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<li id="toc-European_slavery_in_Portugal_and_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_slavery_in_Portugal_and_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 European slavery in Portugal and Spain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_slavery_in_Portugal_and_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 African slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_colonization_and_slavery_in_West-Central_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_colonization_and_slavery_in_West-Central_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_colonization_and_slavery_in_West-Central_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th,_17th,_and_18th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th,_17th,_and_18th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-16th,_17th,_and_18th_centuries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries subsection </button> <ul id="toc-16th,_17th,_and_18th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Triangular_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triangular_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Triangular trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triangular_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Labour and slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_participation_in_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_participation_in_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 African participation in the slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_participation_in_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_awareness_of_the_conditions_of_slavery_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_awareness_of_the_conditions_of_slavery_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 African awareness of the conditions of slavery in the Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_awareness_of_the_conditions_of_slavery_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_opposition_to_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_opposition_to_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 African opposition to the slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_opposition_to_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_participation_in_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_participation_in_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 European participation in the slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_participation_in_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Africa_and_the_New_World_contrasted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Africa_and_the_New_World_contrasted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Slavery in Africa and the New World contrasted </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Africa_and_the_New_World_contrasted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_market_regions_and_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_market_regions_and_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Slave market regions and participation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_market_regions_and_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_kingdoms_of_the_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_kingdoms_of_the_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 African kingdoms of the era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_kingdoms_of_the_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.1 Ethnic groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Human toll </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_toll-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human toll subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Destinations_and_flags_of_carriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destinations_and_flags_of_carriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Destinations and flags of carriers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destinations_and_flags_of_carriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 African conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Port_factories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Port_factories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Port factories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Port_factories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlantic_shipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic_shipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Atlantic shipment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic_shipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seasoning_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seasoning_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Seasoning camps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seasoning_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions_of_slavery_on_plantations_before_and_after_abolition_of_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions_of_slavery_on_plantations_before_and_after_abolition_of_the_transatlantic_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Conditions of slavery on plantations before and after abolition of the transatlantic slave trade </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conditions_of_slavery_on_plantations_before_and_after_abolition_of_the_transatlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conditions of slavery on plantations before and after abolition of the transatlantic slave trade subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conditions_of_slavery_on_plantations_before_and_after_abolition_of_the_transatlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Caribbean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Diseases </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diseases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diseases subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Smallpox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smallpox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Smallpox </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smallpox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 European competition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_World_destinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_World_destinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 New World destinations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-New_World_destinations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle New World destinations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-New_World_destinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caribbean_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Caribbean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Central America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Economics of slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_on_the_economy_of_West_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_the_economy_of_West_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Effect on the economy of West Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_the_economy_of_West_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_the_British_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_the_British_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Effects on the British economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_the_British_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Cultural effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_of_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_of_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Legacy of racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_of_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 End of the Atlantic slave trade </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle End of the Atlantic slave trade subsection </button> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African_abolitionists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_abolitionists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 African abolitionists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_abolitionists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_and_European_abolitionists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_and_European_abolitionists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 American and European abolitionists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_and_European_abolitionists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_abolitionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_abolitionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 British abolitionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_abolitionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Castlereagh_and_Palmerston's_diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Castlereagh_and_Palmerston's_diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Castlereagh and Palmerston's diplomacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Castlereagh_and_Palmerston's_diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Royal_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Royal_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 British Royal Navy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Royal_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_slave_ship_to_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_slave_ship_to_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Last slave ship to the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_slave_ship_to_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil_ends_the_Atlantic_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil_ends_the_Atlantic_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 Brazil ends the Atlantic slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil_ends_the_Atlantic_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_motivation_to_end_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_motivation_to_end_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.8 Economic motivation to end the slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_motivation_to_end_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sierra_Leone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sierra_Leone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Sierra Leone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sierra_Leone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Liberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rastafari_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rastafari_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Rastafari movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rastafari_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Apologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.1 Worldwide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.2 Benin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.3 Denmark </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.4 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.5 Ghana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.6 Netherlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nigeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nigeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.7 Nigeria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nigeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.8 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4.9 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 General bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Academic_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2.1 Academic books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2.2 Academic articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-academic_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-academic_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2.3 Non-academic sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-academic_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Atlantic slave trade</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantiese_slawehandel" title="Transatlantiese slawehandel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Transatlantiese slawehandel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="تجارة العبيد عبر الأطلسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجارة العبيد عبر الأطلسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comerciu_atl%C3%A1nticu_d%27esclavos" title="Comerciu atlánticu d'esclavos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Comerciu atlánticu d'esclavos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comer%C3%A7_atl%C3%A0ntic_d%27esclaus" title="Comerç atlàntic d'esclaus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comerç atlàntic d'esclaus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantick%C3%BD_obchod_s_otroky" title="Transatlantický obchod s otroky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Transatlantický obchod s otroky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masnach_gaethweision_yr_Iwerydd" title="Masnach gaethweision yr Iwerydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Masnach gaethweision yr Iwerydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantischer_Sklavenhandel" title="Atlantischer Sklavenhandel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atlantischer Sklavenhandel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Δουλεμπόριο προς την Αμερική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δουλεμπόριο προς την Αμερική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comercio_atl%C3%A1ntico_de_esclavos" title="Comercio atlántico de esclavos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comercio atlántico de esclavos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantika_triangula_sklavkomerco" title="Transatlantika triangula sklavkomerco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Transatlantika triangula sklavkomerco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantikoko_esklabo_merkataritza" title="Atlantikoko esklabo merkataritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atlantikoko esklabo merkataritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%B3" title="تجارت برده در اقیانوس اطلس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تجارت برده در اقیانوس اطلس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traite_n%C3%A9gri%C3%A8re_occidentale" title="Traite négrière occidentale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traite négrière occidentale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%A1d%C3%A1il_scl%C3%A1bhaithe_an_Atlantaigh" title="Trádáil sclábhaithe an Atlantaigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Trádáil sclábhaithe an Atlantaigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comercio_atl%C3%A1ntico_de_escravos" title="Comercio atlántico de escravos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Comercio atlántico de escravos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91_%EB%85%B8%EC%98%88_%EB%AC%B4%EC%97%AD" title="대서양 노예 무역 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대서양 노예 무역" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Անդրատլանտյան ստրկավաճառություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անդրատլանտյան ստրկավաճառություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="अटलांटिक दास व्यापार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अटलांटिक दास व्यापार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantska_trgovina_robljem" title="Atlantska trgovina robljem – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atlantska trgovina robljem" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdagangan_budak_Atlantik" title="Perdagangan budak Atlantik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perdagangan budak Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratta_atlantica_degli_schiavi_africani" title="Tratta atlantica degli schiavi africani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tratta atlantica degli schiavi africani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%97%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99" title="סחר העבדים האטלנטי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סחר העבדים האטלנטי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanto_verg%C5%B3_prekyba" title="Atlanto vergų prekyba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atlanto vergų prekyba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdagangan_hamba_Atlantik" title="Perdagangan hamba Atlantik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perdagangan hamba Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Atlantische_slavenhandel" title="Trans-Atlantische slavenhandel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Trans-Atlantische slavenhandel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B7%E8%B2%BF%E6%98%93" title="大西洋奴隷貿易 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大西洋奴隷貿易" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_atlantiske_slavehandelen" title="Den atlantiske slavehandelen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den atlantiske slavehandelen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_atlantiske_slavehandelen" title="Den atlantiske slavehandelen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den atlantiske slavehandelen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daldala_garbaa" title="Daldala garbaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Daldala garbaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="په شمالي اتلانتیک کې د غلامانو سوداګري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په شمالي اتلانتیک کې د غلامانو سوداګري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantik_sliev_chried" title="Atlantik sliev chried – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Atlantik sliev chried" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantycki_handel_niewolnikami" title="Transatlantycki handel niewolnikami – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Transatlantycki handel niewolnikami" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com%C3%A9rcio_de_escravos_no_Atl%C3%A2ntico" title="Comércio de escravos no Atlântico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Comércio de escravos no Atlântico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comer%C8%9Bul_transatlantic_cu_sclavi" title="Comerțul transatlantic cu sclavi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Comerțul transatlantic cu sclavi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Трансатлантическая работорговля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Трансатлантическая работорговля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atlantic slave trade" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantska_trgovina_robljem" title="Atlantska trgovina robljem – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Atlantska trgovina robljem" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangdagangan_budak_Atlantik" title="Pangdagangan budak Atlantik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pangdagangan budak Atlantik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantin_orjakauppa" title="Atlantin orjakauppa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atlantin orjakauppa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantiska_slavhandeln" title="Transatlantiska slavhandeln – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Transatlantiska slavhandeln" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அத்திலாந்திக் அடிமை வணிகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அத்திலாந்திக் அடிமை வணிகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Okyanusu%27ndaki_k%C3%B6le_ticareti" title="Atlas Okyanusu'ndaki köle ticareti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atlas Okyanusu'ndaki köle ticareti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Трансатлантична работоргівля – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Трансатлантична работоргівля" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Slave trade between Africa and the Americas</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg/240px-Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="388" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg/360px-Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg/480px-Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="814" data-file-height="1317" /></a><figcaption>Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston</a>, British <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">Province of South Carolina</a>, in 1769</figcaption></figure> The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">enslaved African people</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>. European <a href="/wiki/Slave_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave ships">slave ships</a> regularly used the <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">triangular trade</a> route and its <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a>. Europeans established a coastal slave trade in the 15th century and trade to the Americas began in the 16th century, lasting through the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The vast majority of those who were transported in the transatlantic slave trade were from <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and had been sold by West African slave traders to European slave traders,<a href="#cite_note-apology-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998112-3">[3]</a> while others had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> European slave traders gathered and imprisoned the enslaved at <a href="/wiki/Slave_fort" title="Slave fort">forts</a> on the African coast and then brought them to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Some Portuguese and Europeans participated in slave raids. As the <a href="/wiki/National_Museums_Liverpool" title="National Museums Liverpool">National Museums Liverpool</a> explains: "European traders captured some Africans in raids along the coast, but bought most of them from local African or African-European dealers."<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Many European slave traders generally did not participate in <a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">slave raids</a> because life expectancy for Europeans in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> was less than one year during the period of the slave trade because of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> that was endemic in the African continent.<a href="#cite_note-Malaria_and_French_Imperialism-9">[9]</a> Portuguese coastal raiders found that <a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">slave raiding</a> was too costly and often ineffective and opted for established commercial relations.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The colonial South Atlantic and Caribbean economies were particularly dependent on slave labour for the production of <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugarcane</a> and other commodities.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> This was viewed as crucial by those Western European states which were vying with one another to create <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">overseas empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mannix_1962_Introduction-1–5-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The Portuguese, in the 16th century, were the first to transport slaves across the Atlantic. In 1526, they completed the first transatlantic slave voyage to <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and other Europeans soon followed.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Shipowners regarded the slaves as cargo to be transported to the Americas as quickly and cheaply as possible,<a href="#cite_note-Mannix_1962_Introduction-1–5-13">[13]</a> there to be sold to work on coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, and cotton <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a>, gold and silver mines, rice fields, the construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, and as domestic servants.<a href="#cite_note-Covey-Eisnach_2009-16">[16]</a> The first enslaved Africans sent to the <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English colonies</a> were classified as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a>, with legal standing similar to that of contract-based workers coming from Britain and Ireland. However, by the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a racial caste, with African slaves and their future offspring being legally the property of their owners, as children born to slave mothers were also slaves (<a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus sequitur ventrem</a>). As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, and were <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">sold at markets</a> with other goods and services.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The major Atlantic slave trading nations, in order of trade volume, were <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Netherlands</a>, the United States, and <a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Denmark</a>. Several had established outposts on the African coast, where they purchased slaves from local African leaders.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> These slaves were managed by a <a href="/wiki/Factor_(agent)" title="Factor (agent)">factor</a>, who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were imprisoned in trading posts known as <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factories</a> while awaiting shipment. Current estimates are that about 12 million to 12.8 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic over a span of 400 years.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2014194-20">[20]</a> The number purchased by the traders was considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate, with between 1.2 and 2.4 million dying during the voyage, and millions more in <a href="/wiki/Seasoning_(slavery)" title="Seasoning (slavery)">seasoning camps</a> in the Caribbean after arrival in the New World. Millions of people also died as a result of slave raids, wars, and during transport to the coast for sale to European slave traders.<a href="#cite_note-online_at_pp._119–120-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Near the beginning of the 19th century, various governments acted to ban the trade, although illegal smuggling still occurred. It was generally thought that the transatlantic slave trade ended in 1867, but evidence was later found of voyages until 1873.<a href="#cite_note-alberge-25">[25]</a> In the early 21st century, several governments issued apologies for the transatlantic slave trade. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">History of slavery</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic_travel">Atlantic travel</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawi_system" title="Bawi system">Bawi system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Atlantic slave trade developed after trade contacts were established between the "<a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>) and the "<a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>" (the Americas). For centuries, <a href="/wiki/Tidal_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal current">tidal currents</a> had made ocean travel particularly difficult and risky for the ships that were then available. Thus, there had been very little, if any, maritime contact between the peoples living in these continents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199815–17-26">[26]</a> In the 15th century, however, new European developments in seafaring technologies, such as the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a>, resulted in ships being better equipped to deal with the tidal currents, and could begin traversing the Atlantic Ocean; the Portuguese set up a <a href="/wiki/Escola_de_Sagres" class="mw-redirect" title="Escola de Sagres">Navigator's School</a> (although there is much debate about whether it existed and if it did, just what it was). Between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristopher2006127-27">[27]</a> In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast and in the Americas which they had never previously encountered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199813-28">[28]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Chaunu" title="Pierre Chaunu">Pierre Chaunu</a> termed the consequences of European navigation "disenclavement", with it marking an end of isolation for some societies and an increase in inter-societal contact for most others.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">John Thornton</a> noted, "A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199824-31">[31]</a> He identified these as being the drive to find new and profitable commercial opportunities outside Europe. Additionally, there was the desire to create an alternative trade network to that controlled by the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> of the Middle East, which was viewed as a commercial, political and religious threat to European Christendom. In particular, European traders wanted to trade for gold, which could be found in western Africa, and to find a maritime route to "the Indies" (India), where they could trade for luxury goods such as spices without having to obtain these items from Middle Eastern Islamic traders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199824–26-32">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg/220px-Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg/330px-Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg/440px-Caravela_de_armada_of_Joao_Serrao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese mariners used <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> ships and traveled south along the West African coast and colonized <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> in 1462.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">first wave of European colonization</a>, although many of the initial Atlantic naval explorations were led by the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> <a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">conquistadors</a>, members of many European nationalities were involved, including sailors from <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian states</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a>. This diversity led Thornton to describe the initial "exploration of the Atlantic" as "a truly international exercise, even if many of the dramatic discoveries were made under the sponsorship of the Iberian monarchs". That leadership later gave rise to the myth that "the Iberians were the sole leaders of the exploration".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199827-34">[34]</a> European overseas expansion led to the contact between the Old and New Worlds producing the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a>, named after the Italian explorer <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McNeill_2019-35">[35]</a> It started the <a href="/wiki/Global_silver_trade_from_the_16th_to_18th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries">global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries</a> and led to direct European involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_export_porcelain" title="Chinese export porcelain">Chinese porcelain trade</a>. It involved the transfer of goods unique to one hemisphere to another. Europeans brought cattle, horses, and sheep to the New World, and from the New World Europeans received tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Other items and commodities becoming important in global trade were the tobacco, sugarcane, and cotton crops of the Americas, along with the gold and silver brought from the American continent not only to Europe but elsewhere in the Old World.<a href="#cite_note-oxfordbibliographies1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Escudero_2014-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knight_2010-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nater_2006-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_slavery_in_Portugal_and_Spain">European slavery in Portugal and Spain</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Slavery in Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Al-Andalus">Slavery in Al-Andalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Slavery in Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amaro_Pargo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Amaro_Pargo.jpg/220px-Amaro_Pargo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Amaro_Pargo.jpg/330px-Amaro_Pargo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Amaro_Pargo.jpg/440px-Amaro_Pargo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>The Spanish corsair <a href="/wiki/Amaro_Pargo" title="Amaro Pargo">Amaro Pargo</a>, a well-known privateer of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age of Piracy</a>, participated in the African slave trade in <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a>.</figcaption></figure> By the 15th century, slavery had existed in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (Portugal and Spain) of Western Europe throughout recorded history. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> had established <a href="/wiki/Roman_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman slavery">its system of slavery</a> in ancient times. Historian <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Isaac" title="Benjamin Isaac">Benjamin Isaac</a> suggests proto-racism existed in ancient times among <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman people</a>. Racial prejudices were based on dehumanizing the foreign peoples they conquered through warfare.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, various systems of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">slavery continued</a> in the successor Islamic and Christian kingdoms of the peninsula through the early modern era of the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In 1441–1444, Portuguese traders first captured Africans on the Atlantic coast of Africa (in what is today <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>), taking their captives to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">slavery in Europe</a>, and established a fort for the slave trade at the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Arguin" title="Bay of Arguin">Bay of Arguin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iberian_Union_Empires.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Iberian_Union_Empires.png/220px-Iberian_Union_Empires.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Iberian_Union_Empires.png/330px-Iberian_Union_Empires.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Iberian_Union_Empires.png/440px-Iberian_Union_Empires.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>A map of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> (red) and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empires</a> (blue) in the period of their personal union (1581–1640)</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, religion and not race was a determining factor for who was considered to be a legitimate target of slavery. While Christians did not enslave Christians and Muslims did not enslave Muslims, both allowed the enslavement of people they regarded to be heretics or insufficiently correct in their religion, which allowed Catholic Christians to enslave Orthodox Christians, and Sunni Muslims to enslave Shia Muslims;<a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018-46">[46]</a> similarly both Christians and Muslims approved of enslaving <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagans</a>, who came to be a preferred and comparatively profitable target of the slave trade in the Middle Ages:<a href="#cite_note-Korpela,_J._2018-46">[46]</a> Spain and Portugal were provided with non-Catholic slaves from Eastern Europe via the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roşu,_Felicia_2021_p._35-36-47">[47]</a> In the 15th century, when the Balkan slave trade was taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and the Black Sea slave trade was supplanted by the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a> and closed off from Europe, Spain and Portugal replaced this source of slaves by importing slaves first from the conquered <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> and then from mainland Africa, initially from Arab slave traders via the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> from <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a>, and then directly from the African West coast through Portuguese outposts, which developed into the Atlantic slave trade<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> and expanded significantly after the establishment of the colonies in the Americas in 1492.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In the 15th century, Spain enacted a racially discriminatory law named <a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">limpieza de sangre</a>, which translates as "blood purity" or "cleanliness of blood", a proto-racial law. It prevented people with Jewish and Muslim ancestry from settling in the New World. Limpieza de sangre did not guarantee rights for Jews or Muslims who converted to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>. Jews and Muslims who <a href="/wiki/Old_Christian" title="Old Christian">converted</a> to Catholicism were respectively called <a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morisco" title="Morisco">moriscos</a>. Some Jews and Muslims converted to Christianity hoping it would grant them rights under Spanish laws. After the "discovery" of new lands across the Atlantic, Spain did not want Jews and Muslims immigrating to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> because the Spanish Crown worried Muslims and non-Christians might introduce Islam and other religions to Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The law also led to the enslavement of Jews and Muslims, prevented Jews from entering the country and from joining the military, universities and other civil services.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Although Jewish conversos and Muslims experienced religious and racial discrimination, some also participated in the slave trade of Africans. In <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> during the 16th and 17th centuries, Muslims financed by Jewish conversos traded Africans across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara Desert</a> and enslaved Africans before and during the Atlantic slave trade in Europe and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, Spaniards applied limpieza de sangre to Africans and Native Americans and created a racial caste system, believing them to be impure because they were not Christian.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Europeans enslaved Muslims and people practicing other religions as a justification to Christianize them. In 1452, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V#slavery" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a> which gave the King of Portugal the right to enslave non-Christians to perpetual slavery. The clause included Muslims in West Africa and legitimized the slave trade under the Catholic church. In 1454, Pope Nicholas issued <a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a>. "Written as a logical sequel to Dum Diversas, Romanus Pontifex allowed the European Catholic nations to expand their dominion over 'discovered' land. Possession of non-Christian lands would be justified along with the enslavement of native, non-Christian 'pagans' in Africa and the 'New World.'"<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Dum Diversas and Romanus Pontifex may have had an influence with the creation of doctrines supportive of empire building.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In 1493, the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine#Historical_background" title="Discovery doctrine">Doctrine of Discovery</a> issued by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a>, was used as a justification by Spain to take lands from non-Christians West of the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>. The Doctrine of Discovery stated that non-Christian lands should be taken and ruled by Christian nations, and Indigenous people (Africans and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>) living on their lands should convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued a papal bull called <a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter Caetera</a> which gave Spain and Portugal rights to claim and colonize all non-Christian lands in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and enslave Native Americans and Africans.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Inter Caetera also settled a dispute between Portugal and Spain over those lands. The declaration included a north–south divide 100 leagues West of the Cape Verde Islands and gave the Spanish Crown exclusive rights to travel and trade west of that line.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg/220px-Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg/330px-Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Noah-Curses-Ham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> curses <a href="/wiki/Ham_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ham (Bible)">Ham</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dore" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustave Dore">Gustave Doré</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">curse of Ham</a> was used as a justification to enslave Africans.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> In Portugal and Spain people had been enslaved because of their religious identity, race had not been a developed factor for enslaving people; nonetheless, by the 15th century, Europeans used both race and religion as a justification to enslave <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Saharan">sub-Saharan</a> Africans. An increase of enslaved African people from <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> occurred in the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. As the number of Senegalese slaves grew larger Europeans developed new terminologies that associated slavery with skin color. The Spanish city of <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> had the largest <a href="/wiki/Afro-Spaniards" title="Afro-Spaniards">African population</a>. "The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas" title="Treaty of Alcáçovas">Treaty of Alcacuvas</a> in 1479 provided traders the right to supply Spaniards with Africans."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In addition, in the 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> friar <a href="/wiki/Annio_da_Viterbo" class="mw-redirect" title="Annio da Viterbo">Annius of Viterbo</a> invoked the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham#Racism_and_slavery" title="Curse of Ham">curse of Ham</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">biblical story</a> of enslavement, to explain the differences between Europeans and Africans in his writings. Annius, who frequently wrote of the "superiority of Christians over the <a href="/wiki/Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a>", claimed that due to the curse imposed upon <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black people</a>, they would inevitably remain permanently subjugated by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>. He wrote that the fact that so many Africans had been <a href="/wiki/Arab_slave_trade" title="Arab slave trade">enslaved even by the heretical Muslims</a> was supposed proof of their inferiority. Through these and other writings, European writers established a hitherto unheard of connection between a cursed people, Africa and slavery, which laid the ideological groundwork for justifying the transatlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Whitford_105-73">[73]</a> The term "race" was used by the English beginning in the 16th century and referred to family, lineage, and breed. The idea of race continued to develop further through the centuries and was used as a justification for the continuation of the slave trade and racial discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The Spanish privateer and merchant <a href="/wiki/Amaro_Pargo" title="Amaro Pargo">Amaro Pargo</a> (1678-1747) managed to transport slaves to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, although, it is estimated, to a lesser extent than other captains and figures of the time dedicated to this activity.<a href="#cite_note-amaropargoesclavitud_1-78">[78]</a> In 1710, the privateer was involved in a complaint by the priest Alonso García Ximénez, who accused him of freeing an African slave named Sebastián, who was transported to <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> on one of Amaro's ships. The aforementioned Alonso García granted a power of attorney on July 18, 1715 to Teodoro Garcés de Salazar so that he could demand his return in <a href="/wiki/Caracas" title="Caracas">Caracas</a>. Despite this fact, Amaro Pargo himself also owned slaves in his domestic service.<a href="#cite_note-amaropargoesclavitud_1-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_slavery">African slavery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/220px-Arabslavers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/330px-Arabslavers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/440px-Arabslavers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of enslaved people transported across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara Desert</a></figcaption></figure> Slavery was prevalent in many parts of Africa for many centuries before the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-79">[79]</a> Slavery was an important part of the economic structure of Africa although its relative importance and the role and treatment of enslaved people varied considerably by society.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Millions of enslaved Africans were transported to other parts of Africa, or exported to Europe and Asia prior to the Atlantic slave trade and the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clarence-Smith2006-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferro221-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> across the Sahara had functioned since antiquity, and continued to do so up until the 20th-century; in 652, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> in Egypt enforced an annual tribute of 400 slaves from the Christian Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a> treaty, which was to be in effect for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> It supplied Africans for <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a> (632–661), <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">the Umayyad Caliphate</a> (661–750), the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258) and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mamluk_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> (1258–1517). The Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa; as Elikia M'bokolo wrote in <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim countries</a> (from the ninth to the nineteenth) ... Four million enslaved people <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">exported via the Red Sea</a>, another four million<a href="#cite_note-afbis-84">[84]</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> ports <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">of the Indian Ocean</a>, perhaps as many as nine million along the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan</a> caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/220px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/330px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/440px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved Africans in chains marched to the East coast of Africa by Arab slavers</figcaption></figure> Slaves were marched in shackles to the coasts of Sudan, Ethiopia and Somali, placed upon <a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">dhows</a> and trafficked <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">across the Indian Ocean</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a>. Others were carried <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">across the Red Sea</a> to Arabia and <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, with sick slaves being thrown overboard, or they were marched across the Sahara desert via the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> route to the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, many of them dying from exposure or swollen feet along the way.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> However, estimates are imprecise, which can affect comparison between different slave trades. Two rough estimates by scholars of the numbers African slaves held over twelve centuries in the Muslim world are 11.5 million<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] and 14 million,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-nyt-2015-89">[89]</a> while other estimates indicate a number between 12 and 15 million African slaves prior to the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Beigbeder2006-90">[90]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/John_K._Thornton" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Thornton">John K. Thornton</a>, Europeans usually bought enslaved people who had been captured in <a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">endemic warfare</a> between African states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998112-3">[3]</a> Some Africans had made a business out of capturing war captives or members of neighboring ethnic groups and selling them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998310-91">[91]</a> A reminder of this practice is documented in debates over the trade in the British Parliament in 1806: "All the old writers ... concur in stating not only that wars are entered into for the sole purpose of making slaves, but that they are fomented by Europeans, with a view to that object."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> People living around the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> would be transported from these markets to the coast and sold in European trading ports, in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">muskets</a> and manufactured goods such as cloth or alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199845-93">[93]</a> The European demand for slaves provided a new and larger market for the already existing trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199894-94">[94]</a> While those held as slaves in their own region of Africa could hope to escape, those shipped away had little chance of returning to their homeland.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_colonization_and_slavery_in_West-Central_Africa">European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg/220px-ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg/330px-ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg/440px-ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2347" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Elmina Castle</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea coast</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, was built in 1482 by Portuguese traders and was the first European-slave trading post in Sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></figcaption></figure> The Atlantic slave trading of Africans began in 1441 with two Portuguese explorers, <a href="/wiki/Nuno_Trist%C3%A3o" title="Nuno Tristão">Nuno Tristão</a> and António Gonçalves. Tristão and Gonçalves sailed to <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and kidnapped twelve Africans and returned to Portugal and presented the captive Africans as gifts to <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator" title="Prince Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry the Navigator</a>. By 1460, seven hundred to eight hundred African people were taken annually and imported into Portugal. In Portugal, the Africans taken were used as domestic servants. From 1460 to 1500, the removal of Africans increased as Portugal and Spain built <a href="/wiki/Slave_fort" title="Slave fort">forts</a> along the coast of West Africa. By 1500, Portugal and Spain had taken about 50,000 thousand West Africans. The Africans worked as domestic servants, artisans, and farmers. Other Africans were taken to work the <a href="/wiki/History_of_sugar" title="History of sugar">sugar plantations</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Butel2002-98">[98]</a> Canary, and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde islands</a>. Europeans participated in African enslavement because of their need for labor, profit, and religious motives.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Transatlantic_Slave_Trade-100">[100]</a> Upon discovering new lands through their naval explorations, European colonisers soon began to migrate to and settle in lands outside their native continent. Off the coast of Africa, European migrants, under the directions of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">invaded and colonised</a> the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> during the 15th century, where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar. Along with this, they also captured native Canary Islanders, the <a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanches</a>, to use as slaves both on the Islands and across the Christian Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199828–29-101">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG/220px-Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG/330px-Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG/440px-Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>Established in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Africa_Company" title="Swedish Africa Company">Swedish African Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castle" title="Cape Coast Castle">Cape Coast Castle</a> was built in 1653 as a trading post that later expanded to other European nations. With the arrival of British colonization, Cape Coast Castle became the headquarters of British colonial administration. "Throughout the 18th century, the Castle served as a 'grand emporium' of the <a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">British slave trade</a>."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></figcaption></figure> After the success of Portugal and Spain in the slave trade other European nations followed. In 1530, an English merchant from Plymouth, <a href="/wiki/William_Hawkins_(died_c._1554)" title="William Hawkins (died c. 1554)">William Hawkins</a>, visited the <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea Coast</a> and left with a few slaves. In 1564, Hawkin's son <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a>, sailed to the Guinea Coast and his voyage was supported by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a>. John later turned to piracy and stole 300 Africans from a Spanish slave ship after failures in Guinea trying to capture Africans as most of his men died after fights with the local Africans.<a href="#cite_note-The_Transatlantic_Slave_Trade-100">[100]</a> As historian John Thornton remarked, "the actual motivation for European expansion and for navigational breakthroughs was little more than to exploit the opportunity for immediate profits made by raiding and the seizure or purchase of trade commodities".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199831-105">[105]</a> Using the Canary Islands as a naval base, Europeans, at the time primarily Portuguese traders, began to move their activities down the western coast of Africa, performing raids in which slaves would be captured to be later sold in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199829–31-106">[106]</a> Although initially successful in this venture, "it was not long before African naval forces were alerted to the new dangers, and the Portuguese [raiding] ships began to meet strong and effective resistance", with the crews of several of them being killed by African sailors, whose boats were better equipped at traversing the <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">west-central African</a> coasts and river systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199837-107">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ann_Zingha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ann_Zingha.jpg/220px-Ann_Zingha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ann_Zingha.jpg/330px-Ann_Zingha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ann_Zingha.jpg/440px-Ann_Zingha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nzinga_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba" title="Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba">Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba</a> fought against the expansion of the Portuguese Empire and their slave trade in a thirty-year war in present-day Angola.</figcaption></figure> By 1494, the Portuguese king had entered agreements with the rulers of several West African states that would allow trade between their respective peoples, enabling the Portuguese to "tap into" the "well-developed commercial economy in Africa ... without engaging in hostilities".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199838-108">[108]</a> "Peaceful trade became the rule all along the African coast", although there were some rare exceptions when acts of aggression led to violence. For instance, Portuguese traders attempted to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Bissagos_Islands" title="Bissagos Islands">Bissagos Islands</a> in 1535.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199839-109">[109]</a> In 1571, Portugal, supported by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a>, took control of the south-western region of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a> in order to secure its threatened economic interest in the area. Although Kongo later joined a coalition in 1591 to force the Portuguese out, Portugal had secured a foothold on the continent that it continued to occupy until the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199840-110">[110]</a> Despite these incidents of occasional violence between African and European forces, many African states ensured that any trade went on in their own terms, for instance, imposing custom duties on foreign ships. In 1525, the Kongolese King <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I</a> seized a French vessel and its crew for illegally trading on his coast. In addition, Afonso complained to the king of Portugal that Portuguese slave traders continued to kidnap his people, which was causing depopulation in his kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199839-109">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nzinga_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba" title="Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba">Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba</a>, who ruled as queen of the <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a> Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Ndongo</a> (1624–1663) and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Matamba" title="Kingdom of Matamba">Matamba</a> (1631–1663) in present-day Angola, fought a long war against the Portuguese Empire's expansion. Initially, Nzinga accommodated the Portuguese. She converted to Christianity and repositioned the Ndongo Kingdom as an intermediary in the slave trade instead of as a source for slaves. This also provided her with a valuable ally against hostile neighbouring African Kingdoms, however the Portuguese continued to encroach on her Kingdom to expand the slave trade and establish settlements. Nzinga called for the end to the raids, however the Portuguese declared war on Ndongo in 1626. Nzinga allowed sanctuary to runaway slaves from Portuguese controlled territory and organized a military called kilombo against the Portuguese. Within two years, Nzinga's army was defeated and she went into exile. She later conquered the Kingdom of Matamba and entered into an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> and former rival African states. With their help, Nzinga was able to reclaim large parts of Ndongo between 1641 and 1647. Nzinga continued to fight the Portuguese until a peace treaty was signed in 1656.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Historians have widely debated the nature of the relationship between these African kingdoms and the European traders. The Guyanese historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> (1972) has argued that it was an unequal relationship, with Africans being forced into a "colonial" trade with the more economically developed Europeans, exchanging raw materials and human resources (i.e. slaves) for manufactured goods. He argued that it was this economic trade agreement dating back to the 16th century that led to Africa being underdeveloped in his own time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodney197295–113-115">[115]</a> These ideas were supported by other historians, including Ralph Austen (1987).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAusten198781–108-116">[116]</a> This idea of an unequal relationship was contested by John Thornton (1998), who argued that "the Atlantic slave trade was not nearly as critical to the African economy as these scholars believed" and that "African manufacturing [at this period] was more than capable of handling competition from preindustrial Europe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199844-117">[117]</a> However, Anne Bailey, commenting on Thornton's suggestion that Africans and Europeans were equal partners in the Atlantic slave trade, wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[T]o see Africans as partners implies equal terms and equal influence on the global and intercontinental processes of the trade. Africans had great influence on the continent itself, but they had no direct influence on the engines behind the trade in the capital firms, the shipping and insurance companies of Europe and America, or the plantation systems in Americas. They did not wield any influence on the building manufacturing centres of the West.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="16th,_17th,_and_18th_centuries">16th, 17th, and 18th centuries</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg/260px-Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg/390px-Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg/520px-Map_of_Meridian_Line_set_under_the_Treaty_of_Tordesillas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Map of Meridian Line set under the Treaty of Tordesillas</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg/220px-The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg/330px-The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg/440px-The_Slave_Trade_by_Auguste_Francois_Biard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1254" /></a><figcaption>The Slave Trade by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Fran%C3%A7ois_Biard" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguste François Biard">Auguste François Biard</a>, 1840</figcaption></figure> The Atlantic slave trade is customarily divided into two eras, known as the first and second Atlantic systems. Slightly more than 3% of the enslaved people exported from Africa were traded between 1525 and 1600, and 16% in the 17th century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans to, primarily, American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires. Before the 1520s, slavers took Africans to <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> and then exported some of them from Spain to its colonies in Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with 1 to 40 slaves per ship. These supplemented enslaved Native Americans. In 1518, the Spanish king gave permission for ships to go directly from Africa to the Caribbean colonies, and they started taking 200–300 per trip.<a href="#cite_note-little-119">[119]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] During the first Atlantic system, most of these slavers were Portuguese, giving them a near-monopoly. Decisive was the 1494 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> which did not allow Spanish ships in African ports. Spain had to rely on Portuguese ships and sailors to bring slaves across the Atlantic. From 1525, slaves were transported directly from the Portuguese colony of <a href="/wiki/Sao_Tom%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Sao Tomé">Sao Tomé</a> across the Atlantic to <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015446,_457,_460-120">[120]</a> A burial ground in <a href="/wiki/Campeche_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Campeche City">Campeche</a>, Mexico, suggests enslaved Africans had been brought there not long after <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> completed the subjugation of <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a> Mexico in 1519. The graveyard had been in use from approximately 1550 to the late 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In 1562, <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a> captured Africans in what is now Sierra Leone and took 300 people to sell in the Caribbean. In 1564, he repeated the process, this time using Queen Elizabeth's own ship, <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Jesus of Lübeck">Jesus of Lübeck</a>, and numerous English voyages ensued.<a href="#cite_note-od-122">[122]</a> Around 1560, the Portuguese began a regular slave trade to Brazil. From 1580 until 1640, Portugal was temporarily united with Spain in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a>. Most Portuguese contractors who obtained the <a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">asiento</a> between 1580 and 1640 were <a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> For Portuguese merchants, many of whom were "<a href="/wiki/New_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="New Christians">New Christians</a>" or their descendants, the union of crowns presented commercial opportunities in the slave trade to Spanish America.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg/220px-March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg/330px-March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg/440px-March%C3%A9_aux_Negres_by_Johann_Moritz_Rugendas_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5348" data-file-height="3675" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in Brazil</figcaption></figure> Until the middle of the 17th century, Mexico was the largest single market for slaves in Spanish America.<a href="#cite_note-rawley63-126">[126]</a> While the Portuguese were directly involved in trading enslaved peoples to Brazil, the Spanish Empire relied on the <a href="/wiki/Asiento_de_Negros" title="Asiento de Negros">Asiento de Negros</a> system, awarding (Catholic) <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> merchant bankers the license to trade enslaved people from Africa to their colonies in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Colombia" title="Cartagena, Colombia">Cartagena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)" title="Veracruz (city)">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> received the majority of slave arrivals, mainly from <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015437,_446-127">[127]</a> This division of the slave trade between Spain and Portugal upset the British and the Dutch who invested in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Dutch Brazil</a> producing sugar. After the Iberian Union fell apart, Spain prohibited Portugal from directly engaging in the slave trade as a carrier. According the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Peace of Münster">Treaty of Münster</a> the slave trade was opened for the traditional enemies of Spain, losing a large share of the trade to the Dutch, French, and English. For 150 years, Spanish transatlantic traffic was operating at trivial levels. In many years, not a single Spanish slave voyage set sail from Africa. Unlike all of their imperial competitors, the Spanish almost never delivered slaves to foreign territories. By contrast, the British, and the Dutch before them, sold slaves everywhere in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015453–454-128">[128]</a> The second Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans by mostly English, French, and Dutch traders and investors.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean islands <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a>, Jamaica and <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015443-131">[131]</a> In 1672, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Africa_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Africa Company">Royal Africa Company</a> was founded. In 1674, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company#New_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">New West India Company</a> became deeper involved in slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> From 1677, the <a href="/wiki/Compagnie_du_S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal" title="Compagnie du Sénégal">Compagnie du Sénégal</a>, used <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a> to <a href="/wiki/House_of_Slaves" title="House of Slaves">house the slaves</a>. The Spanish proposed to get the slaves from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>, located closer to the <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_line" title="Demarcation line">demarcation line</a> between the Spanish and Portuguese empire, but this was against the WIC-charter".<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Royal African Company usually refused to deliver slaves to Spanish colonies, though they did sell them to all comers from their factories in <a href="/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica" title="Kingston, Jamaica">Kingston, Jamaica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bridgetown,_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgetown, Barbados">Bridgetown, Barbados</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015451-134">[134]</a> In 1682, Spain allowed governors from Havana, <a href="/wiki/Porto_Bello,_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="Porto Bello, Panama">Porto Bello, Panama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Colombia" title="Cartagena, Colombia">Cartagena, Colombia</a> to procure slaves from Jamaica.<a href="#cite_note-rawley60-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e,_Senegal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg/220px-Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg/330px-Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg/440px-Island_of_Gor%C3%A9e%2C_Senegal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Island of Gorée, Senegal</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg/170px-William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg/255px-William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg/340px-William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo%2C_%281701-1773%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1987" data-file-height="2445" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo" title="Ayuba Suleiman Diallo">Ayuba Suleiman Diallo</a> (Job ben Solomon), painted by <a href="/wiki/William_Hoare" title="William Hoare">William Hoare</a> in the 18th century</figcaption></figure> By the 1690s, the English were shipping the most slaves from West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHairLaw1998257-136">[136]</a> By the 18th century, Portuguese Angola had become again one of the principal sources of the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> After the end of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, as part of the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht_(1713)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht (1713)">Treaty of Utrecht (1713)</a>, the Asiento was granted to the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Despite the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sea Bubble">South Sea Bubble</a>, the British maintained this position during the 18th century, becoming the biggest shippers of slaves across the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristopher20066-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2014191-140">[140]</a> It is estimated that more than half of the entire slave trade took place during the 18th century, with the Portuguese, British, and French being the main carriers of nine out of ten slaves abducted in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> At the time, slave trading was regarded as crucial to Europe's maritime economy, as noted by one English slave trader: "What a glorious and advantageous trade this is ... It is the hinge on which all the trade of this globe moves."<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Meanwhile, it became a business for <a href="/wiki/Privately_held_company#Privately_owned_enterprise" title="Privately held company">privately owned enterprises</a>, reducing international complications.<a href="#cite_note-rawley63-126">[126]</a> After 1790, by contrast, captains typically checked out slave prices in at least two of the major markets of Kingston, Havana, and <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a> (where prices by then were similar) before deciding where to sell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat201543?-144">[144]</a> For the last sixteen years of the transatlantic slave trade, Spain was the only transatlantic slave-trading empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoruckiEltisWheat2015457-145">[145]</a> Following the British <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a> and <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">U.S. bans</a> on the African slave trade that same year, it declined, but the period thereafter still accounted for 28.5% of the total volume of the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Between 1810 and 1860, over 3.5 million slaves were transported, with 850,000 in the 1820s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2014193-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triangular_trade">Triangular trade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">Triangular trade</a></div> The first side of the triangle was the export of goods from Europe to Africa. A number of African kings and merchants took part in the trading of enslaved people from 1440 to about 1833. For each captive, the African rulers would receive a variety of goods from Europe. These included guns, ammunition, alcohol, <a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye#History" title="Indigo dye">indigo dyed</a> Indian textiles, and other factory-made goods.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The second leg of the triangle exported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas and the Caribbean Islands. The third and final part of the triangle was the return of goods to Europe from the Americas. The goods were the products of <a href="/wiki/Slave_plantation" title="Slave plantation">slave plantations</a> and included cotton, sugar, tobacco, <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a> and rum.<a href="#cite_note-Inikori-149">[149]</a> Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a>, considered the pioneer of the English slave trade, was the first to run the triangular trade, making a profit at every stop.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_and_slavery">Labour and slavery</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_(1795).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg/170px-Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg/255px-Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg/340px-Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society_%281795%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wedgwood_anti-slavery_medallion" title="Wedgwood anti-slavery medallion">Wedgwood anti-slavery medallion</a>, produced in 1787 by <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a></figcaption></figure> The Atlantic slave trade was the result of, among other things, <a href="/wiki/Labour_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour shortage">labour shortage</a>, itself in turn created by the desire of European colonists to exploit New World land and resources for capital profits. <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native</a> peoples were at first utilized as slave labour by Europeans until a large number died from overwork and <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> diseases.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Furthermore, in the mid-16th century, the Spanish <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a>, prohibited slavery of the Indigenous people. A labour shortage resulted. Alternative sources of labour, such as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a>, failed to provide a sufficient workforce. Many crops could not be sold for profit, or even grown, in Europe. Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more profitable than producing them on the European mainland. A vast amount of labour was needed to create and sustain plantations that required intensive labour to grow, harvest, and process prized tropical crops. Western Africa (part of which became known as "the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a>"), Angola and nearby Kingdoms and later <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, became the source for enslaved people to meet the demand for labour.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The basic reason for the constant shortage of labour was that, with much cheap land available and many landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners themselves relatively quickly, thus increasing the need for workers.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Labour shortages were mainly met by the English, French and Portuguese with African slave labour. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg/400px-Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg/600px-Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Slaves_embarked_to_America_from_1450_until_1866_by_country.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Slaves embarked to America from 1450 until 1866 by country</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> attributed the use of slave labour in part to the climate, and the consequent idle leisure afforded by slave labour: "For in a warm climate, no man will labour for himself who can make another labour for him. This is so true, that of the proprietors of slaves a very small proportion indeed are ever seen to labour."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In a 2015 paper, economist Elena Esposito argued that the enslavement of Africans in colonial America was attributable to the fact that the American south was sufficiently warm and humid for malaria to thrive; the disease had debilitating effects on the European settlers. Conversely, many enslaved Africans were taken from regions of Africa which hosted particularly potent strains of the disease, so the Africans had already developed natural resistance to malaria. This, Esposito argued, resulted in higher malaria survival rates in the American south among enslaved Africans than among European labourers, making them a more profitable source of labour and encouraging their use.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Historian David Eltis argues that Africans were enslaved because of cultural beliefs in Europe that prohibited the enslavement of cultural insiders, even if there was a source of labour that could be enslaved (such as convicts, prisoners of war and vagrants). Eltis argues that traditional beliefs existed in Europe against enslaving Christians (few Europeans not being Christian at the time) and those slaves that existed in Europe tended to be non-Christians and their immediate descendants (since a slave converting to Christianity did not guarantee emancipation) and thus by the 15th century Europeans as a whole came to be regarded as insiders. Eltis argues that while all slave societies have demarked insiders and outsiders, Europeans took this process further by extending the status of insider to the entire European continent, rendering it unthinkable to enslave a European since this would require enslaving an insider. Conversely, Africans were viewed as outsiders and thus qualified for enslavement. While Europeans may have treated some types of labour, such as convict labour, with conditions similar to that of slaves, these labourers would not be regarded as chattel and their progeny could not inherit their subordinate status, thus not making them slaves in the eyes of Europeans. The status of chattel slavery was thus confined to non-Europeans, such as Africans.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> For the British, slaves were no more than animals and could be treated as commodities, so situations like the <a href="/wiki/Zong_massacre" title="Zong massacre">Zong massacre</a> occurred without any justice for the victims.<a href="#cite_note-Rupprecht_14-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_participation_in_the_slave_trade">African participation in the slave trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/170px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/255px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/340px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2531" data-file-height="3585" /></a><figcaption>Slave traders in <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a>, Senegal, 18th century</figcaption></figure> African partners, including rulers, traders and military aristocrats, played a direct role in the slave trade. They sold slaves acquired from wars or through kidnapping to Europeans or their agents.<a href="#cite_note-afbis-84">[84]</a> Those sold into slavery were usually from a different ethnic group than those who captured them, whether enemies or just neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-ldhi-158">[158]</a> These captive slaves were considered "other", not part of the people of the ethnic group or "tribe"; African kings were only interested in protecting their own ethnic group, but sometimes criminals would be sold to get rid of them. Most other slaves were obtained from kidnappings, or through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventures with the Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-afbis-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The kingdom of Dahomey supplied war captives to European slave traders.<a href="#cite_note-:0-160">[160]</a> Dahomey King <a href="/wiki/Agaja" title="Agaja">Agaja</a>, who ruled from 1718 to 1740, took control of key trade routes for the Atlantic slave trade by conquering the neighbouring kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Allada" title="Allada">Allada</a> in 1724 and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Whydah" title="Kingdom of Whydah">Whydah</a> in 1727.<a href="#cite_note-:0-160">[160]</a> A decrease in the slave trade in the area was observed after this conquest, however Agaja did create significant infrastructure for the slave trade and actively participated in it towards the end of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> According to Pernille Ipsen, author of Daughters of the Trade: Atlantic Slavers and Interracial Marriage on the Gold Coast, Africans from the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) also participated in the slave trade through intermarriage, or <a href="/wiki/Cassare" title="Cassare">cassare</a> (taken from Italian, Spanish, or Portuguese), meaning 'to set up house'. It is derived from the Portuguese word 'casar', meaning 'to marry'. Cassare formed political and economic bonds between European and African slave traders. Cassare was a pre-European-contact practice used to integrate the "other" from a differing African tribe. Early on in the Atlantic slave trade, it was common for the powerful elite West African families to marry off their women to the European traders in alliance, bolstering their syndicate. The marriages were even performed using African customs, which Europeans did not object to, seeing how important the connections were.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_awareness_of_the_conditions_of_slavery_in_the_Americas">African awareness of the conditions of slavery in the Americas</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FORBES(1851)_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg/220px-FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg/330px-FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg/440px-FORBES%281851%29_p1.133_SCENE_AT_SLAVE_MARKET.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1044" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in Dahomey</figcaption></figure> It is difficult to reconstruct and generalize how Africans residing in Africa understood the Atlantic slave trade, though there is evidence for some societies that African elites and slave traders had awareness of the conditions of the slaves who were transported to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-law-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks2014243-164">[164]</a> According to Robin Law, the royal elites of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> must have had an "informed understanding" of the fates of the Africans they sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-law-163">[163]</a> Dahomey sent diplomats to Brazil and Portugal who returned with information about their trips.<a href="#cite_note-law-163">[163]</a> In addition, a few royal elites of Dahomey had experienced slavery for themselves in the Americas before returning to their homeland.<a href="#cite_note-law-163">[163]</a> The only apparent moral issue that the kingdom had with slavery was the enslavement of fellow Dahomeyans, an offense punishable by death, rather than the institution of slavery itself.<a href="#cite_note-law-163">[163]</a> On the Gold Coast, it was common for slave-trading African rulers to encourage their children to learn about Europeans by sending them to sail on European ships, live inside European forts, or travel to Europe or America for an education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks2014186–197-165">[165]</a> Diplomats also traveled to European capital cities. The elites even rescued fellow elites who were tricked into slavery in the Americas by sending demands to the Dutch and the British governments, who complied due to fears of reduced trade and physical harm to hostages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks2014186–197-165">[165]</a> An example is the case of <a href="/wiki/William_Ansah_Sessarakoo" title="William Ansah Sessarakoo">William Ansah Sessarakoo</a>, who was rescued from slavery in Barbados after being recognised by a visiting slave trader of the same Fante ethnic group, and later became a slave trader himself.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fenda_Lawrence" title="Fenda Lawrence">Fenda Lawrence</a> was a slave trader from <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">the Gambia</a> who lived and traded in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._State)" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia (U.S. State)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> as a free person.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> A common assumption by Africans who were unaware of the true purpose of the Atlantic slave trade was that the Europeans were cannibals who planned on cooking and eating their captives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998316-168">[168]</a> This rumour was a common source of significant distress for enslaved Africans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998316-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_opposition_to_the_slave_trade">African opposition to the slave trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid,_Ouagadougou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg/220px-Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg/330px-Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg/440px-Boukary_Koutou%27s_Mossi_cavalry_returning_with_captives_from_a_raid%2C_Ouagadougou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2145" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wobgho" title="Wobgho">Boukary Koutou</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mossi_people" title="Mossi people">Mossi</a> cavalry returning with captives from a raid, <a href="/wiki/Ouagadougou" title="Ouagadougou">Ouagadougou</a>-</figcaption></figure> Sometimes trading between Europeans and African leaders was not equal. For example, Europeans influenced Africans to provide more slaves by forming military alliances with warring African societies to instigate more fighting which would provide more war captives to the African rulers to trade as slaves for European consumer goods. Also, Europeans shifted the location of disembarkation points for trade along the African coast to follow military conflicts in West-Central Africa. In areas of Africa where slavery was not prevalent, European slave traders worked and negotiated with African rulers on their terms for trade, and African rulers refused to supply European demands. Africans and Europeans profited from the slave trade; however, African populations, the social, political, and military changes to African societies suffered greatly. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mossi_Kingdoms" title="Mossi Kingdoms">Mossi Kingdoms</a> resisted the Atlantic slave trade and refused to participate in the selling of African people. However, as time progressed more European slave traders entered into West Africa and were having more influence in African nations and the Mossi became involved in slave trading in the 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-ldhi-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa,_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_(p.12,_February_1859,_XVI)_-_Copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/220px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/330px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg/440px-Burning_of_a_Village_in_Africa%2C_and_Capture_of_its_Inhabitants_%28p.12%2C_February_1859%2C_XVI%29_-_Copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Burning of a Village in Africa, and Capture of its Inhabitants. To escape slave raids some Africans escaped into swamp regions or to other areas.</figcaption></figure> Although many African nations participated and profited from the Atlantic slave trade, many African nations also resisted such as the <a href="/wiki/Jola_people" title="Jola people">Djola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balanta_people" title="Balanta people">Balanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Some African nations organized into military resistance movements and fought African slave raiders and European slave traders entering their villages. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan</a>, Etsi, Fetu, Eguafo, <a href="/wiki/Agona" title="Agona">Agona</a>, and Asebu people organized into the <a href="/wiki/Fante_people" title="Fante people">Fante</a> coalition and fought African and European slave raiders and protected themselves from capture and enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Chief Tomba was born in 1700 and his adopted father was a general from the Jalonke-speaking people who fought against the slave trade. Tomba became ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Baga_people" title="Baga people">Baga people</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea Bissau</a> in West Africa and made alliances with nearby African villages against African and European slave traders. His efforts were unsuccessful: Tomba was captured by African traders and sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kimpa_Vita" title="Kimpa Vita">Donna Beatriz Kimpa Vita</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a> and Senegalese leader Abd al-Qadir, advocated resistance against the forced exportation of Africans.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> In the 1770s, leader Abdul Kader Khan opposed the Atlantic slave trade through <a href="/wiki/Futa_Tooro" title="Futa Tooro">Futa Toro</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>. Abdul Kader Khan and Futa Toro nation resisted French slave traders and colonizers who wanted to enslave Africans and Muslims from Futa Toro.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Other forms of resistance against the Atlantic slave trade by African nations was migrating to different areas in West Africa such as swamps and lake regions to escape slave raids. In West Africa, <a href="/wiki/Efik_people" title="Efik people">Efik</a> slave dealers participated in slave dealing as a form of protection against enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> African resistance movements were carried out in every phase of the slave trade to resisting marches to the slave holding stations, resistance at the slave coast, and resistance on slave ships.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amistad_revolt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Amistad_revolt.jpg/220px-Amistad_revolt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Amistad_revolt.jpg/330px-Amistad_revolt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Amistad_revolt.jpg/440px-Amistad_revolt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>On July 1, 1839, enslaved <a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a> people aboard the <a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">Amistad</a> revolted and took control of the ship. This incident led to a <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">Supreme Court case in 1841</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></figcaption></figure> For example, aboard the slave ship Clare, the enslaved Africans revolted and drove the crew from the vessel and took control of the ship and liberated themselves and landed near <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castle" title="Cape Coast Castle">Cape Coast Castle</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> in 1729. On other slave ships enslaved Africans sunk ships, killed the crew, and set fire to ships with explosives. Slave traders and white crewmembers prepared and prevented possible rebellions by loading women, men, and children separately inside slave ships because enslaved children used loose pieces of wood, tools, and any objects they found and passed them to the men to free themselves and fight the crew. According to historical research from the records of slave ship captains, between 1698 and 1807, there were 353 acts of insurrection aboard slave ships. The majority of the rebellions by the Africans were defeated. <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> slaves on ships committed suicide by jumping overboard as an act of resistance to enslavement. To prevent further suicides, white crewmen placed nets around slave ships to catch enslaved persons that jumped overboard. White captains and crewmen invested in firearms, <a href="/wiki/Swivel_gun" title="Swivel gun">swivel guns</a>, and ordered ship crews to watch slaves to prevent or prepare for possible slave revolts.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Newton" title="John Newton">John Newton</a> was a captain of slave ships and recorded in his personal journal how Africans mutinied on ships, and some were successful in overtaking the crew.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> For example, in 1730 the slave ship Little George departed from the <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea Coast</a> in route to <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> with a cargo of ninety-six enslaved Africans. A few of the slaves slipped out of their iron chains and killed three of the watchmen on deck and imprisoned the captain and the rest of the crew. The Africans received a promise of freedom in a deal made with the captain and his crew. Africans reclaimed the ship and sailed it back to Africa's shore. The captain and crew failed in their attempt to re-enslave the Africans.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> According to research by historian Jane Landers, more rebellions on slave ships occurred when there were large numbers of African women aboard.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_participation_in_the_slave_trade">European participation in the slave trade</h3></div> Europeans provided the market for slaves, rarely traveling beyond the coast or entering the African interior, due to fear of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">disease</a> and native resistance.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> They typically resided in fortresses on the coasts, where they waited for Africans to provide them captured slaves from the interior in exchange for goods. Cases of European merchants kidnapping free Africans into slavery often resulted in fierce retaliation from Africans, who could momentarily stop trade and even capture or kill Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201446-185">[185]</a> Europeans who desired safe and uninterrupted trade aimed to prevent kidnapping incidents, and the British passed the "Acts of Parliament for Regulating the Slave Trade" in 1750 which outlawed the abduction of free Africans by "fraud, force, or violence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201446-185">[185]</a> According to a source from the Lowcountry Digital Library at the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Charleston" title="College of Charleston">College of Charleston</a>, "When Portuguese, and later their European competitors, found that peaceful commercial relations alone did not generate enough enslaved Africans to fill the growing demands of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, they formed military alliances with certain African groups against their enemies. This encouraged more extensive warfare to produce captives for trading."<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/250px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/375px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg/500px-The_inspection_and_sale_of_a_slave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>A slave being inspected</figcaption></figure> In 1778, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kitchin" title="Thomas Kitchin">Thomas Kitchin</a> estimated that Europeans were bringing an estimated 52,000 slaves to the Caribbean yearly, with the French bringing the most Africans to the <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a> (13,000 out of the yearly estimate).<a href="#cite_note-Kitchin1-187">[187]</a> The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the last two decades of the 18th century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998304-188">[188]</a> during and following the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998305-189">[189]</a> Wars among tiny states along the Niger River's <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a>-inhabited region and the accompanying banditry also spiked in this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998310-91">[91]</a> Another reason for surplus supply of enslaved people was major warfare conducted by expanding states, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dahomey" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dahomey">kingdom of Dahomey</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998311-190">[190]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998122-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_Africa_and_the_New_World_contrasted">Slavery in Africa and the New World contrasted</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a></div> Forms of slavery varied both in Africa and in the New World. In general, slavery in Africa was not heritable—that is, the children of slaves were free—while in the Americas, children of slave mothers were considered born into slavery. This was connected to another distinction: slavery in West Africa was not reserved for racial or religious minorities, as it was in European colonies, although the case was otherwise in places such as <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade#Slavery_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">Somalia</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Bantu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu people">Bantus</a> were taken as slaves for the ethnic <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somalis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> The treatment of slaves in Africa was more variable than in the Americas. At one extreme, the kings of Dahomey routinely slaughtered slaves in hundreds or thousands in sacrificial rituals, and slaves as human sacrifices were also known in <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> On the other hand, slaves in other places were often treated as part of the family, "adopted children", with significant rights including the right to marry without their masters' permission.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Scottish explorer <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)" title="Mungo Park (explorer)">Mungo Park</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in the proportion of three to one to the freemen. They claim no reward for their services except food and clothing, and are treated with kindness or severity, according to the good or bad disposition of their masters ... The slaves which are thus brought from the interior may be divided into two distinct classes—first, such as were slaves from their birth, having been born of enslaved mothers; secondly, such as were born free, but who afterwards, by whatever means, became slaves. Those of the first description are by far the most numerous ...<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></blockquote> According to an article in <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>, there were many differences between African slavery and European slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>: "It is important to distinguish between European slavery and African slavery. In most cases, slavery systems in Africa were more like <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> in that the slaves retained some rights and children born to slaves were generally born free. The slaves could be released from servitude and join a family clan. In contrast, European slaves were chattel, or property, who were stripped of their rights. The cycle of slavery was perpetual; children of slaves would, by default, also be slaves."<a href="#cite_note-pbs.org-198">[198]</a> In the Americas, slaves were denied the right to marry freely and masters did not generally accept them as equal members of the family. New World slaves were considered the property of their owners, and slaves convicted of revolt or murder were executed.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_market_regions_and_participation">Slave market regions and participation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_slave_Regions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Africa_slave_Regions.svg/260px-Africa_slave_Regions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Africa_slave_Regions.svg/390px-Africa_slave_Regions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Africa_slave_Regions.svg/520px-Africa_slave_Regions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>Major slave trading regions of Africa, 15th–19th centuries</figcaption></figure> Europeans would buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa. The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.2 million enslaved Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2000-200">[200]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Senegambia (geography)">Senegambia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">the Gambia</a>): 4.8%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Guinea" title="Upper Guinea">Upper Guinea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>): 4.1%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_Coast" title="Pepper Coast">Windward Coast</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>): 1.8%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and east of <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>): 10.4%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Biafra" title="Bight of Biafra">Bight of Biafra</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>): 14.6%</li> <li>West Central Africa (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>): 39.4%</li> <li>Southeastern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>): 4.7%</li></ul> Although the slave trade was largely global, there was considerable intracontinental slave trade in which 8 million people were enslaved within the African continent.<a href="#cite_note-:2-201">[201]</a> Of those who did move out of Africa, 8 million were forced out of Eastern Africa to be sent to Asia.<a href="#cite_note-:2-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_kingdoms_of_the_era">African kingdoms of the era</h3></div> There were over 173 city-states and kingdoms in the African regions affected by the slave trade between 1502 and 1853, when Brazil became the last Atlantic import nation to outlaw the slave trade. Of those 173, no fewer than 68 could be deemed nation-states with political and military infrastructures that enabled them to dominate their neighbours. Nearly every present-day nation had a pre-colonial predecessor, sometimes an <a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empire</a> with which European traders had to barter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnic_groups">Ethnic groups</h4></div> The different ethnic groups brought to the Americas closely correspond to the regions of heaviest activity in the slave trade. Over 45 distinct ethnic groups were taken to the Americas during the trade. Of the 45, the ten most prominent, according to slave documentation of the era and modern genealogical studies are listed below.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">BaKongo</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples" title="Mandé peoples">Mandé</a> of Upper <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Gbe_languages" title="Gbe languages">Gbe</a> speakers of <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ewe_people" title="Ewe people">Ewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adja_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Adja people">Adja</a>, Mina)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan</a> of Ghana and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a> of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">the Gambia</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/The_Igbo_in_the_Atlantic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="The Igbo in the Atlantic slave trade">Igbo</a> of southeastern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> of southwestern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tikar_people" title="Tikar people">Tikar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamileke_people" title="Bamileke people">Bamileke</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Makua_people" title="Makua people">Makua</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_toll">Human toll</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_Slave_Trade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/260px-African_Slave_Trade.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/390px-African_Slave_Trade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/African_Slave_Trade.png/520px-African_Slave_Trade.png 2x" data-file-width="1955" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Slave trade out of Africa, 1500–1900</figcaption></figure> The transatlantic slave trade resulted in a vast and as yet unknown loss of life for African captives both in and outside the Americas. Estimates have ranged from as low as 2 million<a href="#cite_note-HjLHH-205">[205]</a> to as high 60 million.<a href="#cite_note-egC2A-206">[206]</a> "More than a million people are thought to have died" during their transport to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> according to a BBC report.<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-207">[207]</a> More died soon after their arrival. The number of lives lost in the procurement of slaves remains a mystery but may equal or exceed the number who survived to be enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22">[22]</a> The trade led to the destruction of individuals and cultures. Historian <a href="/wiki/Ana_Lucia_Araujo" title="Ana Lucia Araujo">Ana Lucia Araujo</a> has noted that the process of enslavement did not end with arrival on Western Hemisphere shores; the different paths taken by the individuals and groups who were victims of the Atlantic slave trade were influenced by different factors—including the disembarking region, the ability to be sold on the market, the kind of work performed, gender, age, religion, and language.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FreedmensInquiry-209">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Manning_(historian)" title="Patrick Manning (historian)">Patrick Manning</a> estimates that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th centuries, but about 1.5 million died on board ship. About 10.5 million slaves arrived in the Americas. Besides the slaves who died on the Middle Passage, more Africans likely died during the slave raids and wars in Africa and forced marches to ports. Manning estimates that 4 million died inside Africa after capture, and many more died young. Manning's estimate covers the 12 million who were originally destined for the Atlantic, as well as the 6 million destined for Arabian slave markets and the 8 million destined for African markets.<a href="#cite_note-online_at_pp._119–120-21">[21]</a> Of the slaves shipped to the Americas, the largest share went to Brazil and the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Canadian scholar <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Adam Jones</a> characterized the deaths of millions of Africans during the Atlantic slave trade as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>. He called it "one of the worst holocausts in human history", and claims arguments to the contrary such as "it was in slave owners' interest to keep slaves alive, not exterminate them" to be "mostly sophistry" stating: "the killing and destruction were intentional, whatever the incentives to preserve survivors of the Atlantic passage for labour exploitation. To revisit the issue of intent already touched on: If an institution is deliberately maintained and expanded by discernible agents, though all are aware of the hecatombs of casualties it is inflicting on a definable human group, then why should this not qualify as genocide?"<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saidiya_Hartman" title="Saidiya Hartman">Saidiya Hartman</a> has argued that the deaths of enslaved people was incidental to the acquisition of profit and to the rise of capitalism: "Death wasn't a goal of its own but just a by-product of commerce, which has the lasting effect of making negligible all the millions of lives lost. Incidental death occurs when life has no normative value, when no humans are involved, when the population is, in effect, seen as already dead."<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Hartman highlights how the Atlantic slave trade created millions of corpses but, unlike the concentration camp or the gulag, extermination was not the final objective; it was a corollary to the making of commodities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destinations_and_flags_of_carriers">Destinations and flags of carriers</h3></div> Most of the Atlantic slave trade was carried out by seven nations and most of the slaves were carried to their own colonies in the new world. But there was also significant other trading which is shown in the table below.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The records are not complete, and some data is uncertain. The last rows show that there were also smaller numbers of slaves carried to Europe and to other parts of Africa, and at least 1.8 million did not survive the journey and were buried at sea with little ceremony. <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Flag of vessels carrying the slaves </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Destination </th> <th scope="col">Portuguese </th> <th scope="col">British </th> <th scope="col">French </th> <th scope="col">Spanish </th> <th scope="col">Dutch </th> <th scope="col">American </th> <th scope="col">Danish </th> <th scope="col">Total </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Portuguese Brazil</a> </th> <td>4,821,127</td> <td>3,804</td> <td>9,402</td> <td>1,033</td> <td>27,702</td> <td>1,174</td> <td>130</td> <td>4,864,372 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British Caribbean</a> </th> <td>7,919</td> <td>2,208,296</td> <td>22,920</td> <td>5,795</td> <td>6,996</td> <td>64,836</td> <td>1,489</td> <td>2,318,251 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies#French_Caribbean" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean</a> </th> <td>2,562</td> <td>90,984</td> <td>1,003,905</td> <td>725</td> <td>12,736</td> <td>6,242</td> <td>3,062</td> <td>1,120,216 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Spanish Americas</a> </th> <td>195,482</td> <td>103,009</td> <td>92,944</td> <td>808,851</td> <td>24,197</td> <td>54,901</td> <td>13,527</td> <td>1,061,524 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch Americas</a> </th> <td>500</td> <td>32,446</td> <td>5,189</td> <td>0</td> <td>392,022</td> <td>9,574</td> <td>4,998</td> <td>444,729 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">North America</a> </th> <td>382</td> <td>264,910</td> <td>8,877</td> <td>1,851</td> <td>1,212</td> <td>110,532</td> <td>983</td> <td>388,747 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a> </th> <td>0</td> <td>25,594</td> <td>7,782</td> <td>277</td> <td>5,161</td> <td>2,799</td> <td>67,385</td> <td>108,998 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> </th> <td>2,636</td> <td>3,438</td> <td>664</td> <td>0</td> <td>2,004</td> <td>119</td> <td>0</td> <td>8,861 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Africa </th> <td>69,206</td> <td>841</td> <td>13,282</td> <td>66,391</td> <td>3,210</td> <td>2,476</td> <td>162</td> <td>155,568 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">did not arrive </th> <td>748,452</td> <td>526,121</td> <td>216,439</td> <td>176,601</td> <td>79,096</td> <td>52,673</td> <td>19,304</td> <td>1,818,686 </td></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold;"> <th scope="row">Total </th> <td>5,848,266 </td> <td>3,259,443 </td> <td>1,381,404 </td> <td>1,061,524 </td> <td>554,336 </td> <td>305,326 </td> <td>111,040 </td> <td>12,521,339 </td></tr></tbody></table> The timeline chart when the different nations transported most of their slaves. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png/400px-Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png/600px-Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png/800px-Slaves_transported_per_25_year_period_by_6_nations.png 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> The regions of Africa from which these slaves were taken is given in the following table, from the same source. <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Source of slaves, by region </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Region </th> <th scope="col">Embarked </th> <th scope="col">Disembarked </th> <th scope="col">did not arrive </th> <th scope="col">% did not arrive </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loango_slavery_harbour" title="Loango slavery harbour">Loango Coast</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> </th> <td>5,694,570 </td> <td>4,955,430 </td> <td>739,140 </td> <td>12.98% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a> </th> <td>1,999,060 </td> <td>1,724,834 </td> <td>274,226 </td> <td>13.72% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Biafra" title="Bight of Biafra">Bight of Biafra</a> </th> <td>1,594,564 </td> <td>1,317,776 </td> <td>276,788 </td> <td>17.36% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> </th> <td>1,209,322 </td> <td>1,030,917 </td> <td>178,405 </td> <td>14.75% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Africa" title="Islands of Africa">off-shore Atlantic</a> </th> <td>755,515 </td> <td>611,017 </td> <td>144,498 </td> <td>19.13% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeast Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Africa" title="Islands of Africa">Indian Ocean islands</a> </th> <td>542,668 </td> <td>436,529 </td> <td>106,139 </td> <td>19.56% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> </th> <td>388,771 </td> <td>338,783 </td> <td>49,988 </td> <td>12.87% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Windward_Coast" title="Windward Coast">Windward Coast</a> </th> <td>336,869 </td> <td>287,366 </td> <td>49,503 </td> <td>14.70% </td></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold;"> <th scope="row">Total </th> <td>12,521,339 </td> <td>10,702,652 </td> <td>1,818,687 </td> <td>14.52% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_conflicts">African conflicts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_ship_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Slave_ship_diagram.png/220px-Slave_ship_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Slave_ship_diagram.png/330px-Slave_ship_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Slave_ship_diagram.png/440px-Slave_ship_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1001" data-file-height="1441" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a slave ship from the Atlantic slave trade. From an Abstract of Evidence delivered before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1790 and 1791.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif/lossless-page1-220px-Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif/lossless-page1-440px-Thomas-Clarkson-De-kreet-der-Afrikanen_MG_1315.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3738" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a large slave ship. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clarkson" title="Thomas Clarkson">Thomas Clarkson</a>: The cries of Africa to the inhabitants of Europe, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1822</figcaption></figure> According to Kimani Nehusi, the presence of European slavers affected the way in which the legal code in African societies responded to offenders. Crimes traditionally punishable by some other form of punishment became punishable by enslavement and sale to slave traders.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-ldhi-158">[158]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">David Stannard</a>'s American Holocaust, 50% of African deaths occurred in Africa as a result of wars between native kingdoms, which produced the majority of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22">[22]</a> This includes not only those who died in battles but also those who died as a result of forced marches from inland areas to slave ports on the various coasts.<a href="#cite_note-Gomez-215">[215]</a> The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa. The slave trade was largely a by-product of tribal and state warfare as a way of removing potential dissidents after victory or financing future wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998-216">[216]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In addition, European nations instigated war between African nations and increased the number of war captives by making alliances with warring nations and shifted trade locations in coastal areas to follow patterns of African military conflicts to acquire more slaves.<a href="#cite_note-ldhi-158">[158]</a> Some African groups proved particularly adept and brutal at the practice of enslaving, such as <a href="/wiki/Bono_state" title="Bono state">Bono State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igala_people" title="Igala people">Igala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaabu" title="Kaabu">Kaabu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro Confederacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala">Imbangala</a> war bands.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In letters written by the <a href="/wiki/Manikongo" title="Manikongo">Manikongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Nzinga Mbemba Afonso</a>, to the King <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_III_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="João III of Portugal">João III of Portugal</a>, he writes that Portuguese merchandise flowing in is what is fueling the trade in Africans. He requests the King of Portugal to stop sending merchandise but should only send missionaries. In one of his letters he writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Each day the traders are kidnapping our people—children of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family. This corruption and depravity are so widespread that our land is entirely depopulated. We need in this kingdom only priests and schoolteachers, and no merchandise, unless it is wine and flour for Mass. It is our wish that this Kingdom not be a place for the trade or transport of slaves ... Many of our subjects eagerly lust after Portuguese merchandise that your subjects have brought into our domains. To satisfy this inordinate appetite, they seize many of our black free subjects ... They sell them. After having taken these prisoners [to the coast] secretly or at night ... As soon as the captives are in the hands of white men they are branded with a red-hot iron.<a href="#cite_note-Adam_Hochschild_1998-219">[219]</a></blockquote> Before the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a>, slavery had already existed in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I of Kongo</a> believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote to King João III in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> The kings of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> sold <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">war captives</a> into transatlantic slavery; they would otherwise have been killed in a ceremony known as the <a href="/wiki/The_annual_customs_of_Dahomey" class="mw-redirect" title="The annual customs of Dahomey">Annual Customs</a>. As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Like the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambara Empire">Bambara Empire</a> to the east, the <a href="/wiki/Khasso" title="Khasso">Khasso</a> kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benin_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin Empire">Benin</a> grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> King Gezo of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> said in the 1840s: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth ... the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery ...<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBCAfrican-227">[227]</a></blockquote> In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself.<a href="#cite_note-BBCAfrican-227">[227]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Port_factories">Port factories</h3></div> After being marched to the coast for sale, enslaved people were held in large forts called factories. The amount of time in factories varied, but <a href="/wiki/Milton_Meltzer" title="Milton Meltzer">Milton Meltzer</a> states in Slavery: A World History that around 4.5% of deaths attributed to the transatlantic slave trade occurred during this phase.<a href="#cite_note-dup2-228">[228]</a> In other words, over 820,000 people are believed to have died in African ports such as <a href="/wiki/Benguela" title="Benguela">Benguela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elmina" title="Elmina">Elmina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bonny,_Nigeria" title="Bonny, Nigeria">Bonny</a>, reducing the number of those shipped to 17.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-dup2-228">[228]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic_shipment">Atlantic shipment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg/170px-A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg/255px-A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg/340px-A_Liverpool_Slave_Ship_by_William_Jackson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption>A Liverpool Slave Ship by William Jackson. <a href="/wiki/Merseyside_Maritime_Museum" title="Merseyside Maritime Museum">Merseyside Maritime Museum</a></figcaption></figure> After being captured and held in the factories, slaves entered the infamous <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a>. Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5%.<a href="#cite_note-dup2-228">[228]</a> Their deaths were the result of brutal treatment and poor care from the time of their capture and throughout their voyage.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages, where they were packed into tight, unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Measures were taken to stem the onboard mortality rate, such as enforced "dancing" (as exercise) above deck and the practice of force-feeding enslaved persons who tried to starve themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Gomez-215">[215]</a> The conditions on board also resulted in the spread of fatal diseases. Other fatalities were suicides, slaves who escaped by jumping overboard.<a href="#cite_note-Gomez-215">[215]</a> The slave traders would try to fit anywhere from 350 to 600 slaves on one ship. Before the African slave trade was completely banned by participating nations in 1853, 15.3 million enslaved people had arrived in the Americas. Raymond L. Cohn, an economics professor whose research has focused on <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">international migration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> has researched the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rates</a> among Africans during the voyages of the Atlantic slave trade. He found that mortality rates decreased over the history of the slave trade, primarily because the length of time necessary for the voyage was declining. "In the eighteenth century many slave voyages took at least 2½ months. In the nineteenth century, 2 months appears to have been the maximum length of the voyage, and many voyages were far shorter. Fewer slaves died in the Middle Passage over time mainly because the passage was shorter."<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Despite the vast profits of slavery, the ordinary sailors on <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ships</a> were badly paid and subject to harsh discipline. Mortality of around 20%, a number similar and sometimes greater than those of the slaves,<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> was expected in a ship's crew during the course of a voyage; this was due to disease, flogging, overwork, or slave uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards(Captain.)2007-234">[234]</a> Disease (<a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>) was the most common cause of death among sailors. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> The slave trade was hated by many sailors, and those who joined the crews of slave ships often did so through coercion or because they could find no other employment.<a href="#cite_note-Rediker2007-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seasoning_camps">Seasoning camps</h3></div> Meltzer also states that 33% of Africans would have died in the first year at the <a href="/wiki/Seasoning_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasoning (slave)">seasoning camps</a> found throughout the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-dup2-228">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> held one of the most notorious of these camps. <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">Dysentery</a> was the leading cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Captives who could not be sold were inevitably destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FreedmensInquiry-209">[209]</a> Around 5 million Africans died in these camps, reducing the number of survivors to about 10 million.<a href="#cite_note-dup2-228">[228]</a> The purpose of seasoning camps were to obliterate the Africans' identities and culture and prepare them for enslavement. In seasoning camps, enslaved Africans learned a new language and adopted new customs. This process of seasoning slaves took about two or three years.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conditions_of_slavery_on_plantations_before_and_after_abolition_of_the_transatlantic_slave_trade">Conditions of slavery on plantations before and after abolition of the transatlantic slave trade</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_(1823),_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg/220px-The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg/330px-The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg/440px-The_boiling_house_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_VI_-_BL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1784" data-file-height="1227" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved people inside a sugar boiling house on the island of <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> in 1823</figcaption></figure> Over the colony's hundred-year course, about a million slaves succumbed to the conditions of slavery in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> A slave imported into Haiti was expected to die, on average, within 3 years of arrival, and slaves born on the island had a life expectancy of only 15 years.<a href="#cite_note-Marlenedaut-240">[240]</a> In the Caribbean, Dutch Guiana, and Brazil, the death rate of enslaved people was high, and the birth rates were low, slaveholders imported more Africans to sustain the slave population. The rate of natural decline in the slave population ran as high as 5 percent a year. While the death rate of enslaved populations in the United States was the same on Jamaican plantations. In the <a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a>, and for most of the Caribbean, mortality rate was high because of the taxing labor of sugar cultivation. Sugar was a major cash crop and as the Caribbean plantations exported sugar to Europe and North America, they needed an enslaved work force to make its production economically viable, so slaves were imported from Africa. Enslaved Africans lived in inhumane conditions and the mortality rate of enslaved children under the age of five was forty percent. Many enslaved persons died from smallpox and intestinal worms contracted from contaminated food and water.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> The Atlantic slave trade exportation of slaves to Cuba was illegal by 1820; however, Cuba continued to import enslaved Africans from Africa until slavery was abolished in 1886. After the abolition of the slave trade to the United States and British colonies in 1807, Florida imported enslaved Africans from Cuba, many landing in <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Island_affair" title="Amelia Island affair">Amelia Island</a>. A clandestine slave ferry operated between <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana, Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola, Florida</a>. Florida remained under Spanish control until 1821 which made it difficult for the United States to cease the smuggling of enslaved Africans from Cuba. In 1821, Florida was ceded to the United States and the smuggling of enslaved Africans continued, and from 1821 to 1841 Cuba became a main supplier of enslaved Africans for the United States. Between 1859 and 1862, slave traders made 40 illegal voyages between Cuba and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Knackstedt_%26_N%C3%A4ther_Stereoskopie_0669_Cuba._Zuckerrohr-Plantage._Bildseite_mit_Ansicht_um_1900_arbeitender_Sklaven_im_Feld_auf_Kuba_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1407" data-file-height="1383" /></a><figcaption>Afro Cubans working in a sugar plantation</figcaption></figure> The costs of the shipment of human cargo from Africa and operating costs of the slave trade from Africa into Cuba rose in the mid-19th century. Historian Laird Bergad writes of the Cuban slave trade and slave prices: "Three interacting factors produced the overwhelming demand for slaves responsible for pushing prices to the high levels[...] The first was the uncertainty surrounding the future of the slave trade itself. The long and persistent British campaign to force an end to the Cuban trade had traditionally been circumvented by collusion between Spanish colonial officials and Cuban slave traders. An additional obstacle to British efforts was the unwillingness of the United States to permit the search of U.S.-flag vessels suspected of involvement in the slave trade". By the mid-1860s, prices of Africans in their elderly years decreased while prices of younger Africans increased because they were considered to be of prime working age. According to research, in 1860 in <a href="/wiki/Matanzas" title="Matanzas">Matanzas</a>, about 39.6 percent of slaves sold were young prime aged Africans of either sex; in 1870 the percentage was 74.3 percent. In addition, as the cost of sugar increased so did the price of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg/220px-Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg/330px-Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg/440px-Slaves_working_on_a_coffee_plantation_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1535" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved people working on a <a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Brazil" title="Coffee production in Brazil">coffee</a> plantation in Brazil</figcaption></figure> The life expectancy for Brazil's slave plantation's for African descended slaves was around 23 years.<a href="#cite_note-Skidmore-245">[245]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The trans-Atlantic slave trade into Brazil was outlawed in 1831. To replace the demand for slaves, slaveholders in Brazil turned to slave reproduction. Enslaved women were forced to give birth to eight or more enslaved children. Some slaveholders promised enslaved women their freedom if they gave birth to eight children. In 1873 in the village of <a href="/wiki/Cear%C3%A1" title="Ceará">Santa Ana, province of Ceará</a> an enslaved woman named Macária was promised her freedom after she gave birth to eight children. An enslaved woman Delfina killed her baby because she did not want her enslaver Manoel Bento da Costa to own her baby and enslave her child. Brazil practiced <a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus sequitur ventrem</a> to increase the slave population through enslaved female reproduction, because in the 19th century, Brazil needed a large enslaved labor force to work on the sugar plantations in Bahia and the agricultural and mining industries of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> After the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade to Brazil, the inter-provincial trade increased which slaveholders forced and depended on enslaved women to give birth to as many children as possible to supply the demand for slaves. <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionists</a> in Brazil wanted to abolish slavery by removing partus sequitur ventrem because it was used to perpetuate slavery. For example, historian Martha Santos writes of the slave trade, female reproduction, and abolition in Brazil: "A proposal centered on the 'emancipation of the womb', authored by the influential jurist and politician Agostinho Marques Perdigão Malheiro, was officially endorsed by Pedro II as the most practical means to end slavery in a controlled and peaceful manner. This conservative proposal, a modified version of which became the 'free womb' law passed by Parliament in 1871, did provide for the freedom of children subsequently born of enslaved women, while it forced those children to serve their mothers' masters until age twenty-one, and deferred complete emancipation to a later date".<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-1808_importation_of_slaves_to_the_United_States" title="Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States">Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery in the United States by state</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg/220px-Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg/330px-Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg/440px-Advertisement_from_J.M._Wilson_for_sale_of_Maryland_and_Virginia_Negroes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Advertisement from <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_M._Wilson" title="Jonathan M. Wilson">J. M. Wilson</a> for sale of Maryland and Virginia slaves. Maryland and Virginia sold thousands of enslaved people to the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>.</figcaption></figure> The birth rate was more than 80 percent higher in the United States because of a natural growth in the slave population and <a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">slave breeding farms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Birth rates were low for the first generation of slaves imported from Africa, but, in the US, may have increased in the 19th century to some 55 per thousand, approaching the biological maximum for human populations.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> After the prohibition of the <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">trans-atlantic slave trade in 1807</a>, slaveholders in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> of the United States needed more slaves to work in the cotton and sugar fields. To fill the demand for more slaves, slave breeding was practiced in Richmond, Virginia. Richmond sold thousands of enslaved people to slaveholders in the Deep South to work the cotton, rice, and sugar plantations. Virginia was known as a "breeder state." A slaveholder in Virginia bragged his slaves produced 6,000 <a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">enslaved children</a> for sale. About 300,000 to 350,000 enslaved people were sold from Richmond's slave breeding farms.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> Slave breeding farms and forced reproduction on <a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">enslaved young girls and women</a> caused reproductive health issues. Enslaved women found ways to resist forced reproduction by causing miscarriages and abortions by taking plants and medicines.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Slaveholders tried to control enslaved women's reproduction by encouraging them to have relationships with enslaved men. "Some slaveholders took matters into their own hands, however, and paired enslaved men and women together with the intent that they would procreate."<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Enslaved teenage girls gave birth at the ages of fifteen or sixteen years old. Enslaved women gave birth in their early twenties. To meet the demands of slaveholders' needs to birth more slaves, enslaved girls and women had seven or nine children. Enslaved girls and women were forced to give birth to as many slaves as possible. The mortality rate of enslaved mothers and children was high because of poor nutrition, sanitation, lack of medical care, and overwork.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> In the United States a slave's life expectancy was 21 to 22 years, and a black child through the age of 1 to 14 had twice the risk of dying of a white child of the same age.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Slave breeding replaced the demand for enslaved laborers after the decline of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States which caused an increase in the <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">domestic slave trade</a>. The sailing of slaves in the domestic slave trade is known as "sold down the river," indicating slaves being sold from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisville,_Kentucky#"Sold_down_the_river"" title="History of Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a> which was a slave trading city and supplier of slaves. Louisville, Kentucky, Virginia, and other states in the <a href="/wiki/Upland_South" title="Upland South">Upper South</a> supplied slaves to the Deep South carried on boats going down the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> to Southern slave markets.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans, Louisiana</a> became a major slave market in the United States domestic slave trade after the prohibition of the Atlantic slave trade in 1807. Between 1819 and 1860, 71,000 enslaved people were transported to the <a href="/wiki/Slave_market#North_America" title="Slave market">New Orleans slave market</a> on slave ships that departed from ports in the United States along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico to New Orleans to supply the demand for slaves in the Deep South.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gulf_of_Mexico.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png/220px-Gulf_of_Mexico.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png/330px-Gulf_of_Mexico.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>The Gulf of Mexico was utilized by privateers in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas to smuggle enslaved Africans from Cuba.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> participated in the illegal slave trade and imported enslaved persons from Cuba to <a href="/wiki/Galveston_Island" title="Galveston Island">Galveston Island</a> which was the main illegal slave port in Texas. Texas was part of Mexico from 1821 until 1836, and Cuba continued to supply African slaves to many Latin American countries. After 1821, the smuggling of slaves into Texas increased because of slaveholders' demand for additional enslaved labor. Galveston Island is located in the Gulf of Mexico and is 800 miles away from the slave ports in Cuba and between 60 and 70 miles away from the Louisiana border. Smugglers utilized these geographic locations to their advantage and illegally imported enslaved Africans from Cuba and made a profit by selling Africans to slaveholders in Texas and Louisiana. For example, French pirate and privateer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte" title="Jean Lafitte">Jean Lafitte</a>, established a colony on Galveston Island in 1817 and participated in privateering for four years and made a profit by smuggling in slaves and sold over 200 Africans to slaveholders in the United States. Lafitte used intermediaries such as the Bowie brothers, John, Resin, and James who contracted with slave traders and planters from the United States who had an interest in buying slaves. From 1818 to 1820, Lafitte and the Bowie brothers made $65,000 smuggling Africans into the Southern states and selling them to planters in Louisiana and Mississippi.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Historian Ernest Obadele-Starks estimated that after 1807 the number of enslaved Africans smuggled into the United States annually averaged as low as 3,500. New Orleans, Louisiana and Florida were centers for the illegal importation of slaves in the United States because of their close proximity to Cuba and the other Caribbean islands that provided Southern states enslaved labor.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diseases">Diseases</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills,_London,_England,_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg/220px-Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg/330px-Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg/440px-Bottle_of_100_anti-malarial_pills%2C_London%2C_England%2C_1891-194_Wellcome_L0060511.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4704" /></a><figcaption>These anti-malarial pills were used by travelers or people living in areas where malaria was common. This photo is a bottle of 100 anti-malarial pills from London, England in 1891.</figcaption></figure> Many diseases, each capable of killing a large minority or even a majority of a new human population, arrived in the Americas after 1492. They include <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">whooping cough</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> During the Atlantic slave trade following the discovery of the New World, diseases such as these are recorded as causing mass mortality.<a href="#cite_note-:3-271">[271]</a> Due to the many diseases in the African continent, Europeans nicknamed Sierra Leone in West Africa "white man's grave" because of the number of European deaths from diseases.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> From 1819 to 1836, the regions of Africa that had the highest European deaths from malaria were Sierra Leone and Senegal. Out of European deaths per 1,000, 164.66 whites died from malaria in Senegal, and 483 whites died from malaria in Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone had the highest number of whites dying from malaria accounting for 40 percent of deaths each year, because of this it was nicknamed "white man's grave."<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> The phrase white man's grave was coined in the 1830s. However, Europeans prior to the creation of the phrase considered Africa a dangerous environment due to tropical heat and the high death rates of people dying from diseases, which was why the phrase was created in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> Malaria thrives in warm and humid climates. In North America malaria did not spread as much because certain climatic regions were not conducive to the disease's survival. European American slaveholders preferred Africans who had immunity to malaria be trafficked to the slave ports. The price of Africans born in regions where malaria was dominate were higher. Historian Elena Esposito explains: "By looking at the historical prices of African slaves in the United States, we find evidence of a malaria premium granted by resistance to the disease. In fact, we show that on Louisiana plantations, more malaria resistant individuals - those born in regions of Africa with a higher prevalence of malaria - commanded significantly higher prices."<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> Evolutionary history may also have played a role in African people's resistance to diseases in the contitent, and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Indigenous peoples/Native Americans</a> lack of resistance to African borne diseases. Compared to Africans and Europeans, New World populations did not have a history of exposure to diseases such as malaria, and therefore, no genetic resistance had been produced as a result of adaptation through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-277">[277]</a> Levels and extent of immunity varies from disease to disease. For smallpox and measles for example, those who survive are equipped with the immunity to combat the disease for the rest of their life in that they cannot contract the disease again. There are also diseases, such as malaria, which do not confer effective lasting immunity.<a href="#cite_note-:5-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smallpox">Smallpox</h3></div> Epidemics of smallpox were known for causing a significant decrease in the Indigenous population of the New World.<a href="#cite_note-:4-278">[278]</a> The effects on survivors included <a href="/wiki/Acne_scarring" class="mw-redirect" title="Acne scarring">pockmarks</a> on the skin which left deep scars, commonly causing significant <a href="/wiki/Disfigurement" title="Disfigurement">disfigurement</a>. Some Europeans, who believed the plague of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> in Europe to have come from the Americas, saw smallpox as the European revenge against the Natives.<a href="#cite_note-:3-271">[271]</a> Africans and Europeans, unlike the native population, often had lifelong immunity, because they had often been exposed to minor forms of the illness such as <a href="/wiki/Cowpox" title="Cowpox">cowpox</a> or <a href="/wiki/Variola_minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Variola minor">variola minor</a> disease in childhood. By the late 16th century, there existed some forms of inoculation and <a href="/wiki/Variolation" title="Variolation">variolation</a> in Africa and the Middle East. One practice features Arab traders in Africa "buying-off" the disease in which a cloth that had been previously exposed to the sickness was to be tied to another child's arm to increase immunity. Another practice involved taking pus from a smallpox scab and putting it in the cut of a healthy individual in an attempt to have a mild case of the disease in the future rather than the effects becoming fatal.<a href="#cite_note-:4-278">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_competition">European competition</h2></div> The trade of enslaved Africans in the Atlantic has its origins in the explorations of Portuguese mariners down the coast of West Africa in the 15th century. Before that, contact with African slave markets was made to ransom Portuguese who had been captured by the intense North African <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirate">Barbary pirate</a> attacks on Portuguese ships and coastal villages, frequently leaving them depopulated.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> The first Europeans to use enslaved Africans in the New World were the <a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniards</a>, who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and labourers on islands such as <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>. The alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting them (<a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a>, 1512–13). The first enslaved Africans arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> After Portugal had succeeded in establishing sugar plantations (engenhos) in northern Brazil <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1545, Portuguese merchants on the West African coast began to supply enslaved Africans to the sugar planters. While at first these planters had relied almost exclusively on the native <a href="/wiki/Tupi_people" title="Tupi people">Tupani</a> for slave labour, after 1570 they began importing Africans, as a series of <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a> had decimated the already destabilized Tupani communities. By 1630, Africans had replaced the Tupani as the largest contingent of labour on Brazilian sugar plantations. This ended the European medieval household tradition of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval slavery">slavery</a>, resulted in Brazil's receiving the most enslaved Africans, and revealed sugar cultivation and processing as the reason that roughly 84% of these Africans were shipped to the New World. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Charles_II.jpg/170px-Charles_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Charles_II.jpg/255px-Charles_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Charles_II.jpg/340px-Charles_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Charles II of Spain</figcaption></figure> On November 7, 1693, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Royal_decree" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal decree">royal decree</a>, providing sanctuary in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slaves">fugitive slaves</a> from the British colony of <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> As Britain rose in naval power and settled continental North America and some islands of the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, they became the leading slave traders.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> At one stage the trade was the monopoly of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_African_Company" title="Royal African Company">Royal African Company</a>, operating out of London. But, following the loss of the company's monopoly in 1689,<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> merchants became increasingly involved in the trade.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] By the late 18th century, one out of every four ships that left Liverpool harbour was a <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave trading ship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anstey-285">[285]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Much of the wealth on which the city of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, and surrounding towns, was built in the late 18th century, and for much of the 19th century, was based on the processing of slave-picked cotton and manufacture of cloth.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> Other British cities also profited from the slave trade. <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Gun_Quarter,_Birmingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun Quarter, Birmingham">gun-producing</a> town in Britain at the time, supplied guns to be traded for slaves.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> 75% of all sugar produced in the plantations was sent to London, and much of it was consumed in the highly lucrative <a href="/wiki/Coffee_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee house">coffee houses</a> there.<a href="#cite_note-Anstey-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_World_destinations">New World destinations</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean_2">Caribbean</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad,_1836,_lithograph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg/220px-Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg/330px-Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg/440px-Cutting_Sugar_Cane_in_Trinidad%2C_1836%2C_lithograph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>A sugarcane plantation in <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a>, 1836, lithograph. In 1834, Britain abolished slavery in its colonies.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a></figcaption></figure> The first slaves to arrive as part of a labour force in the New World reached the island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>) in 1502. Cuba received its first four slaves in 1513. <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> received its first shipment of 4,000 slaves in 1518.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> "Between the 1490s and the 1850s, Latin America, including the Spanish-speaking <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and Brazil, imported the largest number of African slaves to the New World, generating the single-greatest concentration of black populations outside of the African continent."<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> About 4 million enslaved Africans were transported to the Caribbean by way of the transatlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a>, the largest slave colony in Hispanic America, imported 800,000 enslaved Africans and participated in the illegal slave trade longer than any other.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> Enslaved Africans worked about 16 hours a day on the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugarcane plantations</a>. They brought their <a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">traditional religions</a> from West Africa; these developed in the new world as religions that scholars call <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African diaspora religions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_America">Central America</h3></div> Slave exports to <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> started in 1526. Historian Nigel Bolland writes of the slave trade in Central America: "The demand for labor in the early Spanish settlements of Hispaniola, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> resulted in a large-scale <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indian (Indigenous people)</a> slave trade in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> in the second quarter of the 16th century. Indeed, the first colonial economy of the region was based on slave trading."<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> In the 16th century, the majority of Africans imported to Central America came from present-day <a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> and other West African regions. Between 1607 and 1640, Portuguese slave traders imported Africans from Angola to <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and were sold in <a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_los_Caballeros_de_Guatemala" title="Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala">Santiago de Guatemala</a> to work in the sugar and indigo plantations. The majority of the Africans working in the plantations were from the Luanda region in Central Africa.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3></div> The first enslaved Africans to reach what would become the United States arrived in July[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] 1526 as part of a Spanish attempt to colonize <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Gualdape" title="San Miguel de Gualdape">San Miguel de Gualdape</a>. By November, the 300 Spanish colonists were reduced to 100, and their slaves from 100 to 70[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">why?</a>]. The enslaved people revolted in 1526 and joined a nearby Native American tribe, while the Spanish abandoned the colony altogether (1527). The area of the future <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> received its first enslaved people in 1533. <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> began their stints in the slave trade in 1541, 1563, and 1581, respectively. According to research, about 40 percent of enslaved Africans arrived at <a href="/wiki/Gadsden%27s_Wharf" title="Gadsden's Wharf">Gadsden's Wharf</a>, which was the largest slave port in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> In the 17th century in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Boston" title="History of Boston">colonial Boston</a> in Massachusetts, about 166 transatlantic voyages embarked out of Boston. Boston imported enslaved people from Africa and exported rum.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Faneuil" title="Peter Faneuil">Peter Faneuil</a> organized and profited from the trans-Atlantic voyages out of Boston and imported manufactured goods from Europe, and imported enslaved people, rum, and sugar from the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island were the three New England states with the largest slave populations. The enslaved population in South Kingston, Rhode Island was thirty percent, in Boston the slave population was ten percent, in New London it was nine percent, and in New York it was 7.2 percent.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> The earliest documentation of enslaved people in New England was 1638. In Northern American British colonies, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay colonies</a> was the center for slave trading and colonial Boston was a major slave port in the North importing slaves directly from Africa.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG/220px-Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG/330px-Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG/440px-Bunce_Island_north-west.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bunce_Island" title="Bunce Island">Bunce Island</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> exported tens of thousands of Africans to the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a> of South Carolina and Georgia. <a href="/wiki/Gadsden%27s_Wharf" title="Gadsden's Wharf">Gadsden's Wharf</a> in Charleston, South Carolina, received the majority of imported slaves from Bunce Island.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">African Americans</a> in the Sea Islands can trace their ancestry to Sierra Leone.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a></figcaption></figure> The 17th century saw an increase in shipments. Africans were brought to Point Comfort – several miles downriver from the English colony of <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown</a>, Virginia – in 1619. The first kidnapped Africans in English North America were classed as indentured servants and freed after seven years. Virginia law codified chattel slavery in 1656, and in 1662 the colony adopted the principle of <a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus sequitur ventrem</a>, which classified children of slave mothers as slaves, regardless of paternity. Under British law, children born of white male slave owners and black female slaves would have inherited the father's status and rights. The change to maternal inheritance for slaves guaranteed that anyone born with any slave ancestors was a slave, with no regard to the nature of the relations between the white father and the black mother, consensual or not.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> In addition to African persons, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#European_enslavement_of_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">trafficked</a> through Atlantic trade routes. The 1677 work <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doings_and_Sufferings_of_the_Christian_Indians" class="extiw" title="s:The Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians">The Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians</a>, for example, documents <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions#The_Americas" title="English overseas possessions">English colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> (not, in fact, opposing combatants, but imprisoned members of <a href="/wiki/Praying_Indian" title="Praying Indian">English-allied forces</a>) being enslaved and sent to Caribbean destinations.<a href="#cite_note-Gookin-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bodge1-307">[307]</a> Captive Indigenous opponents, including women and children, were also sold into slavery at a substantial profit, to be transported to <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Bodge2-308">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-Winiarski2004-309">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America_2">South America</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg/220px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg/330px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg/440px-Le_Tour_du_monde-04-p016a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>A slave sale transaction in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></figcaption></figure> The Spanish and Portuguese colonized South America and enslaved the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">Indigenous people</a>. They later enslaved Africans brought from West and Central Africa in ships by way of the Atlantic slave trade. Brazil imported 4.8 million enslaved Africans.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> Africans who escaped slavery there formed <a href="/wiki/Quilombo" title="Quilombo">quilombos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">maroon communities</a> with degrees of self-governance. <a href="/wiki/Palmares_(quilombo)" title="Palmares (quilombo)">Palamares</a>, a quilombo community, lasted for 100 years while other communities were quickly removed by the Dutch and Portuguese.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> The Africans imported to Brazil were <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> and others. Their religions from Africa developed into new world religions in Brazil called <a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a>, Xango, and <a href="/wiki/Macumba" title="Macumba">Macumba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> Historian Erika Edwards writes of the slave trade in Argentina: "In 1587 the first slaves arrived in <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> from Brazil. From 1580 to 1640, the main commercial activity for Buenos Aires was the slave trade. More than 70 percent of the value of all imports arriving in Buenos Aires were enslaved Africans. Slaves came primarily from Brazil via the Portuguese slave trade from <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and other <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">western states in Africa</a>. Once arriving in Buenos Aires, they could be sent as far as <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima, Peru</a>; slaves were provided to <a href="/wiki/Mendoza,_Argentina" title="Mendoza, Argentina">Mendoza</a>, Tucuman, and Salta Jujuy as well as to Chile, Paraguay, and what is today <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and southern Peru."<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div> By 1802, Russian colonists noted that "Boston" (U.S.-based) skippers were trading African slaves for otter pelts with the <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit people</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Alaska" title="Southeast Alaska">Southeast Alaska</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dauenhauer-316">[316]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png/290px-Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png/435px-Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png/580px-Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>West Central Africa was the most common source region of Africa, and Portuguese America (Brazil) was the most common destination.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Distribution of slaves (1519–1867)<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Destination </th> <th scope="col">Percent </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_America" title="Portuguese America">Portuguese America</a> </th> <td>38.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> </th> <td>18.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> </th> <td>17.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a> </th> <td>13.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions#The_Americas" title="English overseas possessions">English</a>/<a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British North America</a> / <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </th> <td>9.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch West Indies">Dutch West Indies</a> </th> <td>2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a> </th> <td>0.3% </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ul><li>Before 1820, the number of enslaved Africans transported across the Atlantic to the New World was triple the number of Europeans who reached North and South American shores. At the time this was the largest oceanic <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">displacement or migration</a> in history,<a href="#cite_note-VoyagesIntro-318">[318]</a> eclipsing even the far-flung, but less-dense, expansion of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Geographical_distribution" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a>-<a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_migration_canoes#"Great_fleet"_hypothesis" title="Māori migration canoes">Polynesian</a> explorers.</li> <li>The number of Africans who arrived in each region is calculated from the total number of slaves imported, about 10,000,000.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a></li> <li>Includes <a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">British Guiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Punishing slaves at Calabouco, in Rio de Janeiro, c. 1822"><img alt="Punishing slaves at Calabouco, in Rio de Janeiro, c. 1822" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg/145px-Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg/217px-Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg/290px-Punishing_negroes_at_Calabouco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="529" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Punishing slaves at Calabouco, in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1822</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Recently bought slaves in Brazil on their way to the farms of the landowners who bought them c. 1830"><img alt="Recently bought slaves in Brazil on their way to the farms of the landowners who bought them c. 1830" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg/160px-Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg/240px-Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg/320px-Slaves_resting_by_Rugendas_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1492" data-file-height="918" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recently bought slaves in Brazil on their way to the farms of the landowners who bought them <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1830</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A 19th-century lithograph showing a sugarcane plantation in Suriname"><img alt="A 19th-century lithograph showing a sugarcane plantation in Suriname" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg/160px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg/240px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg/320px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_3581-33h_Ingekleurde_litho_voorstellende_de_oo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="531" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A 19th-century lithograph showing a sugarcane plantation in Suriname</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics_of_slavery">Economics of slavery</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/260px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/390px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/520px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia</figcaption></figure> In 18th-century France, returns for investors in plantations averaged around 6%; as compared to 5% for most domestic alternatives, this represented a 20% profit advantage. Risks—maritime and commercial—were important for individual voyages. Investors mitigated it by buying small shares of many ships at the same time. In that way, they were able to diversify a large part of the risk away. Between voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> By far the most financially profitable West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom. After entering the sugar colony business late, British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> and the territory of <a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">British Guiana</a> gave it an important edge over all competitors; while many British did not make gains, a handful of individuals made small fortunes. This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony, <a href="/wiki/St._Domingue" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Domingue">St. Domingue</a> (western Hispaniola, now Haiti), to a slave revolt in 1791<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> and supported revolts against its rival Britain, in the name of liberty after the 1793 French revolution. Before 1791, British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar. After 1791, the British islands produced the most sugar, and the British people quickly became the largest consumers. West Indian sugar became ubiquitous as an additive to Indian tea. It has been estimated that the profits of the slave trade and of <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indian</a> plantations created up to one-in-twenty of every pound circulating in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Britain">British economy</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the latter half of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a> which gradually abolished slavery in the British Empire, the UK government took out a loan of £15 million ($4.25 billion in 2023) to compensate former slave owners for the loss of their "property" after their slaves were freed. Compensation was not given to the formerly enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>World population (in millions)<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Year </th> <th scope="col">1750 </th> <th scope="col">1800 </th> <th scope="col">1850 </th> <th scope="col">1900 </th> <th scope="col">1950 </th> <th scope="col">1999 </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">World </th> <td>791 </td> <td>978 </td> <td>1,262 </td> <td>1,650 </td> <td>2,521 </td> <td>5,978 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Africa </th> <td>106 </td> <td>107 </td> <td>111 </td> <td>133 </td> <td>221 </td> <td>767 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Asia </th> <td>502 </td> <td>635 </td> <td>809 </td> <td>947 </td> <td>1,402 </td> <td>3,634 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Europe </th> <td>163 </td> <td>203 </td> <td>276 </td> <td>408 </td> <td>547 </td> <td>729 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Latin America and the Caribbean </th> <td>16 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>38 </td> <td>74 </td> <td>167 </td> <td>511 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Northern America </th> <td>2 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>82 </td> <td>172 </td> <td>307 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Oceania </th> <td>2 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>30 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>World population (by percentage distribution) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Year </th> <th scope="col">1750 </th> <th scope="col">1800 </th> <th scope="col">1850 </th> <th scope="col">1900 </th> <th scope="col">1950 </th> <th scope="col">1999 </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">World </th> <td>100 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Africa </th> <td>13.4 </td> <td>10.9 </td> <td>8.8 </td> <td>8.1 </td> <td>8.8 </td> <td>12.8 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Asia </th> <td>63.5 </td> <td>64.9 </td> <td>64.1 </td> <td>57.4 </td> <td>55.6 </td> <td>60.8 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Europe </th> <td>20.6 </td> <td>20.8 </td> <td>21.9 </td> <td>24.7 </td> <td>21.7 </td> <td>12.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Latin America and the Caribbean </th> <td>2.0 </td> <td>2.5 </td> <td>3.0 </td> <td>4.5 </td> <td>6.6 </td> <td>8.5 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Northern America </th> <td>0.3 </td> <td>0.7 </td> <td>2.1 </td> <td>5.0 </td> <td>6.8 </td> <td>5.1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Oceania </th> <td>0.3 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.4 </td> <td>0.5 </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> has argued that at the start of the slave trade in the 16th century, although there was a technological gap between Europe and Africa, it was not very substantial. Both continents were using Iron Age technology. The major advantage that Europe had was in ship building. During the period of slavery, the populations of Europe and the Americas grew exponentially, while the population of Africa remained stagnant. Rodney contended that the profits from slavery were used to fund economic growth and technological advancement in Europe and the Americas. Based on earlier theories by Eric Williams, he asserted that the industrial revolution was at least in part funded by agricultural profits from the Americas. He cited examples such as the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">invention</a> of the steam engine by <a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>, which was funded by plantation owners from the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-WalterRodney-326">[326]</a> Other historians have attacked both Rodney's methodology and accuracy. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._Miller" title="Joseph C. Miller">Joseph C. Miller</a> has argued that the social change and demographic stagnation (which he researched on the example of West Central Africa) was caused primarily by domestic factors. Joseph Inikori provided a new line of argument, estimating counterfactual demographic developments in case the Atlantic slave trade had not existed. Patrick Manning has shown that the slave trade did have a profound impact on African demographics and social institutions, but criticized Inikori's approach for not taking other factors (such as famine and drought) into account, and thus being highly speculative.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_the_economy_of_West_Africa">Effect on the economy of West Africa</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_cowries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/220px-Different_cowries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/330px-Different_cowries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/440px-Different_cowries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1326" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cowrie" title="Cowrie">Cowrie</a> shells were used as money in the slave trade.</figcaption></figure> The effect of the trade on African societies is much debated, due to the influx of goods to Africans. Proponents of the slave trade, such as <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Dalzel" title="Archibald Dalzel">Archibald Dalzel</a>, argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the trade. In the 19th century, European <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolitionists</a>, most prominently <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a>, took the opposite view, arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being severely harmed by the trade.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> According to research from historian Nathan Nunn, the underdeveloped infrastructure and economy in Africa is a result of colonization and the slave trade. Nunn wrote: "...Africa's poor economic performance is a result of postcolonial state failure, the roots of which lie in the underdevelopment and instability of precolonial polities..., because of a lack of significant political development during colonial rule, the limited precolonial political structures continued to exist after independence. As a result, Africa's postindependence leaders inherited nation states that did not have the infrastructure necessary to extend authority and control over the whole country. Many states were, and still are, unable to collect taxes from their citizens, and as a result they are also unable to provide a minimum level of public goods and services".<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people,_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_(8165019515).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg/220px-Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg/330px-Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg/440px-Birmingham_History_Galleries_-_Birmingham_its_people%2C_its_history_-_A_Stranger%27s_Guide_to_18th_Century_Birmingham_-_gun_barrels_%288165019515%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>Slaving guns (Birmingham History Galleries). In the second half of the 18th century, Europeans sold 300,000 rifles a year in Africa, maintaining the endemic state of war in which men, who were taken prisoner, were sold to supply the demand for slaves.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a></figcaption></figure> Some African rulers saw an economic benefit from trading their subjects with European slave traders. With the exception of Portuguese-controlled Angola, coastal African leaders "generally controlled access to their coasts, and were able to prevent direct enslavement of their subjects and citizens".<a href="#cite_note-Thornton_2012-335">[335]</a> Thus, as African scholar John Thornton argues, African leaders who allowed the continuation of the slave trade likely derived an economic benefit from selling their subjects to Europeans. The Kingdom of Benin, for instance, participated in the African slave trade, at will, from 1715 to 1735, surprising Dutch traders, who had not expected to buy slaves in Benin.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton_2012-335">[335]</a> The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans-Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation. Such benefits included military technology (specifically guns and gunpowder), gold, or simply maintaining amicable trade relationships with European nations. The slave trade was, therefore, a means for some African elites to gain economic advantages.<a href="#cite_note-:1-336">[336]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> estimates that by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1770, the King of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and enslaved people to the European slave-traders. Many West African countries also already had a tradition of holding slaves, which was expanded into trade with Europeans. The Atlantic trade brought new crops to Africa and more efficient currencies which were adopted by the West African merchants. This can be interpreted as an institutional reform which reduced the cost of doing business. But the developmental benefits were limited as long as the business including slaving.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> Both Thornton and Fage contend that while African political elite may have ultimately benefited from the slave trade, their decision to participate may have been influenced more by what they could lose by not participating. In Fage's article "Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History", he notes that for West Africans "... there were really few effective means of mobilizing labour for the economic and political needs of the state" without the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-:1-336">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_the_British_economy">Effects on the British economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire#Slavery" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire § Slavery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Cross,_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery,_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg/330px-Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg/495px-Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg/660px-Joseph_Cross%2C_The_Impolicy_of_Slavery%2C_1823_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1039_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4131" data-file-height="3320" /></a><figcaption>This map argues that import prohibitions and high duties on sugar were artificially inflating prices and inhibiting manufacturing in England. 1823</figcaption></figure> Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a> in 1994 argued that the profits that Britain received from its sugar colonies, or from the slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean, contributed to the financing of Britain's industrial revolution. However, he says that by the time of the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, and the emancipation of the slaves in 1833, the sugar plantations of the British West Indies had lost their profitability, and it was in Britain's economic interest to emancipate the slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021100–107,_167–170-338">[338]</a> Other researchers and historians have strongly contested what has come to be referred to as the "Williams thesis" in academia. David Richardson has concluded that the profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Economic historian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley Engerman</a> finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (e.g., shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defense costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">British economy</a> during any year of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century-340">[340]</a> Engerman's 5% figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full-employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain's national income.<a href="#cite_note-The_Slave_Trade_and_British_Capital_Formation_in_the_Eighteenth_Century-340">[340]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pares" title="Richard Pares">Richard Pares</a>, in an article written before Williams' book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there occurred after emancipation, not before. However, each of these works focus primarily on the slave trade or the Industrial Revolution, and not the main body of the Williams thesis, which was on sugar and slavery itself. Therefore, they do not refute the main body of the Williams thesis.<a href="#cite_note-The_Economic_Factors_in_the_History_of_the_Empire-341">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20211–21-342">[342]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Drescher" title="Seymour Drescher">Seymour Drescher</a> and Robert Anstey argue the slave trade remained profitable until the end, and that moralistic reform, not economic incentive, was primarily responsible for abolition. They say slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture. However, Drescher's Econocide wraps up its study in 1823, and does not address the majority of the Williams thesis, which covers the decline of the sugar plantations after 1823, the emancipation of the slaves in the 1830s, and the subsequent abolition of sugar duties in the 1840s. These arguments do not refute the main body of the Williams thesis, which presents economic data to show that the slave trade was minor compared to the wealth generated by sugar and slavery itself in the British Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20211–21-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, in his influential economic history of capitalism, <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a>, wrote that "... the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins, signaled the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production". He argued that the slave trade was part of what he termed the "primitive accumulation" of capital, the 'non-capitalist' accumulation of wealth that preceded and created the financial conditions for Britain's industrialisation.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/480px-Agostino_Brunias_-_A_Linen_Market_with_a_Linen-stall_and_Vegetable_Seller_in_the_West_Indies_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7057" data-file-height="5011" /></a><figcaption>A Linen Market with enslaved Africans. West Indies, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780</figcaption></figure> The demographic effects of the slave trade is a controversial and highly debated issue. Although scholars such as Paul Adams and Erick D. Langer have estimated that sub-Saharan Africa represented about 18 percent of the world's population in 1600 and only 6 percent in 1900,<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> the reasons for this demographic shift have been the subject of much debate. In addition to the depopulation Africa experienced because of the slave trade, African nations were left with severely imbalanced gender ratios, with females comprising up to 65 percent of the population in hard-hit areas such as Angola.<a href="#cite_note-:2-201">[201]</a> Moreover, many scholars (such as Barbara N. Ramusack) have suggested a link between the prevalence of prostitution in Africa today with the temporary marriages that were enforced during the course of the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster which left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and it largely explains the continent's continued poverty.<a href="#cite_note-WalterRodney-326">[326]</a> He presented numbers showing that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while those of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney, all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries in order to pursue slaving, and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself. Others have challenged this view. <a href="/wiki/J._D._Fage" class="mw-redirect" title="J. D. Fage">J. D. Fage</a> compared the demographic effect on the continent as a whole. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a> from Europe during this period. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa.<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> Other scholars accused Walter Rodney of mischaracterizing the trade between Africans and Europeans. They argue that Africans, or more accurately African elites, deliberately let European traders join in an already large trade in enslaved people and that they were not patronized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998-216">[216]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] As Joseph E. Inikori argues, the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European model, and could not sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_effects">Cultural effects</h3></div> The cultural effects of the transatlantic slave trade in Africa are the reduction of traditional African religious practices. According to research in a 2021 census of religions practiced in Ghana published by the Office of International Religious Freedom, in 2021 the Ghana Embassy reported "71 percent of the population are Christian, 20 percent Muslim, 3 percent adhere to indigenous or animistic religious beliefs, and 6 percent belong to other religious groups or have no religious beliefs". Historian Nana Osei Bonsu argued that the transatlantic slave trade not only took millions of Africans from the continent but also caused a decline of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">traditional African religions</a> and Ghanaian indigenous culture as Europeans believed African people's culture and religions were irrelevant and inferior. The slave trade resulted in the colonization of Africa and its people forcing many Africans to convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castle_Elmina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Castle_Elmina.jpg/220px-Castle_Elmina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Castle_Elmina.jpg/330px-Castle_Elmina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Castle_Elmina.jpg/440px-Castle_Elmina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Elmina Castle</a> was a slave fort in Ghana built in 1482 by the Portuguese and later used by the British colonial administration as its headquarters from 1872 into the 20th century, following which they used it as a prison to incarcerate African citizens.<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a></figcaption></figure> The transatlantic slave trade affected traditional trade routes in West-Central Africa. Africans traded goods and slaves using trade routes in the interior of Africa that connected to the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara Desert</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a> coast where other commodities and enslaved people were traded. These trade routes were used by Africans for centuries and societies and kingdoms developed as a result. Europeans chose to trade primarily along the Atlantic coast because they did not have immunity to <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> that was endemic to the region and "they could not dominate further than their guns could fire, from ship or fort". The slave trade also left warlords in charge in African societies as they wanted to trade with Europeans to obtain guns to defeat their enemies and sell them to Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> The European system of monetization implemented with the slave trade replaced cowrie shells, the currency traditionally used among Africans. According to research from the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>: "European trade goods supplanted former African reliance on indigenous material goods, natural resources and products as the economic basis of their society. At the same time Europeans increasingly required people in exchange for trade goods. Once this stage was reached an African society had little choice but to trade human lives for European goods and guns; guns that had become necessary to wage wars for further captives in order to trade for goods upon which an African society was now dependent".<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/220px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/330px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/440px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="1130" /></a><figcaption>Africa before and after colonization</figcaption></figure> As the European slave trade grew more profitable, the demand for slaves increased, which affected African coastal societies in the following ways: "Commerce with the world outside Africa changed from overland to sea and coastal villages whose main trades had been fishing and salt production became ports and trading posts". The trans-Atlantic slave trade resulted in the colonization of Africa. Colonization in Africa continues to have negative effects as some traditional African cultures are erased, along with traditional languages and traditional African religions. After the trans-Atlantic slave trade had ceased, European colonial powers fought over the land and resources in Africa. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">antimalarial drug</a> <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a> in 1820 enabled Europeans to colonize the interior of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Malaria_and_French_Imperialism-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> By the end of the 19th century, European powers laid claim to 90 percent of land in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the "<a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>". In this invasion and subsequent colonization, the seven European powers (Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Italy) removed African kingdoms of power, created national borders that did not align with the already existing ethnic borders in Africa and forced diverse tribal ethnic groups to coexist and be controlled under one colonial power. This caused an unnatural division of people and was the groundwork for the instability in the African continent beginning in the 20th century into the present day.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> The slave forts built along the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> in Ghana during the years of the slave trade were owned and used by the British colonial administration as their headquarters well into the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> British forts in Ghana were vacated after Ghana gained independence in 1957. The placement of these forts dislocated African societies that lived and fished along the coast. British colonists used the fort to imprison African resistance leaders who organized resistance movements against colonization. In 1900, <a href="/wiki/Yaa_Asantewaa" title="Yaa Asantewaa">Yaa Asantewaa</a> (Queen mother and war leader of the <a href="/wiki/Asante_people" title="Asante people">Ashanti people</a>), was imprisoned at <a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Elmina Castle</a> because she led a war against the British for possession of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Stool" title="Golden Stool">Golden Stool</a>, or Ashanti royal throne.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy_of_racism">Legacy of racism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism">anti-black racism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman,_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/180px-Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/270px-Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Agostino_Brunias_-_West_Indian_Creole_woman%2C_with_her_Black_Servant_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4015" data-file-height="4909" /></a><figcaption>West Indian <a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">Creole</a> woman, with her black servant, circa 1780</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> states: <blockquote>The role of slavery in promoting racist prejudice and ideology has been carefully studied in certain situations, especially in the USA. The simple fact is that no people can enslave another for four centuries without coming out with a notion of superiority, and when the colour and other physical traits of those peoples were quite different it was inevitable that the prejudice should take a racist form.<a href="#cite_note-WalterRodney-326">[326]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a> argued that "A racial twist [was] given to what is basically an economic phenomenon. Slavery was not born of racism: rather, racism was the consequence of slavery."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20214-365">[365]</a> Similarly, John Darwin writes, "The rapid conversion from white indentured labour to black slavery ... made the English Caribbean a frontier of civility where English (later British) ideas about race and slave labour were ruthlessly adapted to local self-interest.... Indeed, the root justification for the system of slavery and the savage apparatus of coercion on which its preservation depended was the ineradicable barbarism of the slave population, a product, it was argued, of its African origins".<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scientific_racism_irish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/220px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/330px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Scientific_racism_irish.jpg/440px-Scientific_racism_irish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism#Racial_theories_in_physical_anthropology_(1850–1918)" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></figcaption></figure> Although slavery was practiced in ancient times in various cultures, it did not have a global effect like the transatlantic slave trade and slavery in the Americas created by Europeans. The transatlantic slave trade's legacy is <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a> on an international scale that led to racial discrimination in educational institutions and public places. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> was taught in schools and some colleges in the United States and Europe in the 19th century and early 20th centuries that was used as a justification to enslave Africans.<a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Museum_for_Human_Rights" title="Canadian Museum for Human Rights">Canadian Museum for Human Rights</a> explained how European slavery differed from the slavery practiced by Africans and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>. "Europeans brought a different kind of slavery to North America, however. Many Europeans saw enslaved people merely as property to be bought and sold. This 'chattel slavery' was a dehumanizing and violent system of abuse and subjugation. Importantly, Europeans viewed slavery in racist terms. <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a> and African peoples were seen as less than human. This <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> justified the violence of slavery for hundreds of years."<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> Another example from an article from <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> explained, "New World slavery was a racialized institution in which slaves were black and slave owners were white. In contrast, owners and slaves in the Old World were generally of the same race. Distinctions between enslaved and freeborn people were often framed not in racial terms but in terms of language, culture and religion."<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a><a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a><a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> Scientific racism and the history of enslaving <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africans</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Negrophobia#Overview" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">anti-black racism</a> that is seen worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade">End of the Atlantic slave trade</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SisterSlave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/SisterSlave.jpg/180px-SisterSlave.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/SisterSlave.jpg/270px-SisterSlave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/SisterSlave.jpg/360px-SisterSlave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>"Am I not a woman and a sister?" antislavery medallion from the late 18th century</figcaption></figure> Abolitionists of African, European, and American descent campaigned against the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a> Black abolitionists took a more radical approach to abolition than their white counterparts, encouraging strikes, slave rebellions aboard slave ships and on plantations, circulating petitions, telling personal narratives about the horrors of slavery, and advocating for freedom and equal rights for Black people in the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_abolitionists">African abolitionists</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Africa" title="Sons of Africa">Sons of Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottobah_Cugoano" title="Ottobah Cugoano">Ottobah Cugoano</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> José Lingna Nafafé, the first movement against slavery and the Atlantic slave trade started in the 17th century among Africans in the Portuguese empire. <a href="/wiki/Louren%C3%A7o_da_Silva_de_Mendou%C3%A7a" title="Lourenço da Silva de Mendouça">Lourenço da Silva de Mendouça</a>, a royal from <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Ndongo Kingdom</a>, campaigned against the slave trade while traveling through Italy, Spain, and the Vatican in Rome. Mendonça petitioned the Vatican, Portugal, Italy, and Spain in 1684 to end the enslavement of Africans, presenting his case to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a>, and demanded the abolition for Africans, New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity) and American Indians. This was a century before abolitionists <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a> and Thomas Buxton emerged.<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a><a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png/220px-Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png/330px-Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png/440px-Olaudah_Equiano_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15399_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="782" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> was a member of the '<a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Africa" title="Sons of Africa">Sons of Africa</a>' an abolitionist group of 12 African men that campaigned against slavery and the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a></figcaption></figure> Slavery's supporters cited Africans enslaving each other and claimed this as evidence of African's inferior nature. A common narrative of the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade portrays European Christians as morally superior and saviors of Africans from enslavement. In addition, Christian narratives also justified the slave trade, and the colonialism that followed British abolition.<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> Historian and author Benedetta Rossi states that some African societies implemented laws that prohibited the slave trade and slavery before European contact. Rossi writes: "...the actions of African critics of slavery were informed by cultural representations and normative traditions that varied from society to society. Second, at the individual level, what actors thought and did about slavery and abolition depended on their position in society: wealthy slaveowners, political rulers, religious authorities, and enslaved persons had different interests and tactics, which they developed in the political and economic circum stances of their times." African rulers who passed anti-slavery laws only abolished certain forms of slavery. African nations who opposed the slave trade did so for various reasons including cultural, religious, political, and economic motivations.<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a> In addition, African resistance to enslavement on slave ships and various <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">rebellions</a> in the Americas sparked debates about abolishing the slave trade and slavery.<a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a> Abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> was a former slave who was kidnapped from present day <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and wrote an autobiography about his life published in 1789 that discussed the horrors of slavery, and gave lectures in Britain advocating abolition of the Atlantic slave trade and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">chattel slavery</a>. In 1788, Equiano participated in the House of Commons debates about slavery and abolition of the slave trade, wrote letters to the government, and corresponded with parliamentarians.<a href="#cite_note-393">[393]</a><a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a> Author and historian Bronwen Everill writes the British were not the first to abolish the slave trade and African leaders in Sierra Leone had a role in ending the transatlantic slave trade. Formerly enslaved <a href="/wiki/Black_British_people" title="Black British people">Black Britons</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> in West Africa in 1787, on land inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Temne_people" title="Temne people">Temne people</a>. Over the years, <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">Black Loyalists</a> from North America moved to the colony. The Temne, <a href="/wiki/Susu_people" title="Susu people">Susu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a> opposed the slave trade. The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Company" title="Sierra Leone Company">Sierra Leone Company</a> in London managed the colony, and Africans and freedmen wanted to establish trade with the Sierre Leone Company without selling people. Sierra Leone's story reveals the British navy's reliance on African entities opposing the slave trade to achieve abolition. Britain took control of the Sierra Leone colony from the Sierra Leone Company, establishing a court and naval patrol to combat the slave trade by seizing ships.<a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_and_European_abolitionists">American and European abolitionists</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border:4px double #000000;;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; width: 285px; background: #FFFFFF;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Events leading to the American Civil War</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-size: 85%;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</a> (1798–99)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade">End of Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of 1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a> (1832–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Abolition of slavery in the British Empire</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a> (1835–36)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Reuben_Crandall" title="Trial of Reuben Crandall">United States v. Crandall</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule</a> (1836–44)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Aves" title="Commonwealth v. Aves">Commonwealth v. Aves</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Murder of Elijah Lovejoy</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia)">Burning of Pennsylvania Hall</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_As_It_Is" class="mw-redirect" title="American Slavery As It Is">American Slavery As It Is</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">United States v. The Amistad</a> (1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prigg_v._Pennsylvania" title="Prigg v. Pennsylvania">Prigg v. Pennsylvania</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">Texas annexation</a> (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> (1846–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Convention" title="Nashville Convention">Nashville Convention</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Recapture of Anthony Burns</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> (1854–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning of Charles Sumner</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis_of_the_South" title="The Impending Crisis of the South">The Impending Crisis of the South</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession of Southern states</a> (1860–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Conference_of_1861" title="Peace Conference of 1861">Peace Conference of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a> (1861)</li></ol></div></div> </div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_the_Blacks" title="Society of the Friends of the Blacks">Society of the Friends of the Blacks</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg/180px-Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg/270px-Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg/360px-Wilberforce_john_rising.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a> (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade</figcaption></figure> In Britain, America, Portugal, and in parts of Europe, opposition developed against the slave trade. <a href="/wiki/David_Brion_Davis" title="David Brion Davis">David Brion Davis</a> says that abolitionists assumed "that an end to slave imports would lead automatically to the amelioration and gradual abolition of slavery".<a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a> In Britain and America, opposition to the trade was led by members of the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Religious Society of Friends</a> (Quakers), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clarkson" title="Thomas Clarkson">Thomas Clarkson</a> and establishment Evangelicals such as <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a> in Parliament. Many people joined the movement and they began to protest against the trade, but they were opposed by the owners of the colonial holdings.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> Following <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a>'s decision in 1772, many abolitionists and slave-holders believed that slaves became free upon entering the British isles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2000290-399">[399]</a> However, in reality occasional instances of slavery continued in Britain right up to abolition in the 1830s. The Mansfield ruling on <a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a> only decreed that a slave could not be transported out of England against his will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama200661-400">[400]</a> Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, the new <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> in 1778 became the first slave-owning state and one of the first jurisdictions anywhere to stop the importation of new slaves for sale; it made it a crime for traders to bring in slaves from out of state or from overseas for sale; migrants from within the United States were allowed to bring their own slaves. The new law freed all slaves brought in illegally after its passage and imposed heavy fines on violators.<a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a><a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a><a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a> All the other states in the United States followed suit, although <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> reopened its slave trade in 1803.<a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a> Denmark, which had been active in the slave trade, was the first country to ban the trade through legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803.<a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a> Britain banned the slave trade in 1807, imposing stiff fines for any slave found aboard a British ship (see <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> moved to stop other nations from continuing the slave trade and declared that slaving was equal to piracy and was punishable by death. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a>, which prohibited the building or outfitting of ships in the U.S. for use in the slave trade. The U.S. Constitution (Article I, section 9, clause 1) barred a federal prohibition on importing slaves for 20 years; at that time the <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> prohibited imports on the first day the Constitution permitted: January 1, 1808. It was generally thought that the transatlantic slave trade ended in 1867, but evidence was later found of voyages until 1873.<a href="#cite_note-alberge-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_abolitionism">British abolitionism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism in the United Kingdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Effecting_the_Abolition_of_the_Slave_Trade" title="Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade">Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> began to campaign against the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>'s slave trade in the 1780s, and from 1789 <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a> was a driving force in the British Parliament in the fight against the trade. The abolitionists argued that the trade was not necessary for the economic success of sugar in the British West Indian colonies. This argument was accepted by wavering politicians, who did not want to destroy the valuable and important sugar colonies of the British Caribbean. Parliament was also concerned about the success of the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, and they believed they had to abolish the trade to prevent a similar conflagration from occurring in a British Caribbean colony.<a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a> On 22 February 1807, the House of Commons passed a motion by 283 votes to 16 to abolish the Atlantic slave trade. Hence, the slave trade was abolished, but not the still-economically viable institution of slavery itself, which provided Britain's most lucrative import at the time, sugar. Abolitionists did not move against sugar and slavery itself until after the sugar industry went into terminal decline after 1823.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2021105–106,_120–122-407">[407]</a> The United States passed its own <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> the next week (March 2, 1807), although probably without mutual consultation. The act only took effect on the first day of 1808; since a compromise clause in the <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Slave_trade" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">US Constitution (Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1)</a> prohibited federal, although not state, restrictions on the slave trade before 1808. The United States did not, however, abolish its <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Internal_slave_trade" title="Slavery in the United States">internal slave trade</a>, which became the dominant mode of US slave trading until the 1860s.<a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a> In 1805 the British Order-in-Council had restricted the importation of slaves into colonies that had been captured from France and the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2000290-399">[399]</a> Britain continued to press other nations to end its trade; in 1810 an Anglo-Portuguese treaty was signed whereby Portugal agreed to restrict its trade into its colonies; an <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stockholm_(1813)" title="Treaty of Stockholm (1813)">1813 Anglo-Swedish treaty</a> whereby Sweden outlawed its <a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">slave trade</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1814)" title="Treaty of Paris (1814)">Treaty of Paris 1814</a> where France agreed with Britain that the trade is "repugnant to the principles of natural justice" and agreed to abolish the slave trade in five years; the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty</a> where the Dutch outlawed its slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2000290-399">[399]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Castlereagh_and_Palmerston's_diplomacy">Castlereagh and Palmerston's diplomacy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg/220px-Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg/330px-Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg/440px-Abolition_of_Slavery_The_Glorious_1st_of_August_1838.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>Abolition of Slavery The Glorious 1st of August 1838</figcaption></figure> Abolitionist opinion in Britain was strong enough in 1807 to abolish the slave trade in all <a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a>, although slavery itself persisted in the colonies until 1833.<a href="#cite_note-409">[409]</a> Abolitionists after 1807 focused on international agreements to abolish the slave trade. Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stewart,_Viscount_Castlereagh" title="Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh">Castlereagh</a> switched his position and became a strong supporter of the movement. Britain arranged treaties with Portugal, Sweden and Denmark in the period between 1810 and 1814, whereby they agreed to end or restrict their trading. These were preliminary to the Congress of Vienna negotiations that Castlereagh dominated and which resulted in a general declaration condemning the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> The problem was that the treaties and declarations were hard to enforce, given the very high profits available to private interests. As Foreign Minister, Castlereagh cooperated with senior officials to use the Royal Navy to detect and capture slave ships. He used diplomacy to make search-and-seize agreements with all the governments whose ships were trading. There was serious friction with the United States, where the southern slave interest was politically powerful. Washington recoiled at British policing of the high seas. Spain, France and Portugal also relied on the international slave trade to supply their colonial plantations. As more and more diplomatic arrangements were made by Castlereagh, the owners of slave ships started flying false flags of nations that had not agreed, especially the United States. It was illegal under American law for American ships to engage in the slave trade, but the idea of Britain enforcing American laws was unacceptable to Washington. <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a> and other British foreign ministers continued the Castlereagh policies. Eventually, in 1842 in 1845, an arrangement was reached between London and Washington. With the arrival of a staunchly anti-slavery government in Washington in 1861, the Atlantic slave trade was doomed. In the long run, Castlereagh's strategy on how to stifle the slave trade proved successful.<a href="#cite_note-411">[411]</a> Prime Minister Palmerston detested slavery, and in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a> in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul <a href="/wiki/John_Beecroft" title="John Beecroft">John Beecroft</a> to encourage the overthrow of King Kosoko. The new King Akitoye was a docile non-slave-trading puppet.<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Royal_Navy">British Royal Navy</h3></div> The Royal Navy's <a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">West Africa Squadron</a>, established in 1808, grew by 1850 to a force of some 25 vessels, which were tasked with combating slavery along the African coast.<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a> Between 1807 and 1860, the Royal Navy's Squadron seized approximately 1,600 ships involved in the slave trade and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard these vessels.<a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a> Several hundred slaves a year were transported by the navy to the British colony of <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, where they were made to serve as "apprentices" in the colonial economy until the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a>.<a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Black_Joke_(1827).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg/220px-HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg/330px-HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg/440px-HMS_Black_Joke_%281827%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Capture of slave ship El Almirante by the British Royal Navy in the 1800s. <a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Joke_(1827)" title="HMS Black Joke (1827)">HMS Black Joke</a> freed 466 slaves.<a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_slave_ship_to_the_United_States">Last slave ship to the United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Post-1808_importation_of_slaves_to_the_United_States" title="Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States">Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States</a></div> Even though it was prohibited, in response to the North's reluctance or refusal to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a>, the Atlantic slave trade was "re-open[ed] ... by way of retaliation".<a href="#cite_note-bugle-417">[417]</a> In 1859, "the trade in slaves from Africa to the Southern coast of the United States is now carried on in defiance of Federal law and of the Federal Government."<a href="#cite_note-bugle-417">[417]</a> The last known slave ship to land on U.S. soil was the <a href="/wiki/Clotilda_(slave_ship)" title="Clotilda (slave ship)">Clotilda</a>, which in 1859 illegally smuggled a number of Africans into the town of <a href="/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama" title="Mobile, Alabama">Mobile, Alabama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a> The Africans on board were sold as slaves; however, slavery in the U.S. was <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolished</a> five years later following the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> in 1865. <a href="/wiki/Cudjoe_Lewis" title="Cudjoe Lewis">Cudjoe Lewis</a>, who died in 1935, was long believed to be the last survivor of Clotilda and the last surviving slave brought from Africa to the United States,<a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a> but recent research has found that two other survivors from Clotilda outlived him, <a href="/wiki/Redoshi" title="Redoshi">Redoshi</a> (who died in 1937) and <a href="/wiki/Matilda_McCrear" title="Matilda McCrear">Matilda McCrear</a> (who died in 1940).<a href="#cite_note-Durkin-2019-420">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a> However, according to Senator <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Douglas" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Douglas">Stephen Douglas</a>, Lincoln's opponent in the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In regard to the slave trade, Mr. Douglas stated that there was not the shadow of doubt but that it had been carried on quite extensively for a long time back, and that there had been more slaves imported into the Southern States during the last year [1858] than had ever been imported before in any one year, even when the slave trade was legal. It was his confident belief that over 15,000 slaves had been brought into this country during the past year. He had seen, with his own eyes, three hundred of these recently-imported, miserable beings, in a slave-pen in <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg, Mississippi</a>, and also large numbers at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-422">[422]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_and_Liberty!_Union_and_Slavery!.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg/220px-Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg/330px-Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg/440px-Union_and_Liberty%21_Union_and_Slavery%21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The image contrasts two scenes: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> advocating equality with a worker, while <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a> shakes hands with Jefferson Davis, representing the Southern slave system.</figcaption></figure> Abraham Lincoln faced significant constitutional challenges in his fight to abolish slavery, as the U.S. Constitution had provided protections for slavery. Despite these challenges, Lincoln's leadership and the creation of a strong federal government allowed for the eventual abolition of slavery through the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> and the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil_ends_the_Atlantic_slave_trade">Brazil ends the Atlantic slave trade</h3></div> The last country to ban the Atlantic slave trade was Brazil; a first law was approved in 1831, however it was only enforced in 1850 through the new <a href="/wiki/Eus%C3%A9bio_de_Queir%C3%B3s_Law" title="Eusébio de Queirós Law">Eusébio de Queirós Law</a>. Despite the prohibition, it took another three years for the trade to effectively end. Between the first law in 1831 and the effective ban of transatlantic trade in 1850, an estimated 500,000 Africans were enslaved and illegally trafficked to Brazil,<a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a> and until 1856, the year of the last recorded seizure of a slave ship by the Brazilian authorities, around 38,000 Africans still entered the country as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> Historians João José Reis, Sidney Chalhoub, Robert W. Slenes and Flávio dos Santos Gomes proposed that another reason for the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade to Brazil was the <a href="/wiki/Mal%C3%AA_revolt" title="Malê revolt">Malê Revolt</a> in 1835. On January 25, 1835, an estimated 600 free and enslaved Africans armed with guns ran through the streets of Salvador murdering whites and slaveholders. Abolitionists argued that if the slave trade and slavery continued, slave resistance movements would increase, resulting in more deaths. Seventy three percent of the Africans in the Malê revolt were Yoruba men who converted to Islam; some white Brazilians believed they had a spirit of resistance against enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-426">[426]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_motivation_to_end_the_slave_trade">Economic motivation to end the slave trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haitian_Revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/220px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/330px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Haitian_Revolution.jpg/440px-Haitian_Revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1395" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>Haitian Revolution</figcaption></figure> The historian Walter Rodney contends that it was a decline in the profitability of the triangular trades that made it possible for certain basic human sentiments to be asserted at the decision-making level in a number of European countries—Britain being the most crucial because it was the greatest carrier of African captives across the Atlantic. Rodney states that changes in productivity, technology, and patterns of exchange in Europe and the Americas informed the decision by the British to end their participation in the trade in 1807.<a href="#cite_note-WalterRodney-326">[326]</a> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a><a href="#cite_note-427">[427]</a> argue that it was neither a strictly economic nor a moral matter. First, because slavery was (in practice) still beneficial to capitalism, providing not only an influx of capital but also disciplining hardship into workers (a form of "apprenticeship" to the capitalist industrial plant). The more "recent" argument of a "moral shift" (the basis of the previous lines of this article) is described by Hardt and Negri as an "ideological" apparatus in order to eliminate the sentiment of guilt in western society. Although moral arguments did play a secondary role, they usually had major resonance when used as a strategy to undercut competitors' profits. This argument holds that Eurocentric history has been blind to the most important element in this fight for emancipation, precisely, the constant revolt and the antagonism of slaves' revolts. The most important of those being the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>. The shock of this 1804 revolution introduced an essential political argument into the end of the slave trade as slaveholders in North America feared a similar situation could happen in the United States, where enslaved people in the Southern states might free themselves through an armed resistance movement and free all enslaved people. The success of enslaved and free blacks in Haiti in freeing themselves through revolt invoked fear among many whites in North America. <a href="/wiki/St._George_Tucker" title="St. George Tucker">St. George Tucker</a>, a Virginian jurist, said this about the Haitian Revolution: "enough to make one shudder in fear of similar calamities in this country". Some white Americans and whites in the Caribbean suggested ending the slave trade and slavery to prevent an uprising like the one in Haiti.<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a><a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> A Jamaican <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Edwards_(politician)" title="Bryan Edwards (politician)">Bryan Edwards</a>, observed the Haitian revolution and argued that the enslaved people who revolted were newly imported slaves from Africa. Edwards and other planters believed the <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave revolts</a> in the Caribbean were instigated by these new slaves, and some abolitionists suggested ending the slave trade to prevent further slave insurrections.<a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a> In Charleston, South Carolina, in 1822, <a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gullah_Jack" title="Gullah Jack">Gullah Jack</a> planned a slave insurrection inspired by the Haitian Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a> The Haitian Revolution affected France's colonial economy. Saint Domingue (Haiti) was France's wealthiest colony and the world's top producer of sugar and coffee; it was also a global leader in cacao and indigo. Enslaved labor made Saint Domingue the wealthiest colony in the world and furnished two-thirds of France's overseas trade—because of Saint Domingue's wealth it was nicknamed "Pearl of the Antilles." After free and enslaved people gained their independence from France, France and French slaveholders wanted financial compensation from Haiti in the amount of 150 million francs to compensate for their lost wealth, calling it an "Independence Debt" because France had lost its wealthiest colony when Haiti gained independence.<a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a><a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a> Haitians defeated the French, British, and Spanish during the revolution. Prior to the revolution, the United States was a major trade partner with Saint Domingue. After the revolution, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Haitian_Revolution" title="United States and the Haitian Revolution">United States</a> refused to recognize Haiti as an independent Black nation.<a href="#cite_note-434">[434]</a> Haiti was no longer the main exporter of sugar after the revolution, Cuba became the main supplier of sugar to foreign nations, and Louisiana became a center of sugar production in the United States. Slave revolts affected the economy of the slave trade as slaveholders lost property in enslaved people through death, running away, and a decrease in the production of cash crops resulting in a shift in trade to other nations.<a href="#cite_note-435">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> However, both <a href="/wiki/James_Stephen_(British_politician)" title="James Stephen (British politician)">James Stephen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Brougham,_1st_Baron_Brougham_and_Vaux" title="Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux">Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux</a>, wrote that the slave trade could be abolished for the benefit of the British colonies, and the latter's pamphlet was often used in parliamentary debates in favour of abolition. <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a> argued on the basis of these writings that the British colonies would be better off, in their economic position as well as in their security, if the trade was abolished. Consequently, according to historian Christer Petley, abolitionists argued, and even some absentee plantation owners accepted, that the trade could be abolished "without substantial damage to the plantation economy". <a href="/wiki/William_Grenville,_1st_Baron_Grenville" title="William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville">William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville</a> argued that "the slave population of the colonies could be maintained without it". Petley points out that government took the decision to abolish the trade "with the express intention of improving, not destroying, the still-lucrative plantation economy of the British West Indies."<a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sierra_Leone">Sierra Leone</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Relief_of_the_Black_Poor" title="Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor">Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole people</a></div> In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves, primarily African Americans freed during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> who had been evacuated to London, to relocate to <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>. Most of the first group of settlers died due to disease and warfare with Indigenous peoples. About 64 survived to establish the second "<a href="/wiki/Province_of_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Freedom">Province of Freedom</a>" following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama2006?-438">[438]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-439">[439]</a><a href="#cite_note-440">[440]</a> In 1792, 1200 <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotian_Settlers" title="Nova Scotian Settlers">Nova Scotian Settlers</a> from Nova Scotia settled and established the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Sierra Leone">Colony of Sierra Leone</a> and the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Freetown" title="Freetown">Freetown</a>; these were newly freed African Americans and their descendants. Many of the adults had left <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot</a> owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. The Crown had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">thousands joined the British lines</a>. More than 1,200 volunteered to settle and establish the new colony of Freetown, which was established by British abolitionists under the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Company" title="Sierra Leone Company">Sierra Leone Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama2006?-438">[438]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-441">[441]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberia">Liberia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberian people</a></div> In 1816, a group of wealthy European-Americans, some of whom were abolitionists and others who were racial segregationists, founded the <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> with the express desire of sending liberated African Americans to West Africa. In 1820, they sent their first ship to <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, and within a decade around two thousand African Americans had been settled there. Such resettlement continued throughout the 19th century, increasing following the deterioration of race relations in the Southern states of the US following <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era of the United States">Reconstruction</a> in 1877.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandley200621-442">[442]</a> The American Colonization Society's proposal to send African Americans to Liberia was not universally popular among African Americans, and the proposal was seen as a plot to weaken the influence of the abolitionist movement.<a href="#cite_note-443">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hubbard-444">[444]</a> The scheme was widely rejected by prominent African-American abolitionists such as <a href="/wiki/James_Forten" title="James Forten">James Forten</a><a href="#cite_note-445">[445]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-apology-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rastafari_movement">Rastafari movement</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Rastafari_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Rastafari movement">Rastafari movement</a>, which originated in Jamaica, where 92% of the population are descended from the Atlantic slave trade, has made efforts to publicise the slavery and to ensure it is not forgotten, especially through <a href="/wiki/Reggae" title="Reggae">reggae</a> music.<a href="#cite_note-446">[446]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apologies">Apologies</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Worldwide">Worldwide</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Special:EditPage/Atlantic slave trade">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (December 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg/220px-Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg/330px-Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg/440px-Slave_Dungeon_-_Osu_Castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Slave dungeon inside <a href="/wiki/Osu_Castle" title="Osu Castle">Osu Castle</a> in Ghana</figcaption></figure> In 1998, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> designated 23 August as <a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Remembrance_of_the_Slave_Trade_and_its_Abolition" title="International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition">International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition</a>. Since then there have been a number of events recognizing the effects of slavery. At the 2001 <a href="/wiki/World_Conference_Against_Racism" class="mw-redirect" title="World Conference Against Racism">World Conference Against Racism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Durban" title="Durban">Durban</a>, South Africa, African nations demanded a clear apology for slavery from the former slave-trading countries. Some nations were ready to express an apology, but the opposition, mainly from the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United States blocked attempts to do so. A fear of monetary compensation might have been one of the reasons for the opposition. As of 2009, efforts are underway to create a <a href="/wiki/UN_Slavery_Memorial" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Slavery Memorial">UN Slavery Memorial</a> as a permanent remembrance of the victims of the Atlantic slave trade. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benin">Benin</h4></div> In 1999, President <a href="/wiki/Mathieu_Kerekou" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathieu Kerekou">Mathieu Kerekou</a> of <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> (formerly the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>) issued a national apology for the role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-apology-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luc_Gnacadja" title="Luc Gnacadja">Luc Gnacadja</a>, minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it."<a href="#cite_note-dahomey-447">[447]</a> Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a> bordering the <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dahomey-447">[447]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Denmark">Denmark</h4></div> Denmark had a foothold in Ghana for more than 200 years and trafficked as many as 4,000 enslaved Africans per year.<a href="#cite_note-448">[448]</a> Danish Foreign Minister, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen declared publicly in 1992: "I understand why the inhabitants in the <a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">West Indian Islands</a> celebrate the day they became part of the U.S. But for Danish people and Denmark the day is a dark chapter. We exploited the slaves in the West Indian Islands during 250 years and made good money on them, but when we had to pay wages, we sold them instead, without even asking the inhabitants (...) That really wasn't a decent thing to do. We could at least have called a referendum, and asked people which nation they wanted to belong to. Instead we just let down the people."<a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a>: 69  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4></div> On 30 January 2006, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> (the then French President) said that 10 May would henceforth be a national day of remembrance for the victims of slavery in France, marking the day in 2001 when France passed a law recognising slavery as a <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crime against humanity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-450">[450]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ghana">Ghana</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Cape_Coast_Slave_Castle_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Cape Coast slave castle in Ghana</figcaption></figure> President <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rawlings" title="Jerry Rawlings">Jerry Rawlings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> apologized for his country's involvement in the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-apology-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h4></div> At a UN conference on the Atlantic slave trade in 2001, the Dutch Minister for Urban Policy and Integration of Ethnic Minorities <a href="/wiki/Roger_van_Boxtel" title="Roger van Boxtel">Roger van Boxtel</a> said that the Netherlands "recognizes the grave injustices of the past." On 1 July 2013, at the 150th anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the Dutch West Indies, the Dutch government expressed "deep regret and remorse" for the involvement of the Netherlands in the Atlantic slave trade. The municipal government of Amsterdam, which co-owned the <a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">colony of Surinam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/De_Nederlandsche_Bank" title="De Nederlandsche Bank">De Nederlandsche Bank</a>, which was involved in slavery between 1814 and 1863, apologized for their involvement on 1 July 2021 and 1 July 2022, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a><a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a> A formal apology on behalf of the Dutch government was issued by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rutte" title="Mark Rutte">Mark Rutte</a> in 2022 following a review by an advisory committee. Government ministers were sent to seven former colonies to reiterate the Dutch state's formal apology. Some activists continued to call for <a href="/wiki/Willem-Alexander_of_the_Netherlands" title="Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands">Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands</a> to issue an apology.<a href="#cite_note-453">[453]</a><a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nigeria">Nigeria</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Port,_Badagry,_Lagos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg/220px-Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg/330px-Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg/440px-Slave_Port%2C_Badagry%2C_Lagos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="3434" /></a><figcaption>Slave Port in Badagry, Lagos State Nigeria</figcaption></figure> In 2009, the Civil Rights Congress of <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> wrote an open letter to all <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">African chieftains</a> who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men, as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless. In view of the fact that the Americans and Europe have accepted the cruelty of their roles and have forcefully apologized, it would be logical, reasonable and humbling if African traditional rulers ... [can] accept blame and formally apologize to the descendants of the victims of their collaborative and exploitative slave trade."<a href="#cite_note-SmithGuardian-455">[455]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div> On 9 December 1999, <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_City_Council" title="Liverpool City Council">Liverpool City Council</a> passed a formal motion apologising for the <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_slave_trade" title="Liverpool slave trade">city's part</a> in the slave trade. It was unanimously agreed that <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> acknowledges its responsibility for its involvement in three centuries of the slave trade. The city council has made an unreserved apology for Liverpool's involvement and the continual effect of slavery on Liverpool's black communities.<a href="#cite_note-456">[456]</a> On 27 November 2006, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> made a partial apology for Britain's role in the African slavery trade. However African rights activists denounced it as "empty rhetoric" that failed to address the issue properly. They feel his apology stopped shy to prevent any legal retort.<a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a> Blair again apologized on 14 March 2007.<a href="#cite_note-458">[458]</a> On 24 August 2007, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Livingstone" title="Ken Livingstone">Ken Livingstone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_London" title="Mayor of London">Mayor of London</a>) apologized publicly for London's role in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a>. "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said, pointing towards the financial district, before breaking down in tears. He said that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a> praised Mayor Livingstone and added that reparations should be made.<a href="#cite_note-459">[459]</a> In 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> apologized for the role of directors in the Atlantic slave trade and pledged to remove pictures and statues of the 25 bank leaders who owned or traded in slavery.<a href="#cite_note-460">[460]</a><a href="#cite_note-461">[461]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_3">United States</h4></div> On 24 February 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly" title="Virginia General Assembly">Virginia General Assembly</a> passed House Joint Resolution Number 728<a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a> acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians". With the passing of that resolution, Virginia became the first of the 50 United States to acknowledge through the state's governing body their state's involvement in slavery. The passing of this resolution came on the heels of the 400th-anniversary celebration of the city of <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a>, which was the first permanent <a href="/wiki/English_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="English colonial empire">English colony</a> to survive in what would become the United States. Jamestown is also recognized as one of the first slave ports of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonies</a>. On 31 May 2007, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Alabama" title="List of governors of Alabama">Governor of Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Riley" title="Bob Riley">Bob Riley</a>, signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" for Alabama's role in slavery and apologizing for slavery's wrongs and lingering effects. Alabama is the fourth state to pass a slavery apology, following votes by the legislatures in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, Virginia, and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-463">[463]</a> On 30 July 2008, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. The language included a reference to the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and Jim Crow" segregation.<a href="#cite_note-464">[464]</a> On 18 June 2009, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> issued an apologetic statement decrying the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-465">[465]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_history" title="Atlantic history">Atlantic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Atlantic slave trade to Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol slave trade</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Colston" title="Edward Colston">Edward Colston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_indenture_system" title="Indian indenture system">Indian indenture system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liverpool_slave_trade" title="Liverpool slave trade">Liverpool slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">The Slave Route Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave Trade Acts">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery in Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">Slavery in the colonial United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_and_Slaves" title="Tobacco and Slaves">Tobacco and Slaves</a> (1986 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">United States labor law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephaniah_Kingsley" title="Zephaniah Kingsley">Zephaniah Kingsley</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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.id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDiffie1963" 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil">the original</a> on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shipwreck+Shines+Light+on+Historic+Shift+in+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Greta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2015%2F06%2F150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Covey-Eisnach_2009-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Covey-Eisnach_2009_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoveyEisnach2009" class="citation book cs1">Covey, Herbert C.; Eisnach, Dwight, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xhpBsIa5yqEC&pg=PA49">"Slave Cooking and Meals – Arrival in the Americas"</a>. What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives. <a href="/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California" title="Santa Barbara, California">Santa Barbara, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. pp. 49–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37497-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37497-5"><bdi>978-0-313-37497-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009003907">2009003907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slave+Cooking+and+Meals+%E2%80%93+Arrival+in+the+Americas&rft.btitle=What+the+Slaves+Ate%3A+Recollections+of+African+American+Foods+and+Foodways+from+the+Slave+Narratives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009003907&rft.isbn=978-0-313-37497-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxhpBsIa5yqEC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin2012" class="citation web cs1">Berlin, Ira (9 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240117153933/https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade">"The Discovery of the Americas and the Transatlantic Slave Trade"</a>. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade">the original</a> on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 17 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Gilder+Lehrman+Institute+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Americas+and+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.date=2012-04-09&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Ira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fap.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-by-era%2Fimperial-rivalries%2Fessays%2Fdiscovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinKlein1999" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Herbert S.; Klein, Jacob (1999). The Atlantic Slave Trade. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 103–139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E103-%3C%2Fspan%3E139&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Herbert+S.&rft.au=Klein%2C+Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegal1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Segal" title="Ronald Segal">Segal, Ronald</a> (1995). The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-11396-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-374-11396-3"><bdi>0-374-11396-3</bdi></a>. <q>It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Diaspora%3A+Five+Centuries+of+the+Black+Experience+Outside+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-374-11396-3&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988">, citing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy1989" class="citation journal cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E. (1989). "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of African History">Journal of African History</a>. 30 (3): 368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700024439">10.1017/S0021853700024439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade+on+Africa%3A+A+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=368&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700024439&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeredith2014194-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeredith2014194_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeredith2014">Meredith 2014</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-online_at_pp._119–120-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-online_at_pp._119–120_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-online_at_pp._119–120_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Manning_(historian)" title="Patrick Manning (historian)">Manning, Patrick</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abvkqNGSTZ0C&pg=PA119">"The Slave Trade: The Formal Demographics of a Global System"</a>. In Inikori, Joseph E.; Engerman, Stanley L. (eds.). The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 119–120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-8237-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-8237-7"><bdi>0-8223-8237-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Trade%3A+The+Formal+Demographics+of+a+Global+System&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+Effects+on+Economies%2C+Societies+and+Peoples+in+Africa%2C+the+Americas%2C+and+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8223-8237-7&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DabvkqNGSTZ0C%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStannard1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">Stannard, David</a> (1993). 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The African Slave Trade.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+Slave+Trade&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Basil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-alberge-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alberge_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-alberge_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberge2024" class="citation news cs1">Alberge, Dalya (4 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611231817/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/04/transatlantic-slavery-continued-for-years-after-1867-historian-finds">"Transatlantic slavery continued for years after 1867, historian finds"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. 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Presses Universitaires de France. pp. 54–58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conqu%C3%AAte+et+exploitation+des+nouveaux+mondes+%28xvie+si%C3%A8cles%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Chaunu&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240518011824/http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/african_laborers_for_a_new_emp/launching_the_portuguese_slave">"Launching the Portuguese Slave Trade in Africa"</a>. Lowcountry History Digital Initiative. Lowcountry Digital Library at the College of Charleston. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/african_laborers_for_a_new_emp/launching_the_portuguese_slave">the original</a> on 18 May 2024. 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Global Goods and the Spanish Empire, 1492–1824: Circulation, Resistance, and Diversity. <a href="/wiki/Basingstoke" title="Basingstoke">Basingstoke</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 216–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137324054_12">10.1057/9781137324054_12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-32405-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-32405-4"><bdi>978-1-137-32405-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hispaniola%27s+Turn+to+Tobacco%3A+Products+from+Santo+Domingo+in+Atlantic+Commerce&rft.btitle=Global+Goods+and+the+Spanish+Empire%2C+1492%E2%80%931824%3A+Circulation%2C+Resistance%2C+and+Diversity&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E216-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137324054_12&rft.isbn=978-1-137-32405-4&rft.aulast=Escudero&rft.aufirst=Antonio+Guti%C3%A9rrez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight_2010-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Knight_2010_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2010" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Frederick C. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqQUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">"Cultivating Knowledge: African Tobacco and Cotton Workers in Colonial British America"</a>. Working the Diaspora: The Impact of African Labor on the Anglo-American World, 1650–1850. 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From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500–2000. <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 93–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F9780822388029-005">10.1215/9780822388029-005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3753-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3753-9"><bdi>978-0-8223-3753-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726153759/https://books.google.com/books?id=mnvBYQqpJbQC&pg=PA93#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2024. 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Princeton University Press. pp. 55–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400849567" title="Special:BookSources/9781400849567"><bdi>9781400849567</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Racism+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781400849567&rft.aulast=Isaac&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fpub%2F267%2Fmonograph%2Fchapter%2F1205947%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2014" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KbboAQAAQBAJ&q=racism">Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. pp. 9, 18, 32, 57, 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812244915" title="Special:BookSources/9780812244915"><bdi>9780812244915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&rft.pages=9%2C+18%2C+32%2C+57%2C+150&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780812244915&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKbboAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dracism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160810140644/http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/origins-slavery/essays/iberian-roots-transatlantic-slave-trade-1440%E2%80%931640">"Iberian Roots of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1640"</a>. 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Slavery in the Black Sea Region, c.900–1900 – Forms of Unfreedom at the Intersection Between Christianity and Islam. Studies in Global Slavery, Volume: 11. Brill, p. 29-31 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. 48-49 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/african_laborers_for_a_new_emp/emperor_charles_v">"The Early Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Emperor Charles V"</a>. Lowcountry Digital History Initiative. <a href="/wiki/College_of_Charleston" title="College of Charleston">College of Charleston</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726153802/https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/african_laborers_for_a_new_emp/emperor_charles_v">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 1 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lowcountry+Digital+History+Initiative&rft.atitle=The+Early+Trans-Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+Emperor+Charles+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fldhi.library.cofc.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fshow%2Fafrican_laborers_for_a_new_emp%2Femperor_charles_v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaria2008" class="citation book cs1">Maria, Martinez (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4cUo8JqYztoC&q=limpieza+de+sangre">Genealogical Fictions Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 1–10, 11–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804756488" title="Special:BookSources/9780804756488"><bdi>9780804756488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genealogical+Fictions+Limpieza+de+Sangre%2C+Religion%2C+and+Gender+in+Colonial+Mexico&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E20%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E30%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E40%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780804756488&rft.aulast=Maria&rft.aufirst=Martinez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4cUo8JqYztoC%26q%3Dlimpieza%2Bde%2Bsangre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar-Ortiz2019" class="citation book cs1">Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=btpmDwAAQBAJ&q=limpieza%20de%20sangra">An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States</a>. 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Retrieved 19 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Gilder+Lehrman+Institute+of+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Discovery%2C+1493&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-resources%2Fspotlight-primary-source%2Fdoctrine-discovery-1493%3Fgclid%3DEAIaIQobChMIz86r6e7pgwMVGWlHAR3vlgo9EAAYASAAEgL66PD_BwE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240705054414/https://www.worldhistory.org/Doctrine_of_Discovery/">"Doctrine of Discovery"</a>. World History Encyclopedia. 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Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">the original</a> on 6 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+survey%2C+Slave+societies&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy2011" class="citation book cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2011-10-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dXVFnHqhLvcC">Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50277-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50277-1"><bdi>978-1-139-50277-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+Slavery%3A+A+History+of+Slavery+in+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-10-10&rft.isbn=978-1-139-50277-1&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdXVFnHqhLvcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clarence-Smith2006-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Clarence-Smith2006_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-522151-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-522151-0"><bdi>978-0-19-522151-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1045855145">1045855145</a>. <q>Ralph Austen originally proposed that 17,000,000 Black slaves crossed the Sahara, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean [...] Paul Lovejoy reworked the data to indicate that over 6,000,000 left between 650 and 1500</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1045855145&rft.isbn=978-0-19-522151-0&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferro221-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferro221_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerro1997" class="citation book cs1">Ferro, Mark (1997). Colonization: A Global History. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14007-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14007-2"><bdi>978-0-415-14007-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonization%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14007-2&rft.aulast=Ferro&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning1990" class="citation book cs1">Manning, P. (1990). Slavery and African life: occidental, oriental, and African slave trades. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 28–29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+African+life%3A+occidental%2C+oriental%2C+and+African+slave+trades&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afbis-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afbis_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afbis_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afbis_84-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObadina2000" class="citation journal cs1">Obadina, Tunde (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120502172215/http://www.afbis.com/analysis/slave.htm">"Slave trade: a root of contemporary African Crisis"</a>. Africa Economic Analysis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afbis.com/analysis/slave.htm">the original</a> on 2 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africa+Economic+Analysis&rft.atitle=Slave+trade%3A+a+root+of+contemporary+African+Crisis&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Obadina&rft.aufirst=Tunde&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afbis.com%2Fanalysis%2Fslave.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM'bokolo1998" class="citation news cs1">M'bokolo, Elikia (2 April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240517074917/https://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa">"The impact of the slave trade on Africa"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa">the original</a> on 17 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde+diplomatique&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+the+slave+trade+on+Africa&rft.date=1998-04-02&rft.aulast=M%27bokolo&rft.aufirst=Elikia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmondediplo.com%2F1998%2F04%2F02africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiers2003" class="citation book cs1">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. UK: AltaMira Press. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+The+Evolution+of+a+Global+Problem&rft.place=UK&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Miers&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLovejoy1983">Lovejoy 1983</a>: "Total of black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes through the 19th century comes to an estimated 11,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade."" </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Raymond Mauny estimates a total of 14 million black slaves were traded in Islam through the 20th century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p.57, source: "Les Siecles obscurs de l'Afrique Noire (Paris: Fayard, 1970)] </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-2015-89"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-2015_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2001" class="citation news cs1">Hochschild, Adam (4 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">"Human Cargo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171219112928/http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2015. <q>Early on in Islam's Black Slaves, his history of slavery in the Muslim world, Ronald Segal cites some estimates. One scholar puts the rough total at 11.5 million slaves during more than a dozen centuries, and another at 14 million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Human+Cargo&rft.date=2001-03-04&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F03%2F04%2Freviews%2F010304.04hochsct.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beigbeder2006-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Beigbeder2006_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeigbeder2006" class="citation book cs1">Beigbeder, Yves (2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005). <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Nijhoff Publishers">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5"><bdi>978-90-04-15329-5</bdi></a>. <q>Historian Roger Botte estimates that Arab slave trade of Africans until the 20th century has involved from 12 to 15 million persons, with the active participation of African leaders.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+War+Crimes+and+Torture%3A+French+Justice+and+International+Criminal+Tribunals+and+Commissions+%281940%E2%80%932005%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15329-5&rft.aulast=Beigbeder&rft.aufirst=Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton1998310-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton1998310_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton1998310_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFThornton1998">Thornton 1998</a>, p. 310. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Slave Trade Debates 1806. Colonial History. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall. 1968. pp. 203–204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+Trade+Debates+1806&rft.place=London&rft.series=Colonial+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E203-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.pub=Dawsons+of+Pall+Mall&rft.date=1968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199845-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199845_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThornton1998">Thornton 1998</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199894-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199894_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThornton1998">Thornton 1998</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240331202010/https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/slaverybeforetrade">"Slavery before the Trans-Atlantic Trade"</a>. Lowcountry History Digital Initiative. Lowcountry Digital Library at the College of Charleston. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/slaverybeforetrade">the original</a> on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lowcountry+History+Digital+Initiative&rft.atitle=Slavery+before+the+Trans-Atlantic+Trade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fldhi.library.cofc.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fshow%2Fafricanpassageslowcountryadapt%2Fintroductionatlanticworld%2Fslaverybeforetrade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.">"Elmina Castle"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160445/https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=Elmina+Castle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwonders%2FEpisodes%2FEpi3%2Felmina.htm%23%3A~%3Atext%3DLocated%2520on%2520the%2520western%2520coast%2CBritish%2520ownership%2520in%2520the%25201800s.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWomber2020" class="citation journal cs1">Womber, Peter Kwame (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf">"From Anomansa to Elmina: The Establishment and the Use of the Elmina Castle – From the Portuguese to the British"</a> (PDF). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Athens_Journal_of_History&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Athens Journal of History (page does not exist)">Athens Journal of History</a>. 6 (4): 349–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30958%2Fajhis.6-4-4">10.30958/ajhis.6-4-4</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160446/https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Athens+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=From+Anomansa+to+Elmina%3A+The+Establishment+and+the+Use+of+the+Elmina+Castle+%E2%80%93+From+the+Portuguese+to+the+British&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E349-%3C%2Fspan%3E372&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30958%2Fajhis.6-4-4&rft.aulast=Womber&rft.aufirst=Peter+Kwame&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.athensjournals.gr%2Fhistory%2F2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Butel2002-98"><a href="#cite_ref-Butel2002_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButel2002" class="citation book cs1">Butel, Paul (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">The Atlantic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-84305-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-84305-3"><bdi>978-1-134-84305-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240713165411/https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2024. Retrieved 13 July 2024. <q>For labour in the plantations and the 80 engeñhos (sugar mills), the Portuguese began to bring slaves from the Canaries and Africa, reaching almost 2,000 in number by the end of the fifteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-84305-3&rft.aulast=Butel&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsLGIAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240620204329/https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/">"Africa, Europe, and the Rise of Afro-America, 1441-1619"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Library" title="New Jersey State Library">New Jersey State Library</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/#:~:text=In%201441%20two%20Portuguese%20explorers,taken%20annually%20into%20Portugal%2C%20for">the original</a> on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Jersey+State+Library&rft.atitle=Africa%2C+Europe%2C+and+the+Rise+of+Afro-America%2C+1441-1619&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.njstatelib.org%2Fresearch_library%2Fnew_jersey_resources%2Fhighlights%2Fafrican_american_history_curriculum%2Funit_2_rise_of_afro-americans%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIn%25201441%2520two%2520Portuguese%2520explorers%2Ctaken%2520annually%2520into%2520Portugal%252C%2520for&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Transatlantic_Slave_Trade-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Transatlantic_Slave_Trade_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Transatlantic_Slave_Trade_100-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240503083908/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm">"The Transatlantic Slave Trade"</a>. African American History and Ethnography. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm">the original</a> on 3 May 2024. 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Retrieved 18 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revealing+Histories+Remembering+Slavery&rft.atitle=The+fight%3A+African+resistance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frevealinghistories.org.uk%2Fwho-resisted-and-campaigned-for-abolition%2Farticles%2Fthe-fight-african-resistance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShumway2014" class="citation journal cs1">Shumway, Rebecca (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/119/5/1826/44831?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>. 119 (5): 1826–1827. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F119.5.1826">10.1093/ahr/119.5.1826</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240119194218/https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/119/5/1826/44831?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Fante+and+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1826-%3C%2Fspan%3E1827&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F119.5.1826&rft.aulast=Shumway&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fahr%2Farticle-abstract%2F119%2F5%2F1826%2F44831%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Information_about_Chief_Tomba_is_on_page_19" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330215328/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-www/legacy/slavery-files/chapter-2-people-and-slavery.pdf">"Slavery and the Natural World, People and the Slave Trade"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-www/legacy/slavery-files/chapter-2-people-and-slavery.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 30 March 2024. 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Retrieved 20 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Louis+Public+Schools&rft.atitle=Africa+and+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slps.org%2Fcms%2Flib%2FMO01001157%2FCentricity%2FDomain%2F9446%2FBBC%2520-%2520History%2520-%2520British%2520History%2520in%2520depth_%2520Africa%2520and%2520the%2520Transatlantic%2520Slave%2520Trade.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240119200351/https://www.loc.gov/podcasts/african-american-passages/transcripts/AAPassages-Podcast_Episode2_transcription.pdf">"African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century"</a> (PDF). Library of Congress. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6445941.stm">the original</a> on 12 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Quick+guide%3A+The+slave+trade%3B+Who+were+the+slaves%3F&rft.date=2007-03-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F6445941.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Paths of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Interactions, Identities, and Images. </li> <li id="cite_note-FreedmensInquiry-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FreedmensInquiry_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FreedmensInquiry_209-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/American_Freedmen%27s_Inquiry_Commission" title="American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission">American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission</a> report, page 43-44 </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2007" class="citation book cs1">Maddison, Angus (2007). 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Retrieved 21 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Final+Call&rft.atitle=Benin+seeks+forgiveness+for+role+in+slave+trade&rft.date=2002-10-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.finalcall.com%2Fnational%2Fslave_trade10-08-2002.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111201193105/http://www.histoire-afrique.org/article76.html?artsuite=5">"Le Mali précolonial"</a> [Precolonial Mali] (in French). 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Cohn"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Illinois_State_University" title="Illinois State University">Illinois State University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econ.ilstu.edu/vitas/rlcohn.html">the original</a> on 22 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Illinois+State+University&rft.atitle=Raymond+L.+Cohn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econ.ilstu.edu%2Fvitas%2Frlcohn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn1985" class="citation journal cs1">Cohn, Raymond L. (September 1985). 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Haiti: A Shattered Nation. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4683-0160-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4683-0160-1"><bdi>978-1-4683-0160-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haiti%3A+A+Shattered+Nation&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4683-0160-1&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marlenedaut-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Marlenedaut_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaut2020" class="citation journal cs1">Daut, Marlene L. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.virgin-islands-history.org/en/history/slavery/illness-and-death-among-the-enslaved/">the original</a> on 21 June 2024. 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Retrieved 2 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Florida+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Case+Against+a+Nineteenth-Century+Cuba-Florida+Slave+Trade&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Kriple&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstars.library.ucf.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3200%26context%3Dfhq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/amelia-island-pays-homage-to-slaves-middle-passage-with-marker/">"Amelia Island Pays Homage to Slaves Middle Passage with Marker"</a>. The Free Press of Jacksonville. 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240302155343/https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/amelia-island-pays-homage-to-slaves-middle-passage-with-marker/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Amelia+Island+Pays+Homage+to+Slaves+Middle+Passage+with+Marker&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjacksonvillefreepress.com%2Famelia-island-pays-homage-to-slaves-middle-passage-with-marker%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergad1987" class="citation journal cs1">Bergad, Laird (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/67/4/631/148042/Slave-Prices-in-Cuba-1840-1875">"Slave Prices in Cuba, 1840-1875"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanic American Historical Review">Hispanic American Historical Review</a>. 67 (4): 631–655. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-67.4.631">10.1215/00182168-67.4.631</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240314162254/https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/67/4/631/148042/Slave-Prices-in-Cuba-1840-1875">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2024. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505809-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505809-7"><bdi>0-19-505809-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brazil%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Change&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-505809-7&rft.aulast=Skidmore&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrazilfivecentur00skid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantos2016" class="citation journal cs1">Santos, Martha (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240518044226/https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/1670/167047720002.pdf">""Slave Mothers", Partus Sequitur Ventrem, and the Naturalization of Slave Reproduction in Nineteenth-Century Brazil"</a> (PDF). 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Temp. 22 (41): 1–5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/1670/167047720002.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 May 2024. 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The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240224234501/https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teacher-resources/historical-context-facts-about-slave-trade-and-slavery">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2024. 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Retrieved 3 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Work%2C+Pregnancy%2C+and+Infant+Mortality+among+Southern+Slaves&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E793-%3C%2Fspan%3E812&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11617354&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F203466%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F203466&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F203466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=3040">"What was Life Like Under Slavery"</a>. Digital History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223092420/https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3040">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/civil-war-new-orleans-was-center-us-slave-trade-180977532/">the original</a> on 10 May 2024. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1231&context=ethj">the original</a> on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Texas+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Development+of+the+African+Slave+Trade+in+Galveston%2C+Texas%2C+and+Surrounding+Areas+from+1816+to+1836&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E154-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.sfasu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1231%26context%3Dethj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHead2013" class="citation journal cs1">Head, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24487048">"Slave Smuggling by Foreign Privateers: The Illegal Slave Trade and the Geopolitics of the Early Republic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Early_Republic" title="Journal of the Early Republic">Journal of the Early Republic</a>. 33 (3): 438–439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjer.2013.0061">10.1353/jer.2013.0061</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24487048">24487048</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240518130357/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24487048">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Early+Republic&rft.atitle=Slave+Smuggling+by+Foreign+Privateers%3A+The+Illegal+Slave+Trade+and+the+Geopolitics+of+the+Early+Republic&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E438-%3C%2Fspan%3E439&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjer.2013.0061&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24487048%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Head&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24487048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelton2007" class="citation book cs1">Kelton, Paul (2007). Epidemics and enslavement: biological catastrophe in the Native Southeast, 1492–1715. Lincoln: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1557-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1557-3"><bdi>978-0-8032-1557-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/182560175">182560175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemics+and+enslavement%3A+biological+catastrophe+in+the+Native+Southeast%2C+1492%E2%80%931715&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F182560175&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1557-3&rft.aulast=Kelton&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-271">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_271-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_271-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrieg1992" class="citation book cs1">Krieg, Joann P. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epidemicsinmoder0000krie">Epidemics in the modern world</a>. New York: Twayne Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8057-8852-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8057-8852-2"><bdi>0-8057-8852-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25710386">25710386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemics+in+the+modern+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Twayne+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25710386&rft.isbn=0-8057-8852-2&rft.aulast=Krieg&rft.aufirst=Joann+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepidemicsinmoder0000krie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtin2017" class="citation journal cs1">Curtin, P.D. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-british-studies/article/abs/white-mans-grave-image-and-reality-17801850/3D5A35C18B1B4D2A4956641007FB4572">""The White Man's Grave:" Image and Reality, 1780-1850"</a>. Journal of British Studies. 1 (1). Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+British+Studies&rft.atitle=%22The+White+Man%27s+Grave%3A%22+Image+and+Reality%2C+1780-1850&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Curtin&rft.aufirst=P.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-british-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fwhite-mans-grave-image-and-reality-17801850%2F3D5A35C18B1B4D2A4956641007FB4572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/11generic1.shtml">"Africa and Europe 1800-1914"</a>. BBC World service. 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The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 21 (1): 63, 65, 67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F204918">10.2307/204918</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/204918">204918</a>. 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Hurst. pp. 1–3, 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781787382336" title="Special:BookSources/9781787382336"><bdi>9781787382336</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abson+%26+Company+Slave+Traders+in+Eighteenth-Century+West+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3%2C+122&rft.pub=Hurst&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781787382336&rft.aulast=Alpern&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOr-PDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwhite%2520man%2527s%2520grave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2020" class="citation journal cs1">Esposito, Elena (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iris.unito.it/retrieve/c2b2253b-a625-4540-81e9-7f6495d78f1d/esposito_aejapp_slavery_acceptedversion.pdf">"The Side Effects of Immunity: Malaria and African Slavery in the United States"</a> (PDF). IRIS Aperto: 1–2. Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IRIS+Aperto&rft.atitle=The+Side+Effects+of+Immunity%3A+Malaria+and+African+Slavery+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firis.unito.it%2Fretrieve%2Fc2b2253b-a625-4540-81e9-7f6495d78f1d%2Fesposito_aejapp_slavery_acceptedversion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_277-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamondPanosian2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a>; <a href="/wiki/Claire_Panosian" title="Claire Panosian">Panosian, Claire</a> (2006). Hämäläinen, Pekka (ed.). When Disease Makes History: Epidemics and Great Historical Turning Points. Helsinki: <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Helsinki University Press">Helsinki University Press</a>. pp. 18–19, 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/951-570-640-8" title="Special:BookSources/951-570-640-8"><bdi>951-570-640-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Disease+Makes+History%3A+Epidemics+and+Great+Historical+Turning+Points&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E19%2C+25&rft.pub=Helsinki+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=951-570-640-8&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rft.au=Panosian%2C+Claire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-278">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_278-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_278-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts1997" class="citation book cs1">Watts, S. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/the-atlantic-empire-of-peter-faneuil.htm">the original</a> on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Boston+African+American+National+Historical+Park&rft.atitle=The+Atlantic+Empire+of+Peter+Faneuil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farticles%2F000%2Fthe-atlantic-empire-of-peter-faneuil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240229173105/https://www.medfordhistorical.org/medford-history/africa-to-medford/slaves-in-new-england/">"Slaves in New England"</a>. Medford Historical Society and Museum. 25 February 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medfordhistorical.org/medford-history/africa-to-medford/slaves-in-new-england/#:~:text=Enslaved%20people%20were%20brought%20into,as%20children%20in%20coastal%20cities.">the original</a> on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medford+Historical+Society+and+Museum&rft.atitle=Slaves+in+New+England&rft.date=2013-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medfordhistorical.org%2Fmedford-history%2Fafrica-to-medford%2Fslaves-in-new-england%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DEnslaved%2520people%2520were%2520brought%2520into%2Cas%2520children%2520in%2520coastal%2520cities.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240229173153/https://www.masshist.org/features/endofslavery/trade">"The Importation and Sale of Enslaved People"</a>. Massachusetts Historical Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.masshist.org/features/endofslavery/trade">the original</a> on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Massachusetts+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Importation+and+Sale+of+Enslaved+People&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.masshist.org%2Ffeatures%2Fendofslavery%2Ftrade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.library.dartmouth.edu/slavery-project/slavery-slave-trade-new-england">"Slavery and the Slave Trade in New England"</a>. Dartmouth Libraries. <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726161216/https://www.library.dartmouth.edu/slavery-project/slavery-slave-trade-new-england">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dartmouth+Libraries&rft.atitle=Slavery+and+the+Slave+Trade+in+New+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.dartmouth.edu%2Fslavery-project%2Fslavery-slave-trade-new-england&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thecalabashnewspaper.com/freetown-city-council-host-ceo-of-the-international-african-american-museum-iaam/">"Freetown City Council Host CEO of the International African American Museum (IAAM)"</a>. The Calabash Newspaper. 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240228182745/https://thecalabashnewspaper.com/freetown-city-council-host-ceo-of-the-international-african-american-museum-iaam/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Freetown+City+Council+Host+CEO+of+the+International+African+American+Museum+%28IAAM%29&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthecalabashnewspaper.com%2Ffreetown-city-council-host-ceo-of-the-international-african-american-museum-iaam%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240313085856/https://glc.yale.edu/lectures/evening-lectures/past-lectures/20042005/bunce-island/bunce-island-history">"Bunce Island History"</a>. Yale Macmillan Center. Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition. 15 June 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glc.yale.edu/lectures/evening-lectures/past-lectures/20042005/bunce-island/bunce-island-history">the original</a> on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+Macmillan+Center&rft.atitle=Bunce+Island+History&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglc.yale.edu%2Flectures%2Fevening-lectures%2Fpast-lectures%2F20042005%2Fbunce-island%2Fbunce-island-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://artsandculture.google.com/story/tracing-the-trade-in-enslaved-africans-back-to-bunce-island-sierra-leone-world-monuments-fund/awWhsuSPtz5z1A?hl=en">"Tracing the Trade in Enslaved Africans back to Bunce Island, Sierra Leone"</a>. Google Arts and Culture. World Monuments Fund. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240228175220/https://artsandculture.google.com/story/tracing-the-trade-in-enslaved-africans-back-to-bunce-island-sierra-leone-world-monuments-fund/awWhsuSPtz5z1A?hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Arts+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Tracing+the+Trade+in+Enslaved+Africans+back+to+Bunce+Island%2C+Sierra+Leone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fartsandculture.google.com%2Fstory%2Ftracing-the-trade-in-enslaved-africans-back-to-bunce-island-sierra-leone-world-monuments-fund%2FawWhsuSPtz5z1A%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240512112240/http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/the_rise_of_african_slavery">"New World Labor Systems: African Slavery"</a>. Lowcountry History Digital Initiative. Lowcountry Digital Library at the College of Charleston. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/the_rise_of_african_slavery">the original</a> on 12 May 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lowcountry+History+Digital+Initiative&rft.atitle=New+World+Labor+Systems%3A+African+Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fldhi.library.cofc.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fshow%2Fafricanpassageslowcountryadapt%2Fintroductionatlanticworld%2Fthe_rise_of_african_slavery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gookin-306"><a href="#cite_ref-Gookin_306-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGookin1836" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gookin" title="Daniel Gookin">Gookin, Daniel</a> (1836) [1677]. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doings_and_Sufferings_of_the_Christian_Indians">The Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians </a>. Worcester, etc. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015005075109?urlappend=%3Bseq=459">2027/mdp.39015005075109</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3976964">3976964</a>. <a href="//archive.org/details/archaeologiaame02amer/page/423/mode/1up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:archaeologiaame02amer/page/423/mode/1up">archaeologiaame02amer</a>. <q>But this shows the prudence and fidelity of the <a href="/wiki/Praying_Indian" title="Praying Indian">Christian Indians</a>; yet notwithstanding all this service they were, with others of our Christian Indians, through the harsh dealings of some English, in a manner constrained, for want of shelter, protection, and encouragement, to fall off to the enemy at <a href="/wiki/Hassanamesit_Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassanamesit Indian Reservation">Hassanamesit</a>, the story whereof follows in its place; and one of them, viz. Sampson, was slain in fight, by some scouts of our praying Indians, about <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wachusett" title="Mount Wachusett">Watchuset</a>; and the other, Joseph, taken prisoner in <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a>, and sold for a slave to some merchants at <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, and sent to Jamaica, but upon the importunity of <a href="/wiki/John_Eliot_(missionary)" title="John Eliot (missionary)">Mr. Elliot</a>, which the master of the vessel related to him, was brought back again, but not released. His two children taken prisoners with him were redeemed by Mr. Elliot, and afterward his wife, their mother, taken captive, which woman was a sober Christian woman and is employed to teach school among the Indians at <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord</a>, and her children are with her, but her husband held as before, a servant; though several that know the said Joseph and his former carriage, have interceded for his release, but cannot obtain it; some informing authority that he had been active against the English when he was with the enemy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Doings+and+Sufferings+of+the+Christian+Indians&rft.pub=Worcester%2C+etc.&rft.date=1836&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015005075109%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D459&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3976964&rft.aulast=Gookin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bodge1-307"><a href="#cite_ref-Bodge1_307-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodge1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Madison_Bodge" title="George Madison Bodge">Bodge, George Madison</a> (1906). "Capt. Thomas Wheeler and his Men; with Capt. Edward Hutchinson at Brookfield". <a href="//archive.org/details/soldiersinkingph1906bodg" class="extiw" title="iarchive:soldiersinkingph1906bodg">Soldiers in King Philip's War: Being a Critical Account of that War, with a Concise History of the Indian Wars of New England from 1620–1677</a> (Third ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: The Rockwell and Churchill Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fbc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4hn31h3t">2027/bc.ark:/13960/t4hn31h3t</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/08003858">08003858</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/427544035">427544035</a>. <q>Sampson was killed by some English scouts near Wachuset, and Joseph was captured and sold into slavery in the West Indies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Capt.+Thomas+Wheeler+and+his+Men%3B+with+Capt.+Edward+Hutchinson+at+Brookfield&rft.btitle=Soldiers+in+King+Philip%27s+War%3A+Being+a+Critical+Account+of+that+War%2C+with+a+Concise+History+of+the+Indian+Wars+of+New+England+from+1620%E2%80%931677&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=109&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=The+Rockwell+and+Churchill+Press&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F427544035&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F08003858&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fbc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4hn31h3t&rft.aulast=Bodge&rft.aufirst=George+Madison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bodge2-308"><a href="#cite_ref-Bodge2_308-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodge1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Madison_Bodge" title="George Madison Bodge">Bodge, George Madison</a> (1906). "Appendix A". <a href="//archive.org/details/soldiersinkingph1906bodg" class="extiw" title="iarchive:soldiersinkingph1906bodg">Soldiers in King Philip's War: Being a Critical Account of that War, with a Concise History of the Indian Wars of New England from 1620–1677</a> (Third ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: The Rockwell and Churchill Press. p. 479. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fbc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4hn31h3t">2027/bc.ark:/13960/t4hn31h3t</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/08003858">08003858</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/427544035">427544035</a>. <q><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Captives. The following accounts show the harsh custom of the times, and reveal a source of Colonial revenue not open to our country since that day. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Account of Captives sold by Mass. Colony. August 24th, 1676. <a href="/wiki/John_Hull_(merchant)" title="John Hull (merchant)">John Hull's</a> Journal page 398.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+A&rft.btitle=Soldiers+in+King+Philip%27s+War%3A+Being+a+Critical+Account+of+that+War%2C+with+a+Concise+History+of+the+Indian+Wars+of+New+England+from+1620%E2%80%931677&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=479&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=The+Rockwell+and+Churchill+Press&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F427544035&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F08003858&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fbc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4hn31h3t&rft.aulast=Bodge&rft.aufirst=George+Madison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winiarski2004-309"><a href="#cite_ref-Winiarski2004_309-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiniarski2004" class="citation journal cs1">Winiarski, Douglas L. (September 2004). Rhoads, Linda Smith (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=religiousstudies-faculty-publications">"A Question of Plain Dealing: Josiah Cotton, Native Christians, and the Quest for Security in Eighteenth-Century Plymouth County"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_New_England_Quarterly" title="The New England Quarterly">The New England Quarterly</a>. 77 (3): 368–413. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-4866">0028-4866</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559824">1559824</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5552741105">5552741105</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322224607/https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1030&context=religiousstudies-faculty-publications">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2020. <q>While Philip and the vast majority of hostile Natives were killed outright during the war or sold into slavery in the West Indies, the friendly Wampanoag at <a href="/wiki/Manomet,_Massachusetts" title="Manomet, Massachusetts">Manomet Ponds</a> retained their lands.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=A+Question+of+Plain+Dealing%3A+Josiah+Cotton%2C+Native+Christians%2C+and+the+Quest+for+Security+in+Eighteenth-Century+Plymouth+County&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E368-%3C%2Fspan%3E413&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5552741105&rft.issn=0028-4866&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1559824%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Winiarski&rft.aufirst=Douglas+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.richmond.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1030%26context%3Dreligiousstudies-faculty-publications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2011/07/27/138601410/what-it-means-to-be-black-in-latin-america">"What It Means To Be 'Black In Latin America'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a> South Carolina Public Radio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726161820/https://www.npr.org/2011/07/27/138601410/what-it-means-to-be-black-in-latin-america">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR+South+Carolina+Public+Radio&rft.atitle=What+It+Means+To+Be+%27Black+In+Latin+America%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2011%2F07%2F27%2F138601410%2Fwhat-it-means-to-be-black-in-latin-america&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604195902/http://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-2/african-slavery/">"The African Slave Trade and Slave Life"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brown_University_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown University Library">Brown University Library</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-2/african-slavery/">the original</a> on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brown+University+Library&rft.atitle=The+African+Slave+Trade+and+Slave+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.brown.edu%2Fcreate%2Ffivecenturiesofchange%2Fchapters%2Fchapter-2%2Fafrican-slavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner2013" class="citation journal cs1">Werner, Amy (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1202&context=constructing">"The Practicality of Slavery in Latin America"</a>. Constructing the Past. 14 (1): 1–6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230618070504/https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1202&context=constructing">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Constructing+the+Past&rft.atitle=The+Practicality+of+Slavery+in+Latin+America&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.iwu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1202%26context%3Dconstructing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewsonMinchin2007" class="citation book cs1">Newson, Linda; Minchin, Susie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv29sfpzt.10">From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. pp. 101–135. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv29sfpzt.10">10.1163/j.ctv29sfpzt.10</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216120307/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv29sfpzt.10">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Capture+to+Sale%3A+The+Portuguese+Slave+Trade+to+Spanish+South+America+in+the+Early+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1163%2Fj.ctv29sfpzt.10%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Newson&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Minchin%2C+Susie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1163%2Fj.ctv29sfpzt.10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/african-derived-religions-brazil#:~:text=African%2Dderived%20religions%20in%20Brazil%20include%2C%20most%20prominently%2C%20Candombl%C3%A9,identities%2C%20both%20historically%20and%20today.">"African-Derived Religions in Brazil"</a>. Harvard Divinity School. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210904114645/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/african-derived-religions-brazil#:~:text=African%2Dderived%20religions%20in%20Brazil%20include%2C%20most%20prominently%2C%20Candombl%C3%A9,identities%2C%20both%20historically%20and%20today.">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Divinity+School&rft.atitle=African-Derived+Religions+in+Brazil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frpl.hds.harvard.edu%2Ffaq%2Fafrican-derived-religions-brazil%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAfrican%252Dderived%2520religions%2520in%2520Brazil%2520include%252C%2520most%2520prominently%252C%2520Candombl%25C3%25A9%2Cidentities%252C%2520both%2520historically%2520and%2520today.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards" class="citation web cs1">Edwards, Erika. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0157.xml">"Slavery in Argentina"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221209040232/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0157.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Argentina&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Erika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199766581%2Fobo-9780199766581-0157.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dauenhauer-316"><a href="#cite_ref-Dauenhauer_316-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauenhauerDauenhauerBlack2008" class="citation book cs1">Dauenhauer, Nora Marks; Dauenhauer, Richard; Black, Lydia T. (2008). Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká, Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804. Seattle: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>. pp. XXVI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98601-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98601-2"><bdi>978-0-295-98601-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An%C3%B3oshi+Ling%C3%ADt+Aan%C3%AD+K%C3%A1%2C+Russians+in+Tlingit+America%3A+The+Battles+of+Sitka%2C+1802+and+1804.&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=XXVI&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-295-98601-2&rft.aulast=Dauenhauer&rft.aufirst=Nora+Marks&rft.au=Dauenhauer%2C+Richard&rft.au=Black%2C+Lydia+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Stephen D. Behrendt, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Institute">W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrendt1999" class="citation book cs1">Behrendt, Stephen (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi">Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</a>. New York: Basic Civitas Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1"><bdi>0-465-00071-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+Experience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Civitas+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-465-00071-1&rft.aulast=Behrendt&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricanaencyclop00appi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VoyagesIntro-318"><a href="#cite_ref-VoyagesIntro_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltis2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL2767993A" class="extiw" title="openlibrary:authors/OL2767993A">Eltis, David</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slavevoyages.org/voyage/about#methodology/introduction/0/en/">"Understanding the Database - Methodology - Introduction"</a>. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. <a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201211022128/https://slavevoyages.org/voyage/about#methodology/introduction/0/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2020. <q>But what is often overlooked is that, before 1820, perhaps three times as many enslaved Africans crossed the Atlantic as Europeans. This was the largest transoceanic migration of a people until that day, and it provided the Americas with a crucial labour force for their own economic development.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voyages%3A+The+Trans-Atlantic+Slave+Trade+Database&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Database+-+Methodology+-+Introduction&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Eltis&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslavevoyages.org%2Fvoyage%2Fabout%23methodology%2Fintroduction%2F0%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade, 1972, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Daudin 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html">"Haiti, 1789 to 1806"</a>. www.fsmitha.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090212182348/http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fsmitha.com&rft.atitle=Haiti%2C+1789+to+1806&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsmitha.com%2Fh3%2Fh34-np2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226181840/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm">"Digital History"</a>. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=104">the original</a> on 26 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.atitle=Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Ftopic_display.cfm%3Ftcid%3D104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taxjustice.net/2020/06/09/slavery-compensation-uk-questions/,%20https://www.taxjustice.net/2020/06/09/slavery-compensation-uk-questions/">"Britain's Slave Owner Compensation Loan, reparations and tax havenry"</a>. 9 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729021319/https://www.taxjustice.net/2020/06/09/slavery-compensation-uk-questions/,%20https:/www.taxjustice.net/2020/06/09/slavery-compensation-uk-questions/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+Slave+Owner+Compensation+Loan%2C+reparations+and+tax+havenry&rft.date=2020-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxjustice.net%2F2020%2F06%2F09%2Fslavery-compensation-uk-questions%2F%2C%2520https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxjustice.net%2F2020%2F06%2F09%2Fslavery-compensation-uk-questions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240609061854/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-04/benedict-cumberbatch-slavery-reparations/101822368">"His parents urged him to keep their 'dodgy' family history quiet. Now Benedict Cumberbatch could pay"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(Australia)" title="ABC News (Australia)">ABC News</a>. 3 January 2023. 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I.B.Tauris. pp. 143–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857710130" title="Special:BookSources/9780857710130"><bdi>9780857710130</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Abolition+Britain+and+the+Slave+Trade+Since+1807&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E143-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780857710130&rft.aulast=Sherwood&rft.aufirst=Merika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeRGJDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dscientific%2520racism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/slavery/">"How did the Abolition Acts of 1807 and 1833 affect the slave trade?"</a>. The National Archives / United Kingdom. Retrieved 14 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Archives+%2F+United+Kingdom&rft.atitle=How+did+the+Abolition+Acts+of+1807+and+1833+affect+the+slave+trade%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Feducation%2Fresources%2Fslavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.searchablemuseum.com/black-abolition">"Black Abolition"</a>. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Smithsonian Institution. 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Retrieved 15 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+College+London&rft.atitle=African+Abolitionism%3A+The+Rise+and+Transformations+of+Anti-Slavery+in+Africa&rft.date=2021-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Fresearch%2Fafrican-abolitionism-rise-and-transformations-anti-slavery-africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/angolan-prince-started-campaign-to-end-atlantic-slave-trade-long-before-europeans-did-new-book-242839">"Angolan prince started campaign to end Atlantic slave trade long before Europeans did – new book"</a>. The Conversation. 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Angolan+prince+started+campaign+to+end+Atlantic+slave+trade+long+before+Europeans+did+%E2%80%93+new+book&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fangolan-prince-started-campaign-to-end-atlantic-slave-trade-long-before-europeans-did-new-book-242839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNafafe2022" class="citation book cs1">Nafafe, Jose Lingna (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/lourenco-da-silva-mendonca-and-the-black-atlantic-abolitionist-movement-in-the-seventeenth-century/lourenco-da-silva-mendonca-and-the-black-atlantic-abolitionist-movement-in-the-seventeenth-century/8D5F0B9097B131DD66ED53FB9C43F395">Lourenço da Silva Mendonça and the Black Atlantic Abolitionist Movement in the Seventeenth Century</a>. Cambridge Studies on the African Diaspora. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83823-8"><bdi>978-1-108-83823-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louren%C3%A7o+da+Silva+Mendon%C3%A7a+and+the+Black+Atlantic+Abolitionist+Movement+in+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+on+the+African+Diaspora&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-108-83823-8&rft.aulast=Nafafe&rft.aufirst=Jose+Lingna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Flourenco-da-silva-mendonca-and-the-black-atlantic-abolitionist-movement-in-the-seventeenth-century%2Flourenco-da-silva-mendonca-and-the-black-atlantic-abolitionist-movement-in-the-seventeenth-century%2F8D5F0B9097B131DD66ED53FB9C43F395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNafafe2022" class="citation book cs1">Nafafe, Joseph Lingna (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Uv_EAAAQBAJ">Lourenço Da Silva Mendonça and the Black Atlantic Abolitionist Movement in the Seventeenth Century</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10, 11–20, 21–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108976534" title="Special:BookSources/9781108976534"><bdi>9781108976534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louren%C3%A7o+Da+Silva+Mendon%C3%A7a+and+the+Black+Atlantic+Abolitionist+Movement+in+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E20%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781108976534&rft.aulast=Nafafe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Lingna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8Uv_EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/equiano_olaudah.shtml">"Olaudah Equiano (c.1745 - 1797)"</a>. 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Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Press" title="Beacon Press">Beacon Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epic+Journeys+of+Freedom%3A+Runaway+Slaves+of+the+American+Revolution+and+Their+Global+Quest+for+Liberty&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Pybus&rft.aufirst=Cassandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgesCookBrown1996" class="citation journal cs1">Hodges, Graham Russell; Cook, Susan Hawkes; Brown, Alan Edward (October 1996). "The Black Loyalist Directory: African Americans in Exile After the American Revolution". 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Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815? (Unpublished master's dissertation). London: <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a>. pp. 40–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Why+Did+Black+Londoners+not+join+the+Sierra+Leone+Resettlement+Scheme+1783%E2%80%931815%3F&rft.inst=Open+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Sivapragasam&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1992" class="citation book cs1">Walker, James W. (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk">The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870</a>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk/page/94">94</a>–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7402-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7402-7"><bdi>978-0-8020-7402-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Five%3A+Foundation+of+Sierra+Leone&rft.btitle=The+Black+Loyalists%3A+The+Search+for+a+Promised+Land+in+Nova+Scotia+and+Sierra+Leone%2C+1783%E2%80%931870&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=94-114&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-7402-7&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackloyalistsse0000walk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> Originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandley200621-442"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandley200621_442-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandley2006">Handley 2006</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-443"><a href="#cite_ref-443">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton1997" class="citation journal cs1">Egerton, Douglas R. (June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/421411/pdf">"Averting a Crisis: The Proslavery Critique of the American Colonization Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Civil_War_History" title="Civil War History">Civil War History</a>. 43 (2): 142–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1997.0099">10.1353/cwh.1997.0099</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143549872">143549872</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190724144305/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/421411/pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2019 – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=Averting+a+Crisis%3A+The+Proslavery+Critique+of+the+American+Colonization+Society&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.date=1997-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.1997.0099&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143549872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F421411%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hubbard-444"><a href="#cite_ref-Hubbard_444-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1834" class="citation news cs1">Murray, Orson S. (23 Jun 1834). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240728110759/https://www.newspapers.com/article/middlebury-free-press-1831-1837-coloniz/96901719/">"Jeremiah Hubbard's letter"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Middlebury_Free_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Middlebury Free Press (page does not exist)">Middlebury Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Middlebury,_Vermont" title="Middlebury, Vermont">Middlebury, Vermont</a>. p. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96901719/colonization-of-freed-slaves/">the original</a> on 28 July 2024 – via <a href="/wiki/Newspapers.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Newspapers.com">newspapers.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middlebury+Free+Press&rft.atitle=Jeremiah+Hubbard%27s+letter&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1834-06-23&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Orson+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F96901719%2Fcolonization-of-freed-slaves%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-445"><a href="#cite_ref-445">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesley1995" class="citation book cs1">Wesley, Dorothy Porter (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaUFeuToWhwC&pg=PA250">Early Negro Writing, 1760–1837</a>. Black Classic Press. p. 250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933121-59-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933121-59-1"><bdi>978-0-933121-59-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819151300/https://books.google.com/books?id=gaUFeuToWhwC&pg=PA250">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Negro+Writing%2C+1760%E2%80%931837&rft.pages=250&rft.pub=Black+Classic+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-933121-59-1&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+Porter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaUFeuToWhwC%26pg%3DPA250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-446"><a href="#cite_ref-446">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240205095013/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/rastafari/history/reggae.shtml">"Reggae and slavery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 9 October 2009. 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International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 26 (1): 57–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10767-013-9133-z">10.1007/s10767-013-9133-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42636435">42636435</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189952970">189952970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Politics%2C+Culture%2C+and+Society&rft.atitle=%22We+Have+Reconquered+the+Islands%22%3A+Figurations+in+Public+Memories+of+Slavery+and+Colonialism+in+Denmark+1948%E2%80%932012&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189952970%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42636435%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10767-013-9133-z&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Astrid+Nonbo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-450"><a href="#cite_ref-450">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408141716/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4662442.stm">"Chirac names slavery memorial day"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 30 January 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4662442.stm">the original</a> on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Chirac+names+slavery+memorial+day&rft.date=2006-01-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F4662442.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-451"><a href="#cite_ref-451">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240225210602/https://www.amsterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/college/burgemeester/speeches/toespraak-slavernijherdenking-2021/">"Toespraak slavernijherdenking 2021"</a> [Slavery commemoration speech 2021] (in Dutch). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amsterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/college/burgemeester/speeches/toespraak-slavernijherdenking-2021/">the original</a> on 25 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Toespraak+slavernijherdenking+2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amsterdam.nl%2Fbestuur-organisatie%2Fcollege%2Fburgemeester%2Fspeeches%2Ftoespraak-slavernijherdenking-2021%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-452"><a href="#cite_ref-452">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230712115543/https://www.dnb.nl/over-ons/slavernijverleden-dnb/excuses-voor-betrokkenheid-en-maatregelen/">"Excuses voor betrokkenheid en maatregelen"</a> [Apologies for involvement and measures] (in Dutch). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dnb.nl/over-ons/slavernijverleden-dnb/excuses-voor-betrokkenheid-en-maatregelen/">the original</a> on 12 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Excuses+voor+betrokkenheid+en+maatregelen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnb.nl%2Fover-ons%2Fslavernijverleden-dnb%2Fexcuses-voor-betrokkenheid-en-maatregelen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-453"><a href="#cite_ref-453">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenley2022" class="citation news cs1">Henley, Jon (19 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240224000453/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/19/dutch-pm-apologises-for-netherlands-role-in-slave-trade">"Dutch PM apologises for Netherlands' role in slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/19/dutch-pm-apologises-for-netherlands-role-in-slave-trade">the original</a> on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 16 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Dutch+PM+apologises+for+Netherlands%27+role+in+slave+trade&rft.date=2022-12-19&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Henley&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Fdec%2F19%2Fdutch-pm-apologises-for-netherlands-role-in-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240515203249/https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2022/12/19/government-apologises-for-the-netherlands-role-in-the-history-of-slavery">"Government apologises for the Netherlands' role in the history of slavery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Netherlands">Government of the Netherlands</a>. 19 December 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2022/12/19/government-apologises-for-the-netherlands-role-in-the-history-of-slavery">the original</a> on 15 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Government+of+the+Netherlands&rft.atitle=Government+apologises+for+the+Netherlands%27+role+in+the+history+of+slavery&rft.date=2022-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.government.nl%2Flatest%2Fnews%2F2022%2F12%2F19%2Fgovernment-apologises-for-the-netherlands-role-in-the-history-of-slavery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SmithGuardian-455"><a href="#cite_ref-SmithGuardian_455-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation news cs1">Smith, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240329020129/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/18/africans-apologise-slave-trade">"African chiefs urged to apologise for slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/18/africans-apologise-slave-trade">the original</a> on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 1 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=African+chiefs+urged+to+apologise+for+slave+trade&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2009%2Fnov%2F18%2Fafricans-apologise-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-456"><a href="#cite_ref-456">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929132116/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/transatlantic-slave-trade">"Liverpool and the transatlantic slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Museums_Liverpool" title="National Museums Liverpool">National Museums Liverpool</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/srd/liverpool.aspx">the original</a> on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museums+Liverpool&rft.atitle=Liverpool+and+the+transatlantic+slave+trade&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk%2Fism%2Fsrd%2Fliverpool.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-457"><a href="#cite_ref-457">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508233451/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6185176.stm">"Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 27 November 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6185176.stm">the original</a> on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Blair+%27sorrow%27+over+slave+trade&rft.date=2006-11-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fuk_politics%2F6185176.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-458"><a href="#cite_ref-458">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326085934/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6451793.stm">"Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 14 March 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6451793.stm">the original</a> on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Blair+%27sorry%27+for+UK+slavery+role&rft.date=2007-03-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fuk_politics%2F6451793.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-459"><a href="#cite_ref-459">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2007" class="citation news cs1">Muir, Hugh (24 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404134610/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2007/aug/24/london.humanrights">"Livingstone weeps as he apologises for slavery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2007/aug/24/london.humanrights">the original</a> on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Livingstone+weeps+as+he+apologises+for+slavery&rft.date=2007-08-24&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fpolitics%2F2007%2Faug%2F24%2Flondon.humanrights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-460"><a href="#cite_ref-460">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240131062908/https://apnews.com/article/england-london-ap-top-news-slavery-international-news-c2b6149374a9532a748fd9cf0fbcc8e4">"Bank of England says sorry for slave links as UK faces past"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AP_News" class="mw-redirect" title="AP News">AP News</a>. 19 June 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/england-london-ap-top-news-slavery-international-news-c2b6149374a9532a748fd9cf0fbcc8e4">the original</a> on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Bank+of+England+says+sorry+for+slave+links+as+UK+faces+past&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fengland-london-ap-top-news-slavery-international-news-c2b6149374a9532a748fd9cf0fbcc8e4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-461"><a href="#cite_ref-461">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolly2020" class="citation news cs1">Jolly, Jasper (18 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231107215914/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jun/18/bank-of-england-apologises-for-role-of-former-directors-in-slave-trade">"Bank of England apologises for role of former directors in slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jun/18/bank-of-england-apologises-for-role-of-former-directors-in-slave-trade">the original</a> on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Bank+of+England+apologises+for+role+of+former+directors+in+slave+trade&rft.date=2020-06-18&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Jolly&rft.aufirst=Jasper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbusiness%2F2020%2Fjun%2F18%2Fbank-of-england-apologises-for-role-of-former-directors-in-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230712111919/http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?071+ful+HJ728H2">"House Joint Resolution Number 728"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Commonwealth of Virginia</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?071+ful+HJ728H2">the original</a> on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commonwealth+of+Virginia&rft.atitle=House+Joint+Resolution+Number+728&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fleg1.state.va.us%2Fcgi-bin%2Flegp504.exe%3F071%2Bful%2BHJ728H2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-463"><a href="#cite_ref-463">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510080339/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna18961394">"Ala. governor signs bill apologizing for slavery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. 31 May 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna18961394">the original</a> on 10 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Ala.+governor+signs+bill+apologizing+for+slavery&rft.date=2007-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna18961394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-464"><a href="#cite_ref-464">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFears2008" class="citation news cs1">Fears, Darryl (30 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240218052756/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/29/AR2008072902279.html">"House Issues An Apology For Slavery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. p. A03. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/29/AR2008072902279.html">the original</a> on 18 February 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=House+Issues+An+Apology+For+Slavery&rft.pages=A03&rft.date=2008-07-30&rft.aulast=Fears&rft.aufirst=Darryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2008%2F07%2F29%2FAR2008072902279.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-465"><a href="#cite_ref-465">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090624144341/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iyMeHvk7WyJys7iAyehSzik11Yqg">"Obama praises 'historic' Senate slavery apology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Google_News" title="Google News">Google News</a>, 18 June 2009. Accessed 22 July 2009. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_bibliography">General bibliography</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Academic_books">Academic books</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAusten1987" class="citation book cs1">Austen, Ralph (1987). African Economic History: Internal Development and External Dependency. London: James Currey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-009-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-009-0"><bdi>978-0-85255-009-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Economic+History%3A+Internal+Development+and+External+Dependency&rft.place=London&rft.pub=James+Currey&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-85255-009-0&rft.aulast=Austen&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher2006" class="citation book cs1">Christopher, Emma (2006). Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730–1807. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-67966-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-67966-4"><bdi>0-521-67966-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+Ship+Sailors+and+Their+Captive+Cargoes%2C+1730%E2%80%931807&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-67966-4&rft.aulast=Christopher&rft.aufirst=Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHairLaw1998" class="citation book cs1">Hair, Paul; Law, Robin (1998). "The English in western Africa to 1700". In Nicholas Canny (ed.). Oxford History of the British Empire volume 1: The Origins of Empire. British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth century. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 241–263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-164734-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-164734-5"><bdi>978-0-19-164734-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+English+in+western+Africa+to+1700&rft.btitle=Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire+volume+1%3A+The+Origins+of+Empire.+British+Overseas+Enterprise+to+the+Close+of+the+Seventeenth+century&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E241-%3C%2Fspan%3E263&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-164734-5&rft.aulast=Hair&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Law%2C+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lovejoy" title="Paul Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Paul E.</a> (1983). Transformations in Slavery - A History of Slavery in Africa. African Studies. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78430-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78430-1"><bdi>0-521-78430-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+Slavery+-+A+History+of+Slavery+in+Africa&rft.series=African+Studies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-78430-1&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy2000" class="citation book cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: a history of slavery in Africa. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+Slavery%3A+a+history+of+slavery+in+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodney1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Rodney, Walter</a> (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle L'Ouverture. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9501546-4-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9501546-4-0"><bdi>978-0-9501546-4-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Europe+Underdeveloped+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bogle+L%27Ouverture&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-9501546-4-0&rft.aulast=Rodney&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (2006). <a href="/wiki/Rough_Crossings" title="Rough Crossings">Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053916-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053916-0"><bdi>978-0-06-053916-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rough+Crossings%3A+Britain%2C+the+Slaves+and+the+American+Revolution&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-06-053916-0&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparks2014" class="citation book cs1">Sparks, Randy J. (2014). Where the Negroes are masters: an African port in the era of the slave trade. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72487-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72487-7"><bdi>978-0-674-72487-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+the+Negroes+are+masters%3A+an+African+port+in+the+era+of+the+slave+trade&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72487-7&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Randy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">Thornton, John</a> (1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62217-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62217-2"><bdi>978-0-521-62217-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+and+Africans+in+the+Making+of+the+Atlantic+World%2C+1400%E2%80%931800&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62217-2&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Williams, Eric</a> (2021) [1944]. <a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Slavery" title="Capitalism and Slavery">Capitalism and Slavery</a> (Third ed.). Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6369-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-6369-2"><bdi>978-1-4696-6369-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Slavery&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-6369-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Academic_articles">Academic articles</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoruckiEltisWheat2015" class="citation journal cs1">Borucki, Alex; Eltis, David; Wheat, David (1 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619035246/https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf">"Atlantic History and the slave Trade to Spanish America"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>. 120 (2): 433–461. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F120.2.433">10.1093/ahr/120.2.433</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-5239">1937-5239</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Atlantic+History+and+the+slave+Trade+to+Spanish+America&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E433-%3C%2Fspan%3E461&rft.date=2015-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F120.2.433&rft.issn=1937-5239&rft.aulast=Borucki&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft.au=Eltis%2C+David&rft.au=Wheat%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.institutomora.edu.mx%2FDocumentos_RHITMO%2FAtlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandley2006" class="citation journal cs1">Handley, Fiona J. L. (2006). "Back to Africa: Issues of hosting 'Roots' tourism in West Africa". African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora. London: <a href="/wiki/University_College_London_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University College London Press">University College London Press</a>: 20–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Re-Genesis%3A+Confronting+Social+Issues+in+the+Diaspora&rft.atitle=Back+to+Africa%3A+Issues+of+hosting+%27Roots%27+tourism+in+West+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Handley&rft.aufirst=Fiona+J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ose06" class="citation journal cs1">Osei-Tutu, Brempong (2006). "Contested Monuments: African-Americans and the commoditization of Ghana's slave castles". African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora. London: UCL Press: 9–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Re-Genesis%3A+Confronting+Social+Issues+in+the+Diaspora&rft.atitle=Contested+Monuments%3A+African-Americans+and+the+commoditization+of+Ghana%27s+slave+castles&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Osei-Tutu%2C+Brempong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-academic_sources">Non-academic sources</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeredith2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Meredith" title="Martin Meredith">Meredith, Martin</a> (2014). The Fortunes of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-635-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-635-6"><bdi>978-1-61039-635-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fortunes+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61039-635-6&rft.aulast=Meredith&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnstey1975" class="citation book cs1">Anstey, Roger (1975). The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition, 1760–1810. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-14846-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-14846-0"><bdi>0-333-14846-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade+and+British+Abolition%2C+1760%E2%80%931810&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-333-14846-0&rft.aulast=Anstey&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAraujo2010" class="citation book cs1">Araujo, Ana Lucia (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kymzngEACAAJ">Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambria_Press" title="Cambria Press">Cambria Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-714-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-714-1"><bdi>978-1-60497-714-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Memory+of+Slavery%3A+Victims+and+Perpetrators+in+the+South+Atlantic&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60497-714-1&rft.aulast=Araujo&rft.aufirst=Ana+Lucia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkymzngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2006" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Anne (2006). African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Press" title="Beacon Press">Beacon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5513-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5513-7"><bdi>978-0-8070-5513-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Voices+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+Beyond+the+Silence+and+the+Shame&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-5513-7&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Blackburn" title="Robin Blackburn">Blackburn, Robin</a> (2011). The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation and Human Rights. London & New York: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-569-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-569-2"><bdi>978-1-84467-569-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Crucible%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation+and+Human+Rights&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84467-569-2&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorukiWheat2015" class="citation journal cs1">Boruki, David Eltis; Wheat, David (April 2015). "Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America". <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 120 (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Atlantic+History+and+the+Slave+Trade+to+Spanish+America&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2015-04&rft.aulast=Boruki&rft.aufirst=David+Eltis&rft.au=Wheat%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">Clarke, John Henrik</a> (1992). Christopher Columbus and the Afrikan Holocaust: Slavery and the Rise of European Capitalism. Brooklyn, NY: A & B Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-881316-14-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-881316-14-9"><bdi>1-881316-14-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christopher+Columbus+and+the+Afrikan+Holocaust%3A+Slavery+and+the+Rise+of+European+Capitalism&rft.place=Brooklyn%2C+NY&rft.pub=A+%26+B+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-881316-14-9&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=John+Henrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtin1969" class="citation book cs1">Curtin, Philip D. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlanticslavetra0000curt">The Atlantic Slave Trade</a>. Madison: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-05400-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-05400-7"><bdi>978-0-299-05400-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46413">46413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46413&rft.isbn=978-0-299-05400-7&rft.aulast=Curtin&rft.aufirst=Philip+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlanticslavetra0000curt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaudin2004" class="citation journal cs1">Daudin, Guillaume (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809134718/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf">"Profitability of Slave and Long-Distance Trading in Context: The Case of Eighteenth-Century France"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. 64 (1): 144–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050704002633">10.1017/S0022050704002633</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-6372">1471-6372</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154025254">154025254</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Profitability+of+Slave+and+Long-Distance+Trading+in+Context%3A+The+Case+of+Eighteenth-Century+France&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E171&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154025254%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1471-6372&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050704002633&rft.aulast=Daudin&rft.aufirst=Guillaume&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F8fbd%2F65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomingues_da_Silva2017" class="citation book cs1">Domingues da Silva, Daniel B. (2017). The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-17626-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-17626-3"><bdi>978-1-107-17626-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade+from+West+Central+Africa%2C+1780%E2%80%931867&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-17626-3&rft.aulast=Domingues+da+Silva&rft.aufirst=Daniel+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrescher1999" class="citation book cs1">Drescher, Seymour (1999). From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-73748-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-73748-2"><bdi>0-333-73748-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39897280">39897280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Slavery+to+Freedom%3A+Comparative+Studies+in+the+Rise+and+Fall+of+Atlantic+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39897280&rft.isbn=0-333-73748-2&rft.aulast=Drescher&rft.aufirst=Seymour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltis2001" class="citation journal cs1">Eltis, David (2001). 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William and Mary Quarterly. 58 (1): 17–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2674417">10.2307/2674417</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2674417">2674417</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18630381">18630381</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+volume+and+structure+of+the+transatlantic+slave+trade%3A+a+reassessment&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18630381&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2674417%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2674417&rft.aulast=Eltis&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltis2000" class="citation book cs1">Eltis, David (2000). The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521652315" title="Special:BookSources/9780521652315"><bdi>9780521652315</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+African+Slavery+in+the+Americas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780521652315&rft.aulast=Eltis&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltisRichardson2008" class="citation book cs1">Eltis, David; Richardson, David, eds. (2008). Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300134360" title="Special:BookSources/9780300134360"><bdi>9780300134360</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extending+the+Frontiers%3A+Essays+on+the+New+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade+Database&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780300134360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmer1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Emmer, Pieter C. (1998). The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Vol. CS614. Aldershot: Variorum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860786979" title="Special:BookSources/9780860786979"><bdi>9780860786979</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+in+the+Atlantic+Economy%2C+1580%E2%80%931880.+Trade%2C+Slavery+and+Emancipation&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.series=Variorum+Collected+Studies+Series&rft.pub=Variorum&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780860786979&rft.aulast=Emmer&rft.aufirst=Pieter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench2021" class="citation book cs1">French, Howard (2021). Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War. New York: Liveright Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-582-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-582-3"><bdi>978-1-63149-582-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1268921040">1268921040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Born+in+Blackness%3A+Africa%2C+Africans%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World%2C+1471+to+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Liveright+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1268921040&rft.isbn=978-1-63149-582-3&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2012" class="citation book cs1">Green, Toby (2012). The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107014367" title="Special:BookSources/9781107014367"><bdi>9781107014367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Trans-Atlantic+Slave+Trade+in+Western+Africa%2C+1300%E2%80%931589&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781107014367&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuasco2014" class="citation book cs1">Guasco, Michael (2014). Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812245783" title="Special:BookSources/9780812245783"><bdi>9780812245783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+and+Englishmen%3A+Human+Bondage+in+the+Early+Modern+Atlantic&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780812245783&rft.aulast=Guasco&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Midlo_Hall" title="Gwendolyn Midlo Hall">Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo</a> (2006). Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2973-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2973-0"><bdi>0-8078-2973-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+African+Ethnicities+in+the+Americas%3A+Restoring+the+Links&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8078-2973-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Gwendolyn+Midlo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeywoodThornton2007" class="citation book cs1">Heywood, Linda; Thornton, John K. (2007). Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Africans%2C+Atlantic+Creoles%2C+and+the+Foundation+of+the+Americas%2C+1585%E2%80%931660&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Thornton%2C+John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne2007" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Gerald (2007). The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade. 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(1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abvkqNGSTZ0C">The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-8237-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-8237-7"><bdi>0-8223-8237-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+Effects+on+Economies%2C+Societies+and+Peoples+in+Africa%2C+the+Americas%2C+and+Europe&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8223-8237-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DabvkqNGSTZ0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensenSimonsen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">"Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Journal_of_History" title="Scandinavian Journal of History">Scandinavian Journal of History</a>. 41 (4–5): 475–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+historiography+of+slavery+in+the+Danish-Norwegian+West+Indies%2C+c.+1950%E2%80%932016&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E475-%3C%2Fspan%3E494&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Niklas+Thode&rft.au=Simonsen%2C+Gunvor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03468755.2016.1210880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanders1984" class="citation journal cs1">Landers, Jane (1984). "Spanish Sanctuary: Fugitives in Florida, 1687–1790". Florida Historical Quarterly. 62 (3): 296–313. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30146288">30146288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Florida+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Spanish+Sanctuary%3A+Fugitives+in+Florida%2C+1687%E2%80%931790&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E296-%3C%2Fspan%3E313&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30146288%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Landers&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay2008" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, Lisa A. (2008). Captives as Commodities: The Transatlantic Slave Trade. <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-194215-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-194215-8"><bdi>978-0-13-194215-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captives+as+Commodities%3A+The+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-194215-8&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Lisa+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillin2004" class="citation book cs1">McMillin, James A. (2004). The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810. <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina_Press" title="University of South Carolina Press">University of South Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57003-546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57003-546-3"><bdi>978-1-57003-546-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Final+Victims%3A+Foreign+Slave+Trade+to+North+America%2C+1783%E2%80%931810&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57003-546-3&rft.aulast=McMillin&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"> – Includes database on CD-ROM.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeltzer1993" class="citation book cs1">Meltzer, Milton (1993). Slavery: A World History. New York: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80536-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80536-7"><bdi>0-306-80536-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery%3A+A+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-306-80536-7&rft.aulast=Meltzer&rft.aufirst=Milton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2008" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Christopher L. (2008). The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade. Durham, NC: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4127-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4127-7"><bdi>978-0-8223-4127-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Atlantic+Triangle%3A+Literature+and+Culture+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4127-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Christopher+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimakoWillemsen2011" class="citation book cs1">Nimako, Kwame; Willemsen, Glenn (2011). The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation. London: <a href="/wiki/Pluto_Press" title="Pluto Press">Pluto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-3108-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-3108-9"><bdi>978-0-7453-3108-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Atlantic%3A+Slavery%2C+Abolition+and+Emancipation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-3108-9&rft.aulast=Nimako&rft.aufirst=Kwame&rft.au=Willemsen%2C+Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewsonMinchin2007" class="citation book cs1">Newson, Linda; Minchin, Susie (2007). From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004156791" title="Special:BookSources/9789004156791"><bdi>9789004156791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Capture+to+Sale%3A+The+Portuguese+Slave+Trade+to+Spanish+South+America+in+the+Early+Seventeenth+Century&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789004156791&rft.aulast=Newson&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Minchin%2C+Susie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthrup2010" class="citation book cs1">Northrup, David, ed. (2010). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Independence, KY: Wadsworth Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-64356-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-64356-1"><bdi>978-0-618-64356-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.place=Independence%2C+KY&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-618-64356-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawleyBehrendt2005" class="citation book cs1">Rawley, James A.; Behrendt, Stephen D. (2005). The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (Rev. ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803239616" title="Special:BookSources/9780803239616"><bdi>9780803239616</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+A+History&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780803239616&rft.aulast=Rawley&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Behrendt%2C+Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRediker2008" class="citation book cs1">Rediker, Marcus (2008). The Slave Ship: A Human History. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311425-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311425-3"><bdi>978-0-14-311425-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Ship%3A+A+Human+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311425-3&rft.aulast=Rediker&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodney1981" class="citation book cs1">Rodney, Walter (1981). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Revised ed.). Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Howard_University_Press" title="Howard University Press">Howard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88258-096-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88258-096-5"><bdi>0-88258-096-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Europe+Underdeveloped+Africa&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Howard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-88258-096-5&rft.aulast=Rodney&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. (2007). Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World. Armonk, NY: <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1257-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1257-1"><bdi>978-0-7656-1257-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Emancipation+and+Abolition+in+the+Transatlantic+World&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-1257-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmallwood2008" class="citation book cs1">Smallwood, Stephanie E. (2008). Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03068-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03068-8"><bdi>978-0-674-03068-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saltwater+Slavery%3A+A+Middle+Passage+from+Africa+to+American+Diaspora&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03068-8&rft.aulast=Smallwood&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2015" class="citation journal cs1">Schultz, Kara (2015). "The Kingdom of Angola is not very far from here: The South Atlantic Slave Port of Buenos Aires, 1585–1640". Slavery & Abolition. 36 (3): 424–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039X.2015.1067397">10.1080/0144039X.2015.1067397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=The+Kingdom+of+Angola+is+not+very+far+from+here%3A+The+South+Atlantic+Slave+Port+of+Buenos+Aires%2C+1585%E2%80%931640&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E444&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039X.2015.1067397&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Kara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolow1991" class="citation book cs1">Solow, Barbara, ed. (1991). Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40090-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-40090-2"><bdi>0-521-40090-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Rise+of+the+Atlantic+System&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-521-40090-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh (1997). The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870. London: Picador. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-330-35437-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-330-35437-X"><bdi>0-330-35437-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade%3A+The+History+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade+1440%E2%80%931870&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Picador&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-330-35437-X&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheat2016" class="citation book cs1">Wheat, David (2016). Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640. Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469623412" title="Special:BookSources/9781469623412"><bdi>9781469623412</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlantic+Africa+and+the+Spanish+Caribbean%2C+1570%E2%80%931640&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781469623412&rft.aulast=Wheat&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheat2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wheat, David (March 2011). "The First Great Waves: African Provenance Zones for the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Cartagena de Indias". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of African History">Journal of African History</a>. 52 (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853711000119">10.1017/S0021853711000119</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23017646">23017646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+First+Great+Waves%3A+African+Provenance+Zones+for+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade+to+Cartagena+de+Indias&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853711000119&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23017646%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheat&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulter" class="citation web cs1">Poulter, Emma. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revealinghistories.org.uk/how-did-money-from-slavery-help-develop-greater-manchester/articles/slave-grown-cotton-in-greater-manchester-museums.html">"Slave-grown cotton in Greater Manchester museums"</a>. Revealing Histories, Remembering Slavery.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revealing+Histories%2C+Remembering+Slavery&rft.atitle=Slave-grown+cotton+in+Greater+Manchester+museums&rft.aulast=Poulter&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revealinghistories.org.uk%2Fhow-did-money-from-slavery-help-develop-greater-manchester%2Farticles%2Fslave-grown-cotton-in-greater-manchester-museums.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nga.gov/learn/teachers/lessons-activities/afro-atlantic-histories.html">"Afro Atlantic Histories resource"</a>. National Gallery of Art. Washington, DC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft.atitle=Afro+Atlantic+Histories+resource&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nga.gov%2Flearn%2Fteachers%2Flessons-activities%2Fafro-atlantic-histories.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtlantic+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#Q10701282" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6445941.stm">Quick guide: The slave trade</a> – <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackhistory4schools.com/slavetrade/">Slave Trade and Abolition of slavery</a> – Teaching resources at Black History 4 Schools</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612112047/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/HT857xA1/stamenu.html">British documents on slave holding and the slave trade, 1788–1793</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of African countries by GDP (nominal)">Countries by GDP (nominal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of African countries by GDP (PPP)">Countries by GDP (PPP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of African countries by Human Development Index">Countries by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Africans_by_net_worth" title="List of Africans by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_in_Africa" title="Infrastructure in Africa">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Africa" title="Internet in Africa">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_of_Africa" title="Natural resources of Africa">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Africa" title="Poverty in Africa">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stock_exchanges" title="List of African stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Africa" title="Abortion in Africa">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_Africa" title="Birth control in Africa">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_Africa" title="Etiquette in Africa">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_Africa" title="Category:Health in Africa">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Africa" title="Cinema of Africa">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Africa">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Africa" title="Sport in Africa">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Cricket_Association" title="Africa Cricket Association">Africa Cricket Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asian_Games" title="Afro-Asian Games">Afro-Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football_in_Africa" title="Australian rules football in Africa">Australian-rules football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_African_Football" title="Confederation of African Football">Confederation of African Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIBA_Africa" title="FIBA Africa">FIBA Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Africa" title="Rugby Africa">Rugby Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stadiums_by_capacity" title="List of African stadiums by capacity">Stadiums by capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_d%27Afrique" title="Tour d'Afrique">Tour d'Afrique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population" title="List of African countries by population">Countries by population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Africa" title="Emigration from Africa">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Africa" title="Lists of cities in Africa">cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_areas_in_Africa_by_population" title="List of urban areas in Africa by population">urban areas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Africa" title="Youth in Africa">Youth in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_Africa" title="Category:Years in Africa">By year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Africa" title="2005 in Africa">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Africa" title="2006 in Africa">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Africa" title="2007 in Africa">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2008_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2008 in Africa (page does not exist)">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2009_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2009 in Africa (page does not exist)">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2010_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2010 in Africa (page does not exist)">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2011_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2011 in Africa (page does not exist)">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2012_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2012 in Africa (page does not exist)">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2013_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2013 in Africa (page does not exist)">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2014_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2014 in Africa (page does not exist)">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2015_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2015 in Africa (page does not exist)">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Africa" title="2016 in Africa">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2017_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2017 in Africa (page does not exist)">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2018_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2018 in Africa (page does not exist)">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 in Africa (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2020_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2020 in Africa (page does not exist)">2020</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Africa" title="Outline of Africa">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States495" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template talk:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans629" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw Freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_Nebraska" title="African-American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_(state)" title="African Americans in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_jurists" title="List of African American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_firsts" title="Timeline of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gullah_people_topics158" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gullah_topics" title="Template talk:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gullah_people_topics158" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah people</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Film and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conrack" title="Conrack">Conrack</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_House_Divided:_Denmark_Vesey%27s_Rebellion" title="A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion">A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Soldier%27s_Story" title="A Soldier's Story">A Soldier's Story</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(1989_film)" title="Glory (1989 film)">Glory</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daughters_of_the_Dust" title="Daughters of the Dust">Daughters of the Dust</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_Gullah_Island" title="Gullah Gullah Island">Gullah Gullah Island</a> (1994–2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bruh_Rabbit_and_the_Tar_Baby_Girl" title="Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl">Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibration_Cooking" title="Vibration Cooking">Vibration Cooking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Religion and folklore</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Church_(African_American)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Church (African American)">Black church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boo_Hag" class="mw-redirect" title="Boo Hag">Boo Hag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Africans" title="Flying Africans">Flying Africans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(folk_magic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoodoo (folk magic)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cat_bone" title="Black cat bone">Black cat bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haint_blue" title="Haint blue">Haint blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_foot_powder" title="Hot foot powder">Hot foot powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Conqueror" title="John the Conqueror">John the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbit%27s_foot" title="Rabbit's foot">Rabbit's foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_shout" title="Ring shout">Ring shout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_and_Seventh_Books_of_Moses" title="Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses">Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Music and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_red_rice" title="Charleston red rice">Charleston red rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah/Geechee_Cultural_Heritage_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor">Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">Kumbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Row_the_Boat_Ashore" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Row the Boat Ashore">Michael Row the Boat Ashore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranky_Tanky" title="Ranky Tanky">Ranky Tanky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Hive/Exodus" title="Robot Hive/Exodus">Robot Hive/Exodus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/100px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/150px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/200px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1452" data-file-height="1161" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gullah_basket.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/100px-Gullah_basket.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/150px-Gullah_basket.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/200px-Gullah_basket.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3796" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">History topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilali_Document" title="Bilali Document">Bilali Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Landing" title="Igbo Landing">Igbo Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stono_Rebellion" title="Stono Rebellion">Stono Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daufuskie_Island" title="Daufuskie Island">Daufuskie Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulonia,_Georgia" title="Eulonia, Georgia">Eulonia, Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Isles_of_Georgia" title="Golden Isles of Georgia">Golden Isles of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapelo_Island" title="Sapelo Island">Sapelo Island</a> (protected site) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hog_Hammock,_Georgia" title="Hog Hammock, Georgia">Hog Hammock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">History of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Benin" title="History of Benin">History of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Republic of the Congo">History of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ghana" title="History of Ghana">History of Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of Guinea-Bissau">History of Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">History of Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History of Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Senegambia_Confederation" title="Senegambia Confederation">Senegambia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">History of Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">History of the Gambia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sierra_Leone" title="History of Sierra Leone">History of Sierra Leone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunce_Island" title="Bunce Island">Bunce Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baga_people" title="Baga people">Baga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jola_people" title="Jola people">Jola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissi_people" title="Kissi people">Kissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_people" title="Kpelle people">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limba_people_(Sierra_Leone)" title="Limba people (Sierra Leone)">Limba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susu_people" title="Susu people">Susu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temne_people" title="Temne people">Temne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_people" title="Vai people">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_people" title="Serer people">Serer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Laalaa" title="Serer-Laalaa">Laalaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Ndut_people" title="Serer-Ndut people">Ndut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niominka_people" title="Niominka people">Niominka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Noon" title="Serer-Noon">Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palor_people" title="Palor people">Palor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saafi_people" title="Saafi people">Saafi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toucouleur_people" title="Toucouleur people">Toucouleur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Gullah" title="Category:Gullah">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_British_people_topics237" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_British_topics" title="Template:Black British topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_British_topics" title="Template talk:Black British topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_British_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black British topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_British_people_topics237" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people" title="Black British people">Black British people</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people#History" title="Black British people">Black British history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_presence_in_London" title="History of African presence in London">First Africans in London</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMT_Empire_Windrush" title="HMT Empire Windrush">Empire Windrush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Windrush_scandal" title="Windrush scandal">Windrush scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_Bus_Boycott" title="Bristol Bus Boycott">Bristol Bus Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_Relations_Act_1965" title="Race Relations Act 1965">Race Relations Act 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Decline and legacy of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_British_history" title="Category:Black British history">Race riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people#Culture_and_community" title="Black British people">Black British culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_British_music" title="Category:Black British music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrobeats" title="Afrobeats">Afrobeats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroswing" title="Afroswing">Afroswing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britfunk" class="mw-redirect" title="Britfunk">Britfunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_rap" title="UK rap">British hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ska" title="Ska">Ska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_music_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Caribbean music in the United Kingdom">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lovers_rock" title="Lovers rock">Lovers rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime_music" title="Grime music">Grime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_garage" title="UK garage">UK garage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubstep" title="Dubstep">Dubstep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_music" title="Jungle music">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_and_bass" title="Drum and bass">Drum and bass</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Civic and economic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_and_Asian_Studies_Association" title="Black and Asian Studies Association">Black and Asian Studies Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Equity_Organisation" title="Black Equity Organisation">Black Equity Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Relief_of_the_Black_Poor" title="Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor">Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Police_Association_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Black Police Association (United Kingdom)">National Black Police Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Ethnic and national sub-divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_African-Caribbean_people" title="British African-Caribbean people">African-Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiguans_and_Barbudans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Antiguans and Barbudans in the United Kingdom">Antiguan and Barbudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_British" title="Barbadian British">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Jamaicans" title="British Jamaicans">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Guyanese in the United Kingdom">Guyanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montserratians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Montserratians in the United Kingdom">Montserratians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_British" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian British">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Congolese (Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the United Kingdom">Congolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ghanaians in the United Kingdom">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivorians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ivorians in the United Kingdom">Ivorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_migration_to_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenyan migration to the United Kingdom">Kenyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Nigerians" title="British Nigerians">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leoneans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sierra Leoneans in the United Kingdom">Sierra Leonean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tanzanians in the United Kingdom">Tanzanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_migration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ugandan migration to the United Kingdom">Ugandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabweans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom">Zimbabwean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Other Black">Other black groups</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicultural_London_English" title="Multicultural London English">Multicultural London English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people" title="Black British people">Black Britons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States163" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Template talk:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plantation_agriculture_in_the_Southeastern_United_States163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The plantation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_planter" title="Ancient planter">Ancient planter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">Plantation house</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cash crops</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">Hemp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">Indigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="House negro">House negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Slave health on plantations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li>Slave trade <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Slave_trade" title="Slavery in the United States">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregional_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Interregional slave trade">Interregional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other labor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping#United_States" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">Lists of plantations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Alabama" title="List of plantations in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plantations_in_Florida" title="Category:Plantations in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Leon_County,_Florida" title="Plantations of Leon County, Florida">Leon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of plantations in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Kentucky" title="List of plantations in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Louisiana" title="List of plantations in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Mississippi" title="List of plantations in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_North_Carolina" title="List of plantations in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_South_Carolina" title="List of plantations in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Virginia" title="List of plantations in Virginia">Virginia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_James_River_plantations" title="List of James River plantations">James River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_West_Virginia" title="List of plantations in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Piracy509" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pirates" title="Template:Pirates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pirates" title="Template talk:Pirates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pirates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Piracy509" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_period" title="Category:Piracy by period">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Ancient Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_21st_century" title="Piracy in the 21st century">21st century</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_piracy" title="2022 in piracy">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_piracy" title="2023 in piracy">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_piracy" title="2024 in piracy">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Types of pirate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_piracy" title="Albanian piracy">Albanian piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Turkish_piracy" title="Anglo-Turkish piracy">Anglo-Turkish piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates (corsairs)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corsairs_of_Algiers" title="Corsairs of Algiers">Algiers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Coast" title="Brethren of the Coast">Brethren of the Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">Buccaneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_pirate" title="Child pirate">Child pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossack pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)" title="Filibuster (military)">Filibusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_corsairs" title="French corsairs">French corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Moro pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narentines" title="Narentines">Narentines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_privateer" title="Confederate privateer">Confederate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_pirate" title="River pirate">River pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geuzen" title="Geuzen">Sea Beggars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Sea_Dogs" title="Elizabethan Sea Dogs">Sea Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawarij" title="Bawarij">Sindhi corsairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_pirate" title="Timber pirate">Timber pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushkuyniks" title="Ushkuyniks">Ushkuyniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uskoks" title="Uskoks">Uskoks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Atlantic_World" title="Piracy in the Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Piracy in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Lake_Nicaragua" title="Piracy on Lake Nicaragua">Lake Nicaragua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy off the coast of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_around_the_Horn_of_Africa" title="Piracy around the Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Somali Coast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_Indonesia" title="Piracy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Piracy in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Strait_of_Malacca" title="Piracy in the Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosy_Boraha" title="Nosy Boraha">Nosy Boraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other waters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Slavic_piracy" title="Baltic Slavic piracy">Baltic Slavic piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_on_Falcon_Lake" title="Piracy on Falcon Lake">Falcon Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_the_South_China_Coast" title="Pirates of the South China Coast">South China Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas" title="Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas">Sulu Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pirate_haven" title="Pirate haven">Pirate havens</a> and bases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barataria_Bay" title="Barataria Bay">Barataria Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Île Sainte-Marie">Île Sainte-Marie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertatia" title="Libertatia">Libertatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lundy" title="Lundy">Lundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Mamora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal" title="Port Royal">Port Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pirates" title="Republic of Pirates">Republic of Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Republic of Salé">Republic of Salé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustin,_Madagascar" title="Saint Augustin, Madagascar">Saint Augustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Malo" title="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortuga_(Haiti)" title="Tortuga (Haiti)">Tortuga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Major figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abduwali_Muse" title="Abduwali Muse">Abduwali Muse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abshir_Boyah" title="Abshir Boyah">Abshir Boyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Baldridge" title="Adam Baldridge">Adam Baldridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Samuel" title="Abraham Samuel">Abraham Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_and_Alfhild" title="Alf and Alfhild">Alfhild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hicks" title="Albert W. Hicks">Albert W. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bonny" title="Anne Bonny">Anne Bonny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Dieu-le-Veut" title="Anne Dieu-le-Veut">Anne Dieu-le-Veut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Faria" title="António de Faria">António de Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Exquemelin" title="Alexandre Exquemelin">Alexandre Exquemelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia I of Caria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Portugu%C3%AAs" title="Bartolomeu Português">Bartolomeu Português</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Bartholomew Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_de_Soto" title="Benito de Soto">Benito de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hornigold" title="Benjamin Hornigold">Benjamin Hornigold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Caesar_(pirate)" title="Black Caesar (pirate)">Black Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Blackbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bully_Hayes" title="Bully Hayes">Bully Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Qian" title="Cai Qian">Cai Qian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calico_Jack" title="Calico Jack">Calico Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibbs" title="Charles Gibbs">Charles Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai" title="Cheung Po Tsai">Cheung Po Tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_Anna_Skytte" title="Christina Anna Skytte">Christina Anna Skytte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chui_A-poo" title="Chui A-poo">Chui A-poo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Seavey" title="Dan Seavey">Dan Seavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabolito" title="Diabolito">Diabolito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirk_Chivers" title="Dirk Chivers">Dirk Chivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_You" title="Dominique You">Dominique You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_England" title="Edward England">Edward England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Low" title="Edward Low">Edward Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Boggs" title="Eli Boggs">Eli Boggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elise_Eskilsdotter" title="Elise Eskilsdotter">Elise Eskilsdotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_the_Monk" title="Eustace the Monk">Eustace the Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_Burn" title="Flora Burn">Flora Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Gang" title="Flying Gang">Flying Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C5%ABma_Kotar%C5%8D" title="Fūma Kotarō">Fūma Kotarō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Clerc" title="François Le Clerc">François Le Clerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_l%27Olonnais" title="François l'Olonnais">François l'Olonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ning" title="Gan Ning">Gan Ning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_O%27Malley" title="Grace O'Malley">Grace O'Malley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Lucifer" title="Hendrick Lucifer">Hendrick Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Caesar" title="Henri Caesar">Henri Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Every" title="Henry Every">Henry Every</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan" title="Henry Morgan">Henry Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Strangways_(pirate)" title="Henry Strangways (pirate)">Henry Strangways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Bouchard" title="Hippolyte Bouchard">Hippolyte Bouchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Bamei" title="Huang Bamei">Huang Bamei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Hands" title="Israel Hands">Israel Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Janszoon" title="Jan Janszoon">Jan Janszoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte" title="Jean Lafitte">Jean Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">Jeanne de Clisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanna_H%C3%A5rd" title="Johanna Hård">Johanna Hård</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hoar" title="John Hoar">John Hoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Newland_Maffitt_(privateer)" title="John Newland Maffitt (privateer)">John Newland Maffitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pro" title="John Pro">John Pro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Jørgen Jørgensen">Jørgen Jørgensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaquim_Almeida" title="José Joaquim Almeida">José Joaquim Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Baker_(pirate)" title="Joseph Baker (pirate)">Joseph Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barss" title="Joseph Barss">Joseph Barss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_St%C3%B6rtebeker" title="Klaus Störtebeker">Klaus Störtebeker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Choi_San" title="Lai Choi San">Lai Choi San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurens_de_Graaf" title="Laurens de Graaf">Laurens de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Prince" title="Lawrence Prince">Lawrence Prince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Daoming" title="Liang Daoming">Liang Daoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limahong" title="Limahong">Limahong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Hon-cho" title="Lo Hon-cho">Lo Hon-cho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_Aury" title="Louis-Michel Aury">Louis-Michel Aury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansel_Alcantra" title="Mansel Alcantra">Mansel Alcantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ribeiro_Pardal" title="Manuel Ribeiro Pardal">Manuel Ribeiro Pardal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Martin Frobisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cobham_and_Maria_Lindsey" title="Eric Cobham and Maria Lindsey">Mary Lindsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Read" title="Mary Read">Mary Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wolverston" title="Mary Wolverston">Mary Wolverston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Grammont" title="Michel de Grammont">Michel de Grammont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Cohen_Henriques" title="Moses Cohen Henriques">Moses Cohen Henriques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gordon" title="Nathaniel Gordon">Nathaniel Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_van_Hoorn" title="Nicholas van Hoorn">Nicholas van Hoorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng_Akew" title="Ng Akew">Ng Akew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Levasseur" title="Olivier Levasseur">Olivier Levasseur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Gilbert" title="Pedro Gilbert">Pedro Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Easton" title="Peter Easton">Peter Easton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lafitte" title="Pierre Lafitte">Pierre Lafitte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piet_Pieterszoon_Hein" title="Piet Pieterszoon Hein">Piet Pieterszoon Hein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Sela" title="Princess Sela">Princess Sela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahmah_ibn_Jabir_al-Jalhami" title="Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami">Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Wall" title="Rachel Wall">Rachel Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oru%C3%A7_Reis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oruç Reis">Redbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Glover_(pirate)" title="Richard Glover (pirate)">Richard Glover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Culliford" title="Robert Culliford">Robert Culliford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Surcouf" title="Robert Surcouf">Robert Surcouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Cofres%C3%AD" title="Roberto Cofresí">Roberto Cofresí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roche_Braziliano" title="Roche Braziliano">Roche Braziliano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusla" title="Rusla">Rusla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadie_Farrell" title="Sadie Farrell">Sadie Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Bellamy" title="Samuel Bellamy">Samuel Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hall_Lord" title="Samuel Hall Lord">Samuel Hall Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mason" title="Samuel Mason">Samuel Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pallache" title="Samuel Pallache">Samuel Pallache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyida_al_Hurra" title="Sayyida al Hurra">Sayyida al Hurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_Ping" title="Sister Ping">Sister Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shap-ng-tsai" title="Shap-ng-tsai">Shap-ng-tsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirahama_Kenki" title="Shirahama Kenki">Shirahama Kenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mascarino" title="Simon Mascarino">Simon Mascarino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stede_Bonnet" title="Stede Bonnet">Stede Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuta" title="Teuta">Teuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish" title="Thomas Cavendish">Thomas Cavendish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tew" title="Thomas Tew">Thomas Tew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veborg" title="Veborg">Veborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victual_Brothers" title="Victual Brothers">Victual Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gambi" title="Vincenzo Gambi">Vincenzo Gambi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhi_(pirate)" title="Wang Zhi (pirate)">Wang Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kidd" title="William Kidd">William Kidd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Jing" title="Zheng Jing">Zheng Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Qi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Qi (pirate)">Zheng Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_(pirate)" title="Zheng Yi (pirate)">Zheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yi_Sao" title="Zheng Yi Sao">Zheng Yi Sao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pirate hunters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angelo_Emo" title="Angelo Emo">Angelo Emo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaloner_Ogle" title="Chaloner Ogle">Chaloner Ogle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Porter_(naval_officer)" title="David Porter (naval officer)">David Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira" title="Duarte Pacheco Pereira">Duarte Pacheco Pereira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brooke" title="James Brooke">James Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campuzano_Polanco_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Campuzano Polanco family">Jose Campuzano-Polanco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_(Spanish_Navy_officer)" title="Luis Fajardo (Spanish Navy officer)">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Enr%C3%ADquez_(privateer)" title="Miguel Enríquez (privateer)">Miguel Enríquez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avery_Hornsby" title="Richard Avery Hornsby">Richard Avery Hornsby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard" title="Robert Maynard">Robert Maynard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warren_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Thomas Warren (Royal Navy officer)">Thomas Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodes_Rogers" title="Woodes Rogers">Woodes Rogers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate ships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_Galley" title="Adventure Galley">Adventure Galley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Ambrose Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fancy_(ship)" title="Fancy (ship)">Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Dutchman" title="Flying Dutchman">Flying Dutchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Ganj-i-Sawai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quedagh_Merchant" title="Quedagh Merchant">Quedagh Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSS_McRae" title="CSS McRae">Marquis of Havana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_de_Clisson" title="Jeanne de Clisson">My Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Roberts" title="Bartholomew Roberts">Royal Fortune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_(barque)" title="Saladin (barque)">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_York" title="MV York">York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Pirate battles and incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pirate_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/100px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/150px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pirate_Flag.svg/200px-Pirate_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1582_Cagayan_battles" title="1582 Cagayan battles">1582 Cagayan battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Lahad_Datu_ambush" title="1985 Lahad Datu ambush">1985 Lahad Datu ambush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_9_November_1822" title="Action of 9 November 1822">Action of 9 November 1822</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_28_October_2007" title="Action of 28 October 2007">Action of 28 October 2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_11_November_2008" title="Action of 11 November 2008">Action of 11 November 2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2009_raid_off_Somalia" title="April 2009 raid off Somalia">Action of 9 April 2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_23_March_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 23 March 2010">Action of 23 March 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_1_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 1 April 2010">Action of 1 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_5_April_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Action of 5 April 2010">Action of 5 April 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="Aegean Sea anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the Aegean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_of_Boston" title="Antelope of Boston">Antelope incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_anti-piracy_operations_of_the_United_States" title="West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States">Anti-piracy in the West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Veracruz" title="Attack on Veracruz">Attack on Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boca_Teacapan" title="Battle of Boca Teacapan">Battle of Boca Teacapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Fear_River_(1718)" title="Battle of Cape Fear River (1718)">Battle of Cape Fear River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Lopez" title="Battle of Cape Lopez">Battle of Cape Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Doro_Passage" title="Battle of Doro Passage">Battle of Doro Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganj-i-Sawai" title="Ganj-i-Sawai">Battle of Mandab Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1574)" title="Battle of Manila (1574)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Minicoy_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle off Minicoy Island">Battle off Minicoy Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Mukah" title="Battle off Mukah">Battle off Mukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nam_Quan" title="Battle of Nam Quan">Battle of Nam Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Battle of Ocracoke Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pianosa" title="Battle of Pianosa">Battle of Pianosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Leotung" title="Battle of the Leotung">Battle of the Leotung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tiger%27s_Mouth" title="Battle of the Tiger's Mouth">Battle of the Tiger's Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tonkin_River" title="Battle of Tonkin River">Battle of Tonkin River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ty-ho_Bay" title="Battle of Ty-ho Bay">Battle of Ty-ho Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tysami" title="Battle of Tysami">Battle of Tysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Beluga_Nomination_incident" title="MV Beluga Nomination incident">Beluga Nomination incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Vane" title="Charles Vane">Blockade of Charleston (Vane)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepo_expedition" title="Chepo expedition">Chepo Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Light_(ship)" title="Ambrose Light (ship)">Capture of the Ambrose Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_John_%22Calico_Jack%22_Rackham" title="Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham">Capture of John "Calico Jack" Rackham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Bravo" title="Capture of the schooner Bravo">Capture of the schooner Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_schooner_Fancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of the schooner Fancy">Capture of the schooner Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_sloop_Anne" title="Capture of the sloop Anne">Capture of the sloop Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carr%C3%A9_d%27As_IV_incident" title="Carré d'As IV incident">Carré d'As IV incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Hong_Dan_incident" title="Dai Hong Dan incident">Dai Hong Dan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_Expedition" title="Falklands Expedition">Falklands Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Patrol" title="Great Lakes Patrol">Great Lakes Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_incident" title="Irene incident">Irene incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiajing_wokou_raids" title="Jiajing wokou raids">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maersk_Alabama_hijacking" title="Maersk Alabama hijacking">Maersk Alabama hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Zafirah_hijacking" title="MT Zafirah hijacking">MT Zafirah hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_Orkim_Harmony_hijacking" title="MT Orkim Harmony hijacking">MT Orkim Harmony hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_Moscow_University_hijacking" title="MV Moscow University hijacking">MV Moscow University hijacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Star_affair" title="North Star affair">North Star affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_%E2%80%93_Horn_of_Africa" title="Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa">Operation Enduring Freedom – HOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Atalanta" title="Operation Atalanta">Operation Atalanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dawn_8:_Gulf_of_Aden" title="Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden">Operation Dawn 8: Gulf of Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ocean_Shield" title="Operation Ocean Shield">Operation Ocean Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1809" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1809">Persian Gulf Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_border_attacks_in_Sabah" title="Cross border attacks in Sabah">Pirate attacks in Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SY_Quest_incident" title="SY Quest incident">Quest incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Cartagena_(1683)" title="Raid on Cartagena (1683)">Raid on Cartagena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Campeche_(1663)" title="Sack of Campeche (1663)">Sack of Campeche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Pirates" title="Salvador Pirates">Salvador Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Piracy law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_grace_(piracy)" title="Acts of grace (piracy)">Acts of grace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1717%E2%80%931718_Acts_of_Grace" title="1717–1718 Acts of Grace">1717–1718 Acts of Grace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_piracy_law" title="International piracy law">International piracy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Declaration_Respecting_Maritime_Law" title="Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law">Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act" title="Piracy Act">Piracy Act</a> (<a href="/wiki/Offences_at_Sea_Act_1536" title="Offences at Sea Act 1536">1536</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1698" title="Piracy Act 1698">1698</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">1717</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1721" title="Piracy Act 1721">1721</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1837" title="Piracy Act 1837">1837</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy_Act_1850" title="Piracy Act 1850">1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_Law_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy Law of 1820">Piracy Law of 1820</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trade</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">African slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amistad" title="La Amistad">Amistad Incident</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Veloz_Passagera" title="Capture of the Veloz Passagera">Capture of the Veloz Passagera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_brig_Brillante" title="Capture of the brig Brillante">Capture of the brig Brillante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pirates_in_the_arts_and_popular_culture" title="Pirates in the arts and popular culture">Pirates in popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_pirates" title="List of fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Askeladd" title="Askeladd">Askeladd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Ayrton" title="Tom Ayrton">Tom Ayrton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbeard_(comics)" title="Redbeard (comics)">Barbe Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Birdseye" title="Captain Birdseye">Captain Birdseye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Blood_(novel)" title="Captain Blood (novel)">Captain Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldland" title="McDonaldland">Captain Crook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Flint" title="Captain Flint">Captain Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Hook" title="Captain Hook">Captain Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Nemo" title="Captain Nemo">Captain Nemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Pugwash" title="Captain Pugwash">Captain Pugwash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Sabertooth" title="Captain Sabertooth">Captain Sabertooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Stingaree" title="Captain Stingaree">Captain Stingaree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_de_Berry" title="Charlotte de Berry">Charlotte de Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones_(Pirates_of_the_Caribbean)" title="Davy Jones (Pirates of the Caribbean)">Davy Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Kenway" title="Edward Kenway">Edward Kenway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Marley" title="Elaine Marley">Elaine Marley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Swann" title="Elizabeth Swann">Elizabeth Swann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franky_(One_Piece)" title="Franky (One Piece)">Franky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybrush_Threepwood" title="Guybrush Threepwood">Guybrush Threepwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Barbossa" title="Hector Barbossa">Hector Barbossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sparrow" title="Jack Sparrow">Jack Sparrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquotte_Delahaye" title="Jacquotte Delahaye">Jacquotte Delahaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gaspar" title="José Gaspar">José Gaspar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshamee_Gibbs" title="Joshamee Gibbs">Joshamee Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver" title="Long John Silver">Long John Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_D._Luffy" title="Monkey D. Luffy">Monkey D. Luffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaas_Montenegro" title="Vaas Montenegro">Vaas Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mr._Smee" title="Mr. Smee">Mr. Smee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nami_(One_Piece)" title="Nami (One Piece)">Nami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nico_Robin" title="Nico Robin">Nico Robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roronoa_Zoro" title="Roronoa Zoro">Roronoa Zoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandokan" title="Sandokan">Sandokan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanji_(One_Piece)" title="Sanji (One Piece)">Sanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Tony_Chopper" title="Tony Tony Chopper">Tony Tony Chopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usopp" title="Usopp">Usopp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Turner" title="Will Turner">Will Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_(G.I._Joe)" title="Zanzibar (G.I. Joe)">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Novels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_(novel)" title="The Pirate (novel)">The Pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pilot:_A_Tale_of_the_Sea" title="The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea">The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facing_the_Flag" title="Facing the Flag">Facing the Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Stranger_Tides" title="On Stranger Tides">On Stranger Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Hawkins_and_the_Curse_of_Treasure_Island" title="Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island">Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castaways_of_the_Flying_Dutchman" title="Castaways of the Flying Dutchman">Castaways of the Flying Dutchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Angel%27s_Command" title="The Angel's Command">The Angel's Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_Slaves" title="Voyage of Slaves">Voyage of Slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_John_Silver_(comics)" title="Long John Silver (comics)">Long John Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Latitudes" title="Pirate Latitudes">Pirate Latitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistress_of_the_Seas" title="Mistress of the Seas">Mistress of the Seas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_(Motion_novel)" title="Silver (Motion novel)">Silver: Return to Treasure Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tropes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buried_treasure" title="Buried treasure">Buried treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davy_Jones%27s_locker" title="Davy Jones's locker">Davy Jones's locker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyepatch" title="Eyepatch">Eyepatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolly_Roger" title="Jolly Roger">Jolly Roger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skull_and_crossbones_(symbol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skull and crossbones (symbol)">skull and crossbones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keelhauling" title="Keelhauling">Keelhauling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marooning" title="Marooning">Marooning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_purchase,_no_pay" title="No purchase, no pay">No purchase, no pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegleg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegleg">Pegleg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_parrot" title="Companion parrot">Pet parrot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_code" title="Pirate code">Pirate code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_utopia" title="Pirate utopia">Pirate utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_map" title="Treasure map">Treasure map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_the_plank" title="Walking the plank">Walking the plank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pirate" title="Air pirate">Air pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_pirates" title="List of space pirates">Space pirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Talk_Like_a_Pirate_Day" title="International Talk Like a Pirate Day">International Talk Like a Pirate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirates_versus_Ninjas" title="Pirates versus Ninjas">Pirates versus Ninjas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_General_History_of_the_Pyrates" title="A General History of the Pyrates">A General History of the Pyrates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Charles_Johnson" title="Captain Charles Johnson">Captain Charles Johnson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Ratisbon" title="Truce of Ratisbon">Truce of Ratisbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Round" title="Pirate Round">Pirate Round</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matelotage" title="Matelotage">Matelotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_kidnappings" title="Piracy kidnappings">Piracy kidnappings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Meta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirates" title="List of pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pirate_films_and_television_series" title="List of pirate films and television series">Pirate films and TV series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_privateers" title="List of privateers">Privateers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_attacked_by_Somali_pirates" title="List of ships attacked by Somali pirates">List of ships attacked by Somali pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_piracy" title="Timeline of piracy">Timeline of piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Women in piracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Barbary_pirates" class="mw-disambig" title="Category:Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates_by_nationality" title="Category:Pirates by nationality">By nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_pirates" title="Category:Female pirates">Female pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fictional_pirates" title="Category:Fictional pirates">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy_by_year" title="Category:Piracy by year">Piracy by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pirates" title="Category:Pirates">Pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/29px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/44px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/58px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Piracy" title="Portal:Piracy">Piracy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Piracy" title="Category:Piracy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dominican_Republic_articles671" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dominican_Republic_topics" title="Template:Dominican Republic topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dominican_Republic_topics" title="Template talk:Dominican Republic topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dominican_Republic_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dominican Republic topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dominican_Republic_articles671" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Dominican Republic">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdoms_of_Hispaniola" title="Chiefdoms of Hispaniola">Cacicazgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Santo_Domingo" title="List of colonial governors of Santo Domingo">Colonial governors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devastations_of_Osorio" title="Devastations of Osorio">Devastations of Osorio</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maroons#Dominican_Republic" title="Maroons">Maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Era de Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Spanish reconquest of Santo Domingo">Spanish reconquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espa%C3%B1a_Boba" title="España Boba">España Boba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Spanish_Haiti" title="Republic of Spanish Haiti">Spanish Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Hispaniola" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification of Hispaniola">Unification of Hispaniola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Trinitaria_(Dominican_Republic)" title="La Trinitaria (Dominican Republic)">La Trinitaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_War_of_Independence" title="Dominican War of Independence">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish occupation of the Dominican Republic">Spanish occupation 1861–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Restoration_War" title="Dominican Restoration War">Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">U.S. occupation 1916–1924</a></li> <li>Trujillo Era (<a href="/wiki/Rafael_Trujillo" title="Rafael Trujillo">Rafael</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Trujillo" title="Héctor Trujillo">Héctor Trujillo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DOMREP" title="DOMREP">DOMREP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="336" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Geography of the Dominican Republic">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic%E2%80%93Haiti_border" title="Dominican Republic–Haiti border">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of cities in the Dominican Republic">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Colonial_(Santo_Domingo)" title="Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)">Ciudad Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of islands of the Dominican Republic">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_peaks_of_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain peaks of the Caribbean">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of municipalities of the Dominican Republic">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of national parks of the Dominican Republic">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Provinces of the Dominican Republic">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_Regions_of_the_Dominican_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geographic Regions of the Dominican Republic (page does not exist)">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of rivers of the Dominican Republic">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fauna_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Category:Fauna of the Dominican Republic">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Politics of the Dominican Republic">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Cabinet of the Dominican Republic">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Congress of the Dominican Republic">Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Senate of the Dominican Republic">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Dominican_Republic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies (Dominican Republic)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Constitution of the Dominican Republic">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Elections in the Dominican Republic">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Category:Human rights in the Dominican Republic">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="LGBTQ rights in the Dominican Republic">LGBTQ rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Law of the Dominican Republic">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_National_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican National Police">enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Dominican Republic">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Politics of the Dominican Republic">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of political parties in the Dominican Republic">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the Dominican Republic">President</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Economy of the Dominican Republic">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_peso" title="Dominican peso">Peso (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of banks in the Dominican Republic">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Central Bank of the Dominican Republic">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="List of companies of the Dominican Republic">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Electricity sector in the Dominican Republic">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Tourism in the Dominican Republic">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Transport in the Dominican Republic">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Category:Society of the Dominican Republic">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Crime in the Dominican Republic">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Demographics of the Dominican Republic">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Category:Health in the Dominican Republic">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Spanish" title="Dominican Spanish">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Public holidays in the Dominican Republic">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Dominican Republic">Water and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Culture of the Dominican Republic">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="National Anthem of the Dominican Republic">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_art" title="Dominican art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dominican_Republic_films" title="List of Dominican Republic films">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic_cuisine" title="Dominican Republic cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Flag of the Dominican Republic">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic_literature" title="Dominican Republic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Music of the Dominican Republic">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="People of the Dominican Republic">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="LGBTQ people in the Dominican Republic">LGBTQ people</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in the Dominican Republic">Sports</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Outline of the Dominican Republic">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Dominican_Republic%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Dominican Republic–related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dominican_Republic" title="Category:Dominican Republic">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Dominican_Republic" title="Portal:Dominican Republic">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_narratives215" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slave_narrative" title="Template talk:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_narratives215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narratives</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individuals by continent of enslavement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sailor)" title="Robert Adams (sailor)">Robert Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Berg_(writer)" title="Marcus Berg (writer)">Marcus Berg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bok" title="Francis Bok">Francis Bok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Brassard" title="Isaac Brassard">Isaac Brassard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Caronni" title="Felice Caronni">Felice Caronni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Leander_Cathcart" title="James Leander Cathcart">James Leander Cathcart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93lafur_Egilsson" title="Ólafur Egilsson">Ólafur Egilsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Kilekwa" title="Petro Kilekwa">Petro Kilekwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Marsh" title="Elizabeth Marsh">Elizabeth Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Nazer" title="Mende Nazer">Mende Nazer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hark_Olufs" title="Hark Olufs">Hark Olufs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pellow" title="Thomas Pellow">Thomas Pellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitts_(author)" title="Joseph Pitts (author)">Joseph Pitts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Qaurtier" title="Antoine Qaurtier">Antoine Qaurtier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0r%C3%AD%C3%B0ur_S%C3%ADmonard%C3%B3ttir" title="Guðríður Símonardóttir">Guðríður Símonardóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_ter_Meetelen" title="Maria ter Meetelen">Maria ter Meetelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Matth%C3%A4us_Wolfgang" title="Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang">Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Wolffgang" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Georg Wolffgang">Johann Georg Wolffgang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigitta_Scherzenfeldt" title="Brigitta Scherzenfeldt">Brigitta Scherzenfeldt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunzio_Otello_Francesco_Gioacchino" title="Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino">Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukawsaw_Gronniosaw" title="Ukawsaw Gronniosaw">Ukawsaw Gronniosaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macuncuzade_Mustafa_Efendi" title="Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi">Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Marteilhe" title="Jean Marteilhe">Jean Marteilhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roustam_Raza" title="Roustam Raza">Roustam Raza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovisa_von_Burghausen" title="Lovisa von Burghausen">Lovisa von Burghausen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Ottoman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_of_Hungary" title="George of Hungary">George of Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Mihailovi%C4%87" title="Konstantin Mihailović">Konstantin Mihailović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Schiltberger" title="Johann Schiltberger">Johann Schiltberger</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav_z_Mitrovic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic (page does not exist)">Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic</a> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav_z_Mitrovic" class="extiw" title="cs:Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic">cs</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America: Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Ang%C3%A9lique" title="Marie-Joseph Angélique">Marie-Joseph Angélique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Jewitt" title="John R. Jewitt">John R. Jewitt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America: Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Manzano" title="Juan Francisco Manzano">Juan Francisco Manzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esteban_Montejo" title="Esteban Montejo">Esteban Montejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Prince" title="Mary Prince">Mary Prince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcos_Xiorro" title="Marcos Xiorro">Marcos Xiorro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America: United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aleckson" title="Sam Aleckson">Sam Aleckson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Anderson" title="Jordan Anderson">Jordan Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Anderson" title="William J. Anderson">William J. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Maurice_Arter" title="Jared Maurice Arter">Jared Maurice Arter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Bayley" title="Solomon Bayley">Solomon Bayley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polly_Berry" title="Polly Berry">Polly Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bibb" title="Henry Bibb">Henry Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Black" title="Leonard Black">Leonard Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown" title="Henry Box Brown">Henry "Box" Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(fugitive_slave)" title="John Brown (fugitive slave)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Bruner" title="Peter Bruner">Peter Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_and_William_Craft" title="Ellen and William Craft">Ellen and William Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Crafts" title="Hannah Crafts">Hannah Crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Davis" title="Lucinda Davis">Lucinda Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Davis_(Baptist_minister)" title="Noah Davis (Baptist minister)">Noah Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_A._Delaney" title="Lucy A. Delaney">Lucy A. Delaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo" title="Ayuba Suleiman Diallo">Ayuba Suleiman Diallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Drumgoold" title="Kate Drumgoold">Kate Drumgoold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Winston_Early" title="Jordan Winston Early">Jordan Winston Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Jane_Woodson_Early" title="Sarah Jane Woodson Early">Sarah Jane Woodson Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fossett" title="Peter Fossett">Peter Fossett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_George_(Baptist)" title="David George (Baptist)">David George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Grandy" title="Moses Grandy">Moses Grandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lear_Green" title="Lear Green">Lear Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Green_(former_slave)" title="William Green (former slave)">William Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grimes_(former_slave)" title="William Grimes (former slave)">William Grimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Henson" title="Josiah Henson">Josiah Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Hughes" title="Fountain Hughes">Fountain Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Jackson" title="John Andrew Jackson">John Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_James_(minister)" title="Thomas James (minister)">Thomas James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jea" title="John Jea">John Jea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(abolitionist)" title="Paul Jennings (abolitionist)">Paul Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Keckley" title="Elizabeth Keckley">Elizabeth Keckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_King" title="Boston King">Boston King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunsford_Lane" title="Lunsford Lane">Lunsford Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Vance_Lewis" title="J. Vance Lewis">J. Vance Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jermain_Wesley_Loguen" title="Jermain Wesley Loguen">Jermain Wesley Loguen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mars" title="James Mars">James Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensbury_Washington_Offley" title="Greensbury Washington Offley">Greensbury Washington Offley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="John Parker (abolitionist)">John Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="William Parker (abolitionist)">William Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robinson_(soldier,_born_1753)" title="James Robinson (soldier, born 1753)">James Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Roper" title="Moses Roper">Moses Roper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_ibn_Said" title="Omar ibn Said">Omar ibn Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Singleton" title="William Henry Singleton">William Henry Singleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lindsay_Smith" title="James Lindsay Smith">James Lindsay Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_Smith" title="Venture Smith">Venture Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_Steward" title="Austin Steward">Austin Steward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Turnage" title="Wallace Turnage">Wallace Turnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethany_Veney" title="Bethany Veney">Bethany Veney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Willis" title="Wallace Willis">Wallace Willis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_E._Wilson" title="Harriet E. Wilson">Harriet E. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamba_Zembola" title="Zamba Zembola">Zamba Zembola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahommah_Gardo_Baquaqua" title="Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua">Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Bur%C3%ADa" title="Miguel de Buría">Miguel de Buría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osifekunde" title="Osifekunde">Osifekunde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Interesting_Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Olaudah_Equiano" title="The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano">The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Narrative_of_Robert_Adams" title="The Narrative of Robert Adams">The Narrative of Robert Adams</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_as_It_Is" title="American Slavery as It Is">American Slavery as It Is</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a> (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Josiah_Henson,_Formerly_a_Slave,_Now_an_Inhabitant_of_Canada,_as_Narrated_by_Himself" title="The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself">The Life of Josiah Henson</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years_a_Slave" title="Twelve Years a Slave">Twelve Years a Slave</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/My_Bondage_and_My_Freedom" title="My Bondage and My Freedom">My Bondage and My Freedom</a> (1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidents_in_the_Life_of_a_Slave_Girl" title="Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl">Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_and_Times_of_Frederick_Douglass" title="Life and Times of Frederick Douglass">Life and Times of Frederick Douglass</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States</a> (1936–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Peculiar_Institution" title="The Peculiar Institution">The Peculiar Institution</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Community" title="The Slave Community">The Slave Community</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barracoon:_The_Story_of_the_Last_%22Black_Cargo%22" title="Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"">Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Novels_about_slavery" title="Category:Novels about slavery">Fiction/novels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a> (1688)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sab_(novel)" title="Sab (novel)">Sab</a> (1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Heroic_Slave" title="The Heroic Slave">The Heroic Slave</a> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clotel" title="Clotel">Clotel</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bondwoman%27s_Narrative" title="The Bondwoman's Narrative">The Bondwoman's Narrative</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1853 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Nig" title="Our Nig">Our Nig</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_(novel)" title="Jubilee (novel)">Jubilee</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Confessions_of_Nat_Turner" title="The Confessions of Nat Turner">The Confessions of Nat Turner</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roots:_The_Saga_of_an_American_Family" title="Roots: The Saga of an American Family">Roots: The Saga of an American Family</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_to_Canada" title="Underground to Canada">Underground to Canada</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindred_(novel)" title="Kindred (novel)">Kindred</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dessa_Rose" title="Dessa Rose">Dessa Rose</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloved_(novel)" title="Beloved (novel)">Beloved</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage_(novel)" title="Middle Passage (novel)">Middle Passage</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen:_The_Story_of_an_American_Family" title="Queen: The Story of an American Family">Queen: The Story of an American Family</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_a_Thousand_Trees_with_Ribbons" title="Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons">Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ama:_A_Story_of_the_Atlantic_Slave_Trade" title="Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade">Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walk_Through_Darkness" title="Walk Through Darkness">Walk Through Darkness</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Known_World" title="The Known World">The Known World</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unburnable" title="Unburnable">Unburnable</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Negroes_(novel)" title="The Book of Negroes (novel)">The Book of Negroes</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Young adult books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Fortune,_Free_Man" title="Amos Fortune, Free Man">Amos Fortune, Free Man</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/I,_Juan_de_Pareja" title="I, Juan de Pareja">I, Juan de Pareja</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Sun" title="Copper Sun">Copper Sun</a> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Essays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/To_a_Southern_Slaveholder" title="To a Southern Slaveholder">To a Southern Slaveholder</a>" (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Key_to_Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin">A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin</a> (1853)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Escape;_or,_A_Leap_for_Freedom" title="The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom">The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Octoroon" title="The Octoroon">The Octoroon</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_(opera)" title="Omar (opera)">Omar</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchained_Memories" title="Unchained Memories">Unchained Memories</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass_and_the_White_Negro" title="Frederick Douglass and the White Negro">Frederick Douglass and the White Negro</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tom_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Tom novels">Anti-Tom novels</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captivity_narrative" title="Captivity narrative">Captivity narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">Films featuring slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_American_enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="List of last surviving American enslaved people">List of last surviving American enslaved people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Plantation_Record_and_Account_Book" title="Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book">Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave-Trading_in_the_Old_South" title="Slave-Trading in the Old South">Slave-Trading in the Old South</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Johnson_(Mount_Vernon)" title="Sarah Johnson (Mount Vernon)">Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a> (1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace:_An_Anthology_of_Poems_about_Slavery" title="Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery">Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hemingses_of_Monticello" title="The Hemingses of Monticello">The Hemingses of Monticello</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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[\"CITEREFDavies2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelGrande2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamondPanosian2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiffie1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiouf2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiouf_Anne2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDomingues_da_Silva2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDomingues_da_Silva2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrescher1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrescher1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrescher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuarte2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunbar-Ortiz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuquette2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuram1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurkin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurkin2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmondson1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgerton1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltis2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEltis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltisRichardson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltisRichardson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmmer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngerman1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEscudero2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEverill2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFage1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalolaWarnock2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFears2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerro1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFierce\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrançois_Hubert,_Christian_Block_and_Jacques_de_Cauna2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrench2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGandhi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGates2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGatesCurran\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGomez1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGookin1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuasco2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHacker2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHairLaw1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHancock\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHandley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanlon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarms2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHead2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenley2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeywoodThornton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHochschild2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodgesCookBrown1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorne2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHove2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInikori1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInikoriEngerman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInikoriEngerman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIpsen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaac2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaac2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIves_Bortolot\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensenSimonsen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolly2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiple2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchin1778\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinKlein1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrieg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKriple1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanders1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLind2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsay2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockhartSchwartz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLokken2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM\u0026#039;baye2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM\u0026#039;bokolo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMannix1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaria2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkRah2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarks2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinez2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarx\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayeaux2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCulloughMcRae\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMillin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeillSampaoloWallenfeldt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeltzer1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMeredith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiers2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMintz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFModrowSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray1834\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNafafe2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNater2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewsonMinchin2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNimakoWillemsen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthrup2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObadina2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlusoga2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnyemechi_Adiele2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadgett\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPares1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersonGavuaRassool2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierre2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostma2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulter\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPybus2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamusack1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRattansi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawleyBehrendt2005\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRead2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRediker2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRediker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodney1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodney1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoediger\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoot2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoşu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRupprecht2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantos2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchama2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegal1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShad2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherwood2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShillington2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShort1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShumway2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimms2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSivapragasam2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidmore1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmallwood2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithers2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolow1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSparks2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStannard1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStannard1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrideIfeka1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSublette2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweet1997\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2013\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFThornton1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThornton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTopik2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeeramahConnellPourPowell2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinsonGraves\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWesley1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestShearer2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheat2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheat2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitford2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWills\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinant2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiniarski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWithycomb2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiznitzer1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWomber2020\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFWynter1984a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZakhariaBasuAbsherAssimes2009\"] = 1,\n [\"Information_about_Chief_Tomba_is_on_page_19\"] = 1,\n [\"Ose06\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"African American topics\"] = 1,\n [\"African topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Black British topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 7,\n [\"Circa\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 158,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 80,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 38,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 154,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-break\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Atlantic Slave Trade\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Dominican Republic topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Endash\"] = 1,\n [\"Events leading to US Civil War\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Gullah topics\"] = 1,\n [\"HMS\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 18,\n [\"Pirates\"] = 1,\n [\"Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 4,\n [\"Refend\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 9,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 61,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slave narrative\"] = 1,\n [\"Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 2,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"US history\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Why\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","560","16.2"],["?","540","15.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","9.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","260","7.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","200","5.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","160","4.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","100","2.9"],["type","100","2.9"],["[others]","960","27.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-j8pn4","timestamp":"20250216192836","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Atlantic slave trade","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atlantic_slave_trade","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q10701282","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q10701282","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-04-13T19:58:23Z","dateModified":"2025-02-14T02:26:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/16\/Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg","headline":"slave trade across the Atlantic Ocean between the 16th and 19th centuries"}</script> </body> </html>