" title="Barbad">Barbad</a> (Khosrow's favorite court musician), <a href="/wiki/Bamshad" title="Bamshad">Bamshad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarkash" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarkash">Sarkash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nagisa_(harpist)" title="Nagisa (harpist)">Nagisa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rock_reliefs">Rock reliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Rock reliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taghe_bostan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taghe_bostan.JPG/220px-Taghe_bostan.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taghe_bostan.JPG/330px-Taghe_bostan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taghe_bostan.JPG/440px-Taghe_bostan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinities <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anahita" title="Anahita">Anahita</a> each giving Khosrow II a <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Khosrow restored the practice of erecting rock reliefs, after an absence of nearly three centuries, the last one being erected under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 383–388</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a>, Khosrow mimicked and magnified the rock relief of Shapur III.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His relief, known as the "Great <a href="/wiki/Ayvan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayvan">Ayvan</a>", is in a <a href="/wiki/Barrel_vault" title="Barrel vault">barrel vault</a> carved in a cliff. The ayvan is split into an upper and lower section; the upper section depicts a divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinities <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anahita" title="Anahita">Anahita</a> each giving Khosrow a <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lower section depicts Khosrow II on horseback, wearing full body armor, whilst holding a lance and shield. His head is encircled by a <a href="/wiki/Halo_(religious_iconography)" title="Halo (religious iconography)">halo</a>, which according to Howard-Johnston, is most likely a representation of his <a href="/wiki/Xwarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Xwarrah">xwarrah</a>, i.e. kingly glory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the left side panel, a boar hunt scene is depicted, portraying Khosrow on a boat whilst aiming a bow. On the right, there is a deer hunt scene. The relief, however, is unfinished, probably due to Khosrow's setback in the later stages of the war and his eventual downfall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation"><img alt="The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png/87px-Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png/130px-Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png/173px-Petroglyph_of_Khosrow_II_in_Taq-e_Bostan.png 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="577" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Equestrian statue of Khosrow II."><img alt="Equestrian statue of Khosrow II." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/120px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/180px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/240px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="692" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt."><img alt="Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg/120px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg/180px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg/240px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_Low-relief_the_boar_hunt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="869" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e-Bostan_(Iran)_Sassanid_Period.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt."><img alt="Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG/120px-Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG/180px-Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG/240px-Taq-e-Bostan_%28Iran%29_Sassanid_Period.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw,_Shirin,_and_Farhad_(%3F)_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad."><img alt="This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg/66px-Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="66" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg/100px-Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg/133px-Muhammad_ibn_Muhammad_Shakir_Ruzmah-%27i_Nathani_-_Mount_Bistun_and_the_Carvings_of_Khusraw%2C_Shirin%2C_and_Farhad_%28%3F%29_-_Walters_W659182A_-_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1440" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coinage">Coinage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Coinage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg/220px-Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg/330px-Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg/440px-Gold_coin_of_Khosrow_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of Khosrow II, minted in 625/6.</figcaption></figure> <p>Khosrow, during his second reign, added the <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideogram</a> GDH, meaning <a href="/wiki/Xwarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Xwarrah">xwarrah</a> ("royal splendor") on his coins. He combined this together with the word <i>abzōt</i> ("he has increased"), making the full inscription thus read as: "Khosrow, he has increased the royal splendor" (<i>Khūsrōkhwarrah abzōt</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title of <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a>–missing since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 459–484</span>)–was also restored on his coins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Shayegan, Khosrow's adoption of the title was "undoubtedly a consequence of his Byzantine policy," and was signifying a resurrection of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013806,_812–813_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013806,_812–813-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His two successors, <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 628–628</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 628–630</span>), refrained from using the title, seemingly in order distance themselves from him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Khosrow_II_in_Islamic_tradition">Khosrow II in Islamic tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Khosrow II in Islamic tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> tradition tells a story in which Khosrow II (in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">كسرى</span> Transliteration: Kisra) was a Persian king to whom <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> had sent a messenger, <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Hudhafah_as-Sahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi">Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi</a>, along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-Mubarakpuri2002417_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Mubarakpuri2002417-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-al-islam.org_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-islam.org-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The account as transmitted by Muslim tradition reads: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the great (leader/head) of the Persians. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in Allah and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but Allah and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of Allah, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe (in this life and the next). And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">Magi</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-al-islam.org_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-islam.org-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Islamic tradition further states that Khosrow II tore up Muhammad's letter<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saying, "A pitiful slave among my subjects dares write his name before mine"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMubarakpuri2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMubarakpuri2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and commanded <a href="/wiki/Badhan_(Persian_Governor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Badhan (Persian Governor)">Badhan</a>, his vassal ruler of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man from <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a> (Muhammad) to him. When Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces, Muhammad promised the destruction of Khosrow II stating, "Even so, Allah shall destroy his kingdom."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Badhan's men arrived in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> and talked to Muhammad, ordering him to accompany them back to Khosrow II. Muhammad reportedly changed the subject, made it obvious he did not like their appearance, and responded by asking why they shave their beards and leave their mustaches to grow and be that large. When they said that's what their god orders them to do, he said his god orders him to cut his mustache and grow his beard. After he took control of the conversation like that, he went back on-topic and asked them to come back to him the next day. When they did, he informed them that Khosrow II had been killed by his son. Badhan's men responded angrily, threatening Muhammad to tell Badhan what he is saying about Khosrow II. To that, he responded by encouraging them to write to Badhan and to also tell him that Islam and its power will reach all that Khosrow II has ever ruled over. A few days later, Badhan received confirmation from Persia that Khosrow II was dead. As a consequence, he is said to have accepted Islam, and Muhammad kept him as a ruler over his people.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art">In art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capital_of_Khosrow_II,_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg/220px-Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg/330px-Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg/440px-Capital_of_Khosrow_II%2C_Taq-e_Bostan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="3772" /></a><figcaption>Capital with depiction of Khosrau II at <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The battles between Heraclius and Khosrow are depicted in a famous early Renaissance fresco by <a href="/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca" title="Piero della Francesca">Piero della Francesca</a>, part of the <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_True_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the True Cross">History of the True Cross</a></i> cycle in the church of <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Francesco,_Arezzo" title="Basilica of San Francesco, Arezzo">San Francesco, Arezzo</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a> paintings depict events in his life, like his battles or his assassination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khosrow was the son of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a>, and an unnamed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">Ispahbudhan</a> noblewoman who was the sister of <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vinduyih" title="Vinduyih">Vinduyih</a>. Khosrow also had two cousins from the Ispahbudhan family whom were named <a href="/wiki/Mah-Adhur_Gushnasp" title="Mah-Adhur Gushnasp">Mah-Adhur Gushnasp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narsi" title="Narsi">Narsi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008179_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008179-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had a brother-in-law named <a href="/wiki/Hormuzan" title="Hormuzan">Hormuzan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004b_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004b-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Sasanian nobleman from one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Parthian_clans" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Parthian clans">seven Parthian clans</a>, who later fought against the Arabs during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim invasion of Persia</a>. However, this is most likely wrong since Kavad's mother was a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> princess named <a href="/wiki/Maria_(daughter_of_Maurice)" title="Maria (daughter of Maurice)">Maria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008236_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008236-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrow married three times: first to <a href="/wiki/Maria_(daughter_of_Maurice)" title="Maria (daughter of Maurice)">Maria</a>, a daughter of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a>, who bore him <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a>. Then to Gordiya, the sister of <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>, who bore him <a href="/wiki/Juvansher" title="Juvansher">Javanshir</a>. Then to <a href="/wiki/Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a>, who bore him <a href="/wiki/Mardanshah_(Sasanian_prince)" title="Mardanshah (Sasanian prince)">Mardanshah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow also had other children whom were named: <a href="/wiki/Borandukht" class="mw-redirect" title="Borandukht">Borandukht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shahriyar_(son_of_Khosrow_II)" title="Shahriyar (son of Khosrow II)">Shahriyar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad_Khosrau_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Farrukhzad Khosrau V">Farrukhzad Khosrow V</a>. All these persons except Shahriyar would later become the monarch of Iran during the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628-632" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian civil war of 628-632">Sasanian civil war of 628-632</a>. Khosrow had a sister named Mirhran, who was married to the Sasanian <i><a href="/wiki/Spahbed" title="Spahbed">spahbed</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a>, and later bore him <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008205_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008205-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_tree">Family tree</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Family tree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a><br />(531–579)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Shapur<br />(† 580s)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a><br />(579–590)</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Unknown</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a><br />(590/1–596<br />or<br />594/5–600)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Vinduyih" title="Vinduyih">Vinduyih</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Unnamed noblewoman</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Jushnas</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><b>Khosrow II</b><br />(590–628)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Kavad</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Mirhran</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Mah-Adhur_Gushnasp" title="Mah-Adhur Gushnasp">Mah-Adhur Gushnasp</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Narsi" title="Narsi">Narsi</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a><br />(628)</td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a><br />(630–631)</td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Mardanshah_(Sasanian_prince)" title="Mardanshah (Sasanian prince)">Mardanshah</a><br />(† 628)</td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Javanshir_(Sasanian_prince)" class="mw-redirect" title="Javanshir (Sasanian prince)">Javanshir</a></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a><br />(630)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a><br />(630)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Anoshagan</td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Bistam</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Borandukht" class="mw-redirect" title="Borandukht">Borandukht</a><br />(629–630, 631–632)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad_Khosrau_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Farrukhzad Khosrau V">Farrukhzad Khosrow V</a><br />(631)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Shahriyar_(son_of_Khosrow_II)" title="Shahriyar (son of Khosrow II)">Shahriyar</a><br />(† 628)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Unknown</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Kavad Gushnasp</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em">Tamahij</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Khosrau_II" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babai_the_Great" title="Babai the Great">Babai the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Palace" title="Behistun Palace">Behistun Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisra_legend" title="Kisra legend">Kisra legend</a>, an African migration myth that historian <a href="/wiki/Leo_Frobenius" title="Leo Frobenius">Leo Frobenius</a> argued was based on Khosrow II</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqawqis" class="mw-redirect" title="Muqawqis">Muqawqis</a>, Ruler of Alexandria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Muslim_interactants_with_Muslims_during_Muhammad%27s_era" title="Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era">Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabdiz" title="Shabdiz">Shabdiz</a> <i>Khosrow's highly admired horse</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-e_Badavard" title="Ganj-e Badavard">Ganj-e Badavard</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also spelled "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2010_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2010">Howard-Johnston 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2000-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkjærvø2000_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkjærvø2000">Skjærvø 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonCanepaDaryaee2018">Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2014341-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERapp2014341_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRapp2014">Rapp 2014</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmittBailey1986-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmittBailey1986_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmittBailey1986">Schmitt & Bailey 1986</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004466–467_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahbazi2004">Shahbazi 2004</a>, pp. 466–467.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansman1986277–278-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansman1986277–278_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansman1986">Hansman 1986</a>, pp. 277–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1988514–522_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahbazi1988">Shahbazi 1988</a>, pp. 514–522.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013810_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShayegan2013">Shayegan 2013</a>, p. 810.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200896-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200896_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi1989180–182_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahbazi1989">Shahbazi 1989</a>, pp. 180–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._49-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._49_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAl-Tabari1985–2007">Al-Tabari 1985–2007</a>, v. 5: p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017178_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRezakhani2017">Rezakhani 2017</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016241-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016241_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002172-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002172_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrexLieu2002">Greatrex & Lieu 2002</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002173_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrexLieu2002">Greatrex & Lieu 2002</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris1992251-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris1992251_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartindaleJonesMorris1992">Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlinson2004509-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawlinson2004509_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawlinson2004">Rawlinson 2004</a>, p. 509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002174-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2002174_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrexLieu2002">Greatrex & Lieu 2002</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008128–129-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008128–129_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 128–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008129_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016242-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016242_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016242_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008133–134_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 133–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaeeRezakhani201643-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaeeRezakhani201643_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaeeRezakhani2016">Daryaee & Rezakhani 2016</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008131–132-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008131–132_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132,_134-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132,_134_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 132, 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132–133,_135-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008132–133,_135_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 132–133, 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008136–137-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008136–137_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 136–137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandau-Tasseron1996-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandau-Tasseron1996_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandau-Tasseron1996">Landau-Tasseron 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1984330-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1984330_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1984">Frye 1984</a>, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a>, chapter 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1911_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeyer1911">Meyer 1911</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016223-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016223_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005197-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrexLieu2005197_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrexLieu2005">Greatrex & Lieu 2005</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoss1975725-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoss1975725_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoss1975">Foss 1975</a>, p. 725.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006">Howard-Johnston 2006</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaegi88-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kaegi88_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaegi2003">Kaegi 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA88">88</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartindaleJonesMorris19921363–1364_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartindaleJonesMorris1992">Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992</a>, pp. 1363–1364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008153–154-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008153–154_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESoudavar2012-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoudavar2012_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSoudavar2012">Soudavar 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008152–153-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008152–153_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, pp. 152–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003140-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003140_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaegi2003">Kaegi 2003</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008173-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008173_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorony2005">Morony 2005</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1987743-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETafazzoli1987743_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTafazzoli1987">Tafazzoli 1987</a>, p. 743.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016255–256_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, pp. 255–256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._398-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._398_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAl-Tabari1985–2007">Al-Tabari 1985–2007</a>, v. 5: p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._399-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAl-Tabari1985–2007v._5:_p._399_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAl-Tabari1985–2007">Al-Tabari 1985–2007</a>, v. 5: p. 399.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oman212-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016284–285_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, pp. 284–285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne20152-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne20152_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPayne2015">Payne 2015</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee201456_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2014">Daryaee 2014</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983166_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1983">Frye 1983</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983171-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983171_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1983">Frye 1983</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015200-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015200_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPayne2015">Payne 2015</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015168_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPayne2015">Payne 2015</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1983172-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1983172_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1983">Frye 1983</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa2018361_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanepa2018">Canepa 2018</a>, p. 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013837_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchindel2013">Schindel 2013</a>, p. 837.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013806,_812–813-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShayegan2013806,_812–813_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShayegan2013">Shayegan 2013</a>, pp. 806, 812–813.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Mubarakpuri2002417-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-Mubarakpuri2002417_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Mubarakpuri2002">al-Mubarakpuri 2002</a>, p. 417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-islam.org-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-al-islam.org_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-al-islam.org_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSubhani2012" class="citation web cs1">Subhani, Ja'far (27 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/message-jafar-subhani/chapter-42-events-seventh-year-migration">"Chapter 42: The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration"</a>. <i>The Message</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2023</span> – via Al-Islam.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Message&rft.atitle=Chapter+42%3A+The+Events+of+the+Seventh+Year+of+Migration&rft.date=2012-12-27&rft.aulast=Subhani&rft.aufirst=Ja%27far&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fmessage-jafar-subhani%2Fchapter-42-events-seventh-year-migration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tabaqat-i Kubra</i>, vol. I, p. 360; <i>Tarikh-i Tabari</i>, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; <i>Tarikh-i Kamil</i>, vol. II, p. 81; and <i>Biharul Anwar</i>, vol. XX, p. 389.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony1980[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxJY3AAAAIAAJpgPA185_185]_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorony1980">Morony 1980</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185">185</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMubarakpuri2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMubarakpuri2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMubarakpuri2009">Mubarakpuri 2009</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Kathir1367" class="citation book cs1">Ibn Kathir, Ismail (1367). <i>Al Bidaya Wal Nihaya</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al+Bidaya+Wal+Nihaya&rft.date=1367&rft.aulast=Ibn+Kathir&rft.aufirst=Ismail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008179-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008179_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004b-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2004b_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShahbazi2004b">Shahbazi 2004b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008236-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008236_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008205-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008205_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPourshariati2008">Pourshariati 2008</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Mubarakpuri2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Safiur_Rahman_al-Mubarakpuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri">al-Mubarakpuri, Saif-ur-Rahman</a> (2002). <i>al-Raheeq al-Makhtoom, "The Sealed Nectar"</i>. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_University_of_Madinah" title="Islamic University of Madinah">Islamic University of Medina</a>. Riyadh: Darussalam publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59144-071-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59144-071-8"><bdi>1-59144-071-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=al-Raheeq+al-Makhtoom%2C+%22The+Sealed+Nectar%22&rft.place=Riyadh&rft.series=Islamic+University+of+Medina&rft.pub=Darussalam+publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-59144-071-8&rft.aulast=al-Mubarakpuri&rft.aufirst=Saif-ur-Rahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Tabari1985–2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">Al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir</a> (1985–2007). Ehsan Yar-Shater (ed.). <i>The History of Al-Ṭabarī</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Al-%E1%B9%ACabar%C4%AB&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1985%2F2007&rft.aulast=Al-Tabari&rft.aufirst=Abu+Ja%27far+Muhammad+ibn+Jarir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span> 40 vols.</li> <li>Baca-Winters, Keenan. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/534664">He Did Not Fear: Xusro Parviz, King of Kings of the Sasanian Empire</a></i>. Gorgias Press, 2019. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-3927-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-3927-5">978-1-4632-3927-5</a></li> <li>Baca-Winters, Keenan. "From Rome to Iran: Identity and Xusro II." PhD. diss., University of California, Irvine, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1rp8c11b">https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1rp8c11b</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanepa2018" class="citation book cs1">Canepa, Matthew P. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/62562"><i>The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520964365" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520964365"><bdi>978-0520964365</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iranian+Expanse%3A+Transforming+Royal+Identity+through+Architecture%2C+Landscape%2C+and+the+Built+Environment%2C+550+BCE%E2%80%93642+CE&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0520964365&rft.aulast=Canepa&rft.aufirst=Matthew+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbook%2F62562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2013" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Peter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPAHBAAAQBAJ&q=false"><i>The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam</i></a>. Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-612-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-612-8"><bdi>978-1-84884-612-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+Three+Gods%3A+Romans%2C+Persians+and+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-612-8&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZPAHBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaryaee2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Touraj_Daryaee" title="Touraj Daryaee">Daryaee, Touraj</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SasanianPersia"><i>Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire</i></a>. I.B. Tauris. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SasanianPersia/page/n2">1</a>–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857716668" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857716668"><bdi>978-0857716668</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sasanian+Persia%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Empire&rft.pages=1-240&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0857716668&rft.aulast=Daryaee&rft.aufirst=Touraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSasanianPersia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaryaeeRezakhani2016" class="citation book cs1">Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zYnMCwAAQBAJ"><i>From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran</i></a>. H&S Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1780835778" title="Special:BookSources/978-1780835778"><bdi>978-1780835778</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Oxus+to+Euphrates%3A+The+World+of+Late+Antique+Iran&rft.pub=H%26S+Media&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1780835778&rft.aulast=Daryaee&rft.aufirst=Touraj&rft.au=Rezakhani%2C+Khodadad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzYnMCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Walford" title="Edward Walford">Edward Walford</a>, translator, <i>The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594</i>, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-889758-88-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-889758-88-6">978-1-889758-88-6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE5">[1]</a> – a primary source containing detailed information about the early reign of Khosrow II and his relationship with the Romans.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoss1975" class="citation journal cs1">Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>90</b>. Oxford University Press: 721–747. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FXC.CCCLVII.721">10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Persians+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+End+of+Antiquity&rft.volume=90&rft.pages=721-747&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FXC.CCCLVII.721&rft.aulast=Foss&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1983" class="citation book cs1">Frye, R. N. (1983). "Chapter 4: The political history of Iran under the Sasanians". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Iran" title="The Cambridge History of Iran">The Cambridge History of Iran</a></i>. Volume 3 Part 1. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+The+political+history+of+Iran+under+the+Sasanians&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.series=Volume+3+Part+1.+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian+and+Sasanid+Periods&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Frye" title="Richard N. Frye">Frye, R. N.</a> (1984). "The reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan ('Of the Immortal soul')". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/fryehst.asp"><i>The History of Ancient Iran</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2020</span> – via fordham.edu/.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+reforms+of+Chosroes+Anushirvan+%28%27Of+the+Immortal+soul%27%29&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Ancient+Iran&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fmed%2Ffryehst.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreatrexLieu2005" class="citation book cs1">Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2005). <i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363–628</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75646-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75646-9"><bdi>978-1-134-75646-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Eastern+Frontier+and+the+Persian+Wars+AD+363%E2%80%93628&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-134-75646-9&rft.aulast=Greatrex&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Lieu%2C+Samuel+N.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreatrexLieu2002" class="citation book cs1">Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zc8iAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)</i></a>. New York and London: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14687-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14687-9"><bdi>0-415-14687-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Eastern+Frontier+and+the+Persian+Wars+%28Part+II%2C+363%E2%80%93630+AD%29&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Routledge+%28Taylor+%26+Francis%29&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-14687-9&rft.aulast=Greatrex&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Lieu%2C+Samuel+N.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzc8iAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansman1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hansman, J. F. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arbela-assyrian-arbailu-old">"Arbela"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 3</i>. pp. 277–278.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arbela&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+II%2C+Fasc.+3&rft.pages=277-278&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Hansman&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farbela-assyrian-arbailu-old&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Howard-Johnston" title="James Howard-Johnston">Howard-Johnston, James</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC"><i>East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies</i></a>. 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Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%2C+476%E2%80%93918%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Oman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_N6A-AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2015" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Richard E. 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Univ of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520961531" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520961531"><bdi>978-0520961531</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+State+of+Mixture%3A+Christians%2C+Zoroastrians%2C+and+Iranian+Political+Culture+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0520961531&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrtjsCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPourshariati2008" class="citation book cs1">Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran</i></a>. 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Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81459-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81459-6"><bdi>0-521-81459-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraclius%3A+Emperor+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-81459-6&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+Emil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtlNlFZ_7UhoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapp2014" class="citation book cs1">Rapp, Stephen H. Jr (2014). <i>The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature</i>. 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Gorgias Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593331719" title="Special:BookSources/978-1593331719"><bdi>978-1593331719</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seven+Great+Monarchies+of+the+Ancient+Eastern+World&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1593331719&rft.aulast=Rawlinson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsevengreatmonarc02rawl%2Fpage%2Fn6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access#Free_access" title="Free to read"><img alt="Free access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></a></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRezakhani2017" class="citation book cs1">Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). "East Iran in Late Antiquity". <i>ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1474400305" title="Special:BookSources/978-1474400305"><bdi>978-1474400305</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8">10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=East+Iran+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.btitle=ReOrienting+the+Sasanians%3A+East+Iran+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctt1g04zr8%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1474400305&rft.aulast=Rezakhani&rft.aufirst=Khodadad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchindel2013" class="citation book cs1">Schindel, Nikolaus (2013). "Sasanian Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199733309" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199733309"><bdi>978-0199733309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sasanian+Coinage&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Iran&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199733309&rft.aulast=Schindel&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmittBailey1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Schmitt" title="Rüdiger Schmitt">Schmitt, R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Harold_Walter_Bailey" title="Harold Walter Bailey">Bailey, H. W.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/armenia-iv">"Armmenia and Iran iv. Iranian influences in Armenian Language"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4–5</i>. pp. 445–465.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Armmenia+and+Iran+iv.+Iranian+influences+in+Armenian+Language&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+II%2C+Fasc.+4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=445-465&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+H.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Farmenia-iv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi1988" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alireza_Shapour_Shahbazi" title="Alireza Shapour Shahbazi">Shahbazi, A. Shapur</a> (1988). "Bahram VI Cobin". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-06"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5</i></a>. London et al.: Encyclopaedia Iranica. pp. 514–522.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bahram+VI+Cobin&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+III%2C+Fasc.+5&rft.place=London+et+al.&rft.pages=514-522&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Shapur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbahram-06&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozd-iv">"Hormozd IV"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 5</i>. pp. 466–467.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hormozd+IV&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+XII%2C+Fasc.+5&rft.pages=466-467&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Shapur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fhormozd-iv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi2004b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. Shapur (15 December 2004b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozan">"HORMOZĀN"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=HORMOZ%C4%80N&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2004-12-15&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Shapur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fhormozan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">"Sasanian dynasty"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sasanian+dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Online+Edition&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsasanian-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi1989" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922083050/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bestam-o-bendoy-maternal-uncles-of-kosrow-ii-parvez-and-leading-statesmen-and-soldiers-under-hormozd-iv-and-kosrow-p">"Bestām O Bendôy"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 2</i>. pp. 180–182. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bestam-o-bendoy-maternal-uncles-of-kosrow-ii-parvez-and-leading-statesmen-and-soldiers-under-hormozd-iv-and-kosrow-p">the original</a> on 22 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Best%C4%81m+O+Bend%C3%B4y&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+IV%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=180-182&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbestam-o-bendoy-maternal-uncles-of-kosrow-ii-parvez-and-leading-statesmen-and-soldiers-under-hormozd-iv-and-kosrow-p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShayegan2013" class="citation book cs1">Shayegan, M. Rahim (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_tRvgAACAAJ">"Sasanian political ideology"</a>. In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190668662" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190668662"><bdi>978-0190668662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sasanian+political+ideology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Iran&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0190668662&rft.aulast=Shayegan&rft.aufirst=M.+Rahim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ_tRvgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkjærvø2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kayanian-vii">"Kayāniān vii. Kauui Haosrauuah, Kay Husrōy, Kay Ḵosrow"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kay%C4%81ni%C4%81n+vii.+Kauui+Haosrauuah%2C+Kay+Husr%C5%8Dy%2C+Kay+%E1%B8%B4osrow&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Skj%C3%A6rv%C3%B8&rft.aufirst=Prods+Oktor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fkayanian-vii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoudavar2012" class="citation journal cs1">Soudavar, Abolala (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soudavar.com/Canepa%20review.pdf">"<i>Looking through The Two Eyes of the Earth</i>: A Reassessment of Sasanian Rock Reliefs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>45</b> (1): 29–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2011.595976">10.1080/00210862.2011.595976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154699256">154699256</a> – via www.soudavar.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=Looking+through+The+Two+Eyes+of+the+Earth%3A+A+Reassessment+of+Sasanian+Rock+Reliefs&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-58&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2011.595976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154699256%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Soudavar&rft.aufirst=Abolala&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soudavar.com%2FCanepa%2520review.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTafazzoli1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tafazzoli, A. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asfad-josnas-arabicized-form-of-middle-persian-aspad-gusnasp-a-native-of-ardasir-korra-gur-firuzabad-who-comma">"Asfād Jošnas"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 7</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Asf%C4%81d+Jo%C5%A1nas&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+II%2C+Fasc.+7&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Tafazzoli&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fasfad-josnas-arabicized-form-of-middle-persian-aspad-gusnasp-a-native-of-ardasir-korra-gur-firuzabad-who-comma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khosrow_II&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHämeen-Anttila2022" class="citation journal cs1">Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/256768278/H_meen_Anttila2022JLAIBSTheLettersOfShahrbaraz.pdf">"The Letters of Shahrbarāz and Middle Persian Historiography on the Last Great War of Late Antiquity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Late Antique, Islamic and Byzantine Studies</i>. <b>1</b> (1–2): 65–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fjlaibs.2022.0005">10.3366/jlaibs.2022.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:263274105">263274105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Late+Antique%2C+Islamic+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Letters+of+Shahrbar%C4%81z+and+Middle+Persian+Historiography+on+the+Last+Great+War+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=65-93&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fjlaibs.2022.0005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A263274105%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4meen-Anttila&rft.aufirst=Jaakko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pure.ed.ac.uk%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F256768278%2FH_meen_Anttila2022JLAIBSTheLettersOfShahrbaraz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiras2022" class="citation journal cs1">Piras, Andrea (2022). "Apocalyptic Imagery and Royal Propaganda in Khosrow II's Letter to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice". <i>Journal of Persianate Studies</i>. <b>14</b> (1–2): 178–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18747167-bja10018">10.1163/18747167-bja10018</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251787417">251787417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Persianate+Studies&rft.atitle=Apocalyptic+Imagery+and+Royal+Propaganda+in+Khosrow+II%27s+Letter+to+the+Byzantine+Emperor+Maurice&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=178-195&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18747167-bja10018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251787417%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Piras&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhosrow+II" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Khosrow II </div><div><b><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sasanian dynasty</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> February 628</span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings_of_Iran_and_non-Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran">King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran</a> </b><br />590 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings_of_Iran_and_non-Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran">King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran</a> </b><br />591–628 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Sasanian_Empire_(224–651)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sasanian_Rulers" title="Template:Sasanian Rulers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sasanian_Rulers" title="Template talk:Sasanian Rulers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian_Rulers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian Rulers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Sasanian_Empire_(224–651)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of the Sasanian Empire">Rulers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <small>(224–651)</small></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <small>(224–242)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <small>(240–270)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <small>(270–271)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <small>(271–274)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <small>(274–293)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <small>(293)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <small>(293–303)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <small>(303–309)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <small>(309)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <small>(309–379)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <small>(379–383)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <small>(383–388)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <small>(388–399)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <small>(399–420)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <small>(420)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <small>(420)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <small>(420–438)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <small>(438–457)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <small>(457–459)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <small>(459–484)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <small>(484–488)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <small>(488–496)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <small>(496–498/9)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <small>(498/9–531)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <small>(531–579)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <small>(579–590)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khosrow II</a> <small>(590)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(590–591)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khosrow II</a> <small>(591–628)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(591–596)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> <small>(628)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <small>(628–630)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(630)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(630)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <small>(630)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <small>(630)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a> <small>(630–631)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(630–631)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(630–632)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a><sup>§</sup> <small>(630–636)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <small>(631–632)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <small>(632–651)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <small>(pretender)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bahram_VII" title="Bahram VII">Bahram VII</a> <small>(pretender)</small></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> <small>(pretender)</small></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>§</sup> usurpers or rival claimants</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="Template:One Thousand and One Nights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="Template talk:One Thousand and One Nights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:One Thousand and One Nights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Translations_of_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="Translations of One Thousand and One Nights">Translations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Les_mille_et_une_nuits" title="Les mille et une nuits">Les mille et une nuits</a></i> (1704–1717)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Thousand_Nights_and_a_Night" title="The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night">The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night</a></i> (1885–1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_livre_des_mille_nuits_et_une_nuit" title="Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit">Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit</a></i> (1926–1932)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_stories_within_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights">Stories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Husn_and_His_Slave-Girl_Tawaddud" title="Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud">Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba_and_the_Forty_Thieves" title="Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves">Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ebony_Horse" title="The Ebony Horse">The Ebony Horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fisherman_and_the_Jinni" title="The Fisherman and the Jinni">The Fisherman and the Jinni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_of_Basra" title="Hassan of Basra">Hassan of Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor#The_tales" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sisters_Envious_of_Their_Cadette" title="The Sisters Envious of Their Cadette">The Sisters Envious of Their Cadette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Apples" title="The Three Apples">The Three Apples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abou_Hassan_(story)" title="Abou Hassan (story)">Abou Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_and_Paribanou" title="Ahmed and Paribanou">Ahmed and Paribanou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights_characters" title="List of One Thousand and One Nights characters">Characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badroulbadour" title="Badroulbadour">Badroulbadour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Man_of_the_Sea" title="Old Man of the Sea">Old Man of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legendary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatim_al-Tai" title="Hatim al-Tai">Hatim al-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khidr" title="Khidr">Khidr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27n_ibn_Za%27ida_al-Shaybani" title="Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani">Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayf_ibn_Dhi_Yazan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan">Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad ibn 'Ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mawsili" title="Ibrahim al-Mawsili">Ibrahim al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_al-Mawsili" title="Ishaq al-Mawsili">Ishaq al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khosrow II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zubaidah_bint_Ja%27far" title="Zubaidah bint Ja'far">Zubaidah bint Ja'far</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1924_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1924 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1924)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Prince_Achmed" title="The Adventures of Prince Achmed">The Adventures of Prince Achmed</a></i> (1926)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1940_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Nights_(1942_film)" title="Arabian Nights (1942 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Ka_Chor" title="Baghdad Ka Chor">Baghdad Ka Chor</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Rosa_di_Bagdad" title="La Rosa di Bagdad">La Rosa di Bagdad</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1952_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1952 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1952)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Thirudan" title="Baghdad Thirudan">Baghdad Thirudan</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_of_Baghdad_(1961_film)" title="The Thief of Baghdad (1961 film)">The Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Gaja_Donga" title="Baghdad Gaja Donga">Baghdad Gaja Donga</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Thousand_and_One_Nights_(1969_film)" title="A Thousand and One Nights (1969 film)">A Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Nights_(1974_film)" title="Arabian Nights (1974 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_of_Baghdad_(1978_film)" title="The Thief of Baghdad (1978 film)">The Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ajooba" title="Ajooba">Ajooba</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Nights_(2015_film)" title="Arabian Nights (2015 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Aladdin_and_the_Magic_Lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Aladdin and the Magic Lamp">Aladdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Template:Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ali_Baba_and_the_Forty_Thieves" title="Template:Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves">Ali Baba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alif_Laila" title="Alif Laila">Alif Laila</a></i> (1993–1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scooby-Doo!_in_Arabian_Nights" title="Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights">Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Nights_(miniseries)" title="Arabian Nights (miniseries)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thief_of_Baghdad_(TV_series)" title="Thief of Baghdad (TV series)">Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (2000–2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/1001_Nights_(TV_series)" title="1001 Nights (TV series)">1001 Nights</a></i> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_calife_de_Bagdad" title="Le calife de Bagdad">Le calife de Bagdad</a></i> (1800)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hassan" title="Abu Hassan">Abu Hassan</a></i> (1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba_(Cherubini)" title="Ali Baba (Cherubini)"><i>Ali Baba</i> (Cherubini)</a> (1833)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Der_Barbier_von_Bagdad" title="Der Barbier von Bagdad">Der Barbier von Bagdad</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_statue" title="La statue">La statue</a></i> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Baba_(Lecocq)" title="Ali-Baba (Lecocq)"><i>Ali-Baba</i> (Lecocq)</a> (1887)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A2rouf,_savetier_du_Caire" title="Mârouf, savetier du Caire">Mârouf, savetier du Caire</a></i> (1914)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Scheherazade_(Rimsky-Korsakov)" title="Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)">Scheherazade</a></i> Op. 35 (1888)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aladdin_(Nielsen)" title="Aladdin (Nielsen)">Aladdin</a></i> (1918–1919)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Recollections_of_the_Arabian_Nights" title="Recollections of the Arabian Nights">Recollections of the Arabian Nights</a>" (1830)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Thousand-and-Second_Tale_of_Scheherazade" title="The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade">The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade</a>" (1845)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Arabian_Nights" title="New Arabian Nights">New Arabian Nights</a></i> (1882)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slaves_of_Sleep" title="Slaves of Sleep">Slaves of Sleep</a></i> (1939)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Eighth_Voyage_of_Sindbad" title="The Eighth Voyage of Sindbad">The Eighth Voyage of Sindbad</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimera_(Barth_novel)#Dunyazadiad" title="Chimera (Barth novel)">Dunyazadiad</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Nights_and_Days" title="Arabian Nights and Days">Arabian Nights and Days</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Voyage_of_Somebody_the_Sailor" title="The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor">The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Years_Eight_Months_and_Twenty-Eight_Nights" title="Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights">Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stories_within_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights">Stories (Burton translation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_influenced_by_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of works influenced by One Thousand and One Nights">Works influenced by</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghoul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifrit" title="Ifrit">Ifrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_sesame" title="Open sesame">Open sesame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roc_(mythology)" title="Roc (mythology)">Roc (rukh)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahrokh_(mythical_bird)" title="Shahrokh (mythical bird)">Shahrokh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aladdin_(franchise)" title="Aladdin (franchise)"><i>Aladdin</i> (franchise)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thief_and_the_Cobbler" title="The Thief and the Cobbler">The Thief and the Cobbler</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_and_One_Nights_(book)" title="One Hundred and One Nights (book)">One Hundred and One Nights</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212732#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212732#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000078737898">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/30682803">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1828631/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/131877895">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n84045832">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810578364705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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