CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="fr-FR" xml:lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8">  <title>PRÉDATION - Encyclopædia Universalis</title> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> <meta name="generator" content="TYPO3 CMS" /> <meta name="description" content="La prédation, activité qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements très complexes et très différents suivant les espèces...." /> <meta name="robots" content="index, all, follow" /> <meta name="viewport" content="viewport-fit=cover, width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, minimum-scale=1.0" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:title" content="PRÉDATION" /> <meta property="og:description" content="La prédation, activité qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements très complexes et très différents suivant les espèces. Elle pose de graves problèmes aussi bien à l' éthologie qu'à la science de l'évolution." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/predation/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="PRÉDATION" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="La prédation, activité qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements très complexes et très différents suivant les espèces. Elle pose de graves problèmes aussi bien à l' éthologie qu'à la science de l'évolution." /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@universalisfr" /> <meta name="location" content="France" /> <meta name="rating" content="General" /> <meta name="distribution" content="Global" /> <meta name="resource-type" content="document" /> <meta name="copyright" content="© Copyright 2024 - Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="default" /> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_shared/pub/pub.css?1730108805" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/home.css?1730119190" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/classification.css?1730119190" media="all"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/predation/" /> <link rel="next" href="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/predation/2-la-predation-chez-les-invertebres/" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"PR\u00c9DATION","headline":"PR\u00c9DATION","description":"La pr\u00e9dation, activit\u00e9 qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements tr\u00e8s complexes et tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rents suivant les esp\u00e8ces. Elle pose de graves probl\u00e8mes aussi bien \u00e0 l' \u00e9thologie qu'\u00e0 la science de l'\u00e9volution.. Les \u00e9thologistes ont mis assez longtemps \u00e0 accorder \u00e0 la pr\u00e9dation toute l'attention qu'elle m\u00e9ritait. On s'\u00e9tait plut\u00f4t int\u00e9ress\u00e9 jusque-l\u00e0 aux comportements de rapprochement des sexes ou de soins aux jeunes. Pourtant, des \u00e9tudes d\u00e9j\u00e0 nombreuses sur ce sujet mettent en \u00e9vidence des comportements tr\u00e8s complexes faisant appel aux facult\u00e9s c\u00e9r\u00e9brales les plus \u00e9lev\u00e9es. On d\u00e9c\u00e8le notamment la pr\u00e9sence de strat\u00e9gies de chasse peu diff\u00e9rentes de celles qu'emploient l...","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/predation\/","wordCount":"2952","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/static\/icons\/favicon.png"},"isPartOf":{"@type":"WebPage","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/encyclopedie\/predation\/","name":"PR\u00c9DATION"},"author":[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"R\u00e9my CHAUVIN","familyName":"CHAUVIN","givenName":"R\u00e9my","description":"Professeur titulaire \u00e0 l'universit\u00e9 Ren\u00e9-Descartes-Sorbonne.","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/auteurs\/remy-chauvin\/"}],"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Encyclop\u00e6dia Universalis","alternateName":"Universalis","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/_web\/assets\/img\/banniere-fr.png"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/EncyclopedieUniversalis\/","https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/encyclopaedia-universalis","https:\/\/www.twitter.com\/universalisfr","https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow"],"slogan":"Passeur de savoir"}}</script> <script type="application/ld+json">[{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"\u00c9thologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/ethologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Comportement animal","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/ethologie\/comportement-animal\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Comportement animal"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Monde animal","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Invert\u00e9br\u00e9s","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/invertebres\/"}],"numberOfItems":5,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Invert\u00e9br\u00e9s"},{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Classification","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Sciences de la vie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Zoologie","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":4,"name":"Monde animal","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":5,"name":"Cord\u00e9s","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/cordes\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":6,"name":"Craniates","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/cordes\/craniates\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":7,"name":"Vert\u00e9br\u00e9s","item":"https:\/\/www.universalis.fr\/classification\/sciences-de-la-vie\/zoologie\/monde-animal\/cordes\/craniates\/vertebres\/"}],"numberOfItems":7,"itemListOrder":"Ascending","name":"Classification : Vert\u00e9br\u00e9s"}]</script> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#526D78"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://statistiques.universalis.fr" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cmp.inmobi.com" /> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Universalis FR" href="/_web/static/search-fr.xml" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/_web/static/manifest.json"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/_web/static/icons/favicon.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-72x72.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-114x114.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-144x144.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <script>!function(a,b,c){if(c in b&&b[c]){var d,e=a.location,f=/^(a|html)$/i;a.addEventListener("click",function(a){for(d=a.target;!f.test(d.nodeName);)d=d.parentNode;"href"in d&&(d.href.indexOf("http")||~d.href.indexOf(e.host))&&(a.preventDefault(),e.href=d.href)},!1),a.querySelector("html").classList.add("standalone")}}(document,window.navigator,"standalone")</script> <script> var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="//statistiques.universalis.fr/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '1']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <style>.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide{display:none}.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide:first-child{display:block}img{max-width:100%;height:auto;max-height:250px}img.d-formule{max-height:none}strong{font-weight:bold !important}.dark-mode body{background:#29363a !important}.loader{display:none;height:100vh}.loader:after{display:block;margin:auto;content:"";background:url(/_web/assets/img/banniere-fr.png) no-repeat center;background-size:contain;width:50%;height:50%;position:absolute;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, -50%);opacity:.25}#page_3 .pub-container,#page_16 .pub-container{display:none !important}#skip{padding:5px 15px;position:absolute;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);color:#fff;left:10%;transform:translateY(-100%);transition:transform .3s;border-bottom-left-radius:6px;border-bottom-right-radius:6px;z-index:100;text-decoration:none}#skip:focus{transform:translateY(0%);box-shadow:0 0 10px #333}.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:none}.site-fr .article-quote{display:none !important}@media(max-width: 768px){.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:block;text-align:center;margin-top:-1em;margin-bottom:1em}}body.loading{overflow:hidden}body.loading>*{display:none}body.loading .loader{display:block}.dropdown-menu,.d-none,#podcast audio{display:none}.list-inline-item{display:inline-block}.offcanvas{visibility:hidden}.main-navbar-wrapper .btn-universalis{background-color:#e8eced;color:#000;font-weight:normal}.offcanvas{display:none !important;height:0 !important}.offcanvas[data-loaded=true]{display:inherit !important;height:inherit !important}.clearfix{clear:both}.fr .is-edu{display:none !important}#podcast{min-height:90px}#article-medias-strip-junior{min-height:255px}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}#qc-cmp2-ui{padding:10px !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons{justify-content:space-around !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button[mode=secondary],.qc-cmp2-footer button[mode=secondary]{border:none;box-shadow:none}.eCBsvP.eCBsvP{height:auto !important}.qc-cmp-cleanslate{background-color:rgba(33,41,52,.95) !important}.fill-universalis{fill:#1c3479}.fill-universalis-up{fill:#526d78}@media(min-width: 768px){.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container{text-align:center}.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container figure img{display:block !important}}#page_14 .filter-article-container{display:none}#newsletter_subscription .text-light{color:#fff !important}#bandeau-footer{display:none}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" id="typo-css" href="/_web/assets/css/typo.css?t=20240418-1" /><script>let cssLoaded=!1,bodyLoaded=!1;const loadedTO=setTimeout((()=>{cssLoaded=!0,bodyLoaded=!0,loaded()}),5e3),loaded=function(){cssLoaded&&bodyLoaded&&document.body.classList.contains("loading")&&(document.body.className=document.body.className.replace("loading","").trim(),clearTimeout(loadedTO))};</script> <link rel="preload" href="/_web/assets/css/lazy.css?t=20240418-1" as="style" media="all" crossorigin onload="this.rel=`stylesheet`; cssLoaded = true; loaded()" /><style>.breadcrumb{--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y: 0;--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-breadcrumb-bg: ;--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius: ;--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color: #6c757d;--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color: #6c757d;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;padding:var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-y) var(--bs-breadcrumb-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-breadcrumb-margin-bottom);font-size:var(--bs-breadcrumb-font-size);list-style:none;background-color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-bg);border-radius:var(--bs-breadcrumb-border-radius)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item{padding-left:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x)}.breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{float:left;padding-right:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider-color);content:var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") /* rtl: var(--bs-breadcrumb-divider, "/") */}.breadcrumb-item.active{color:var(--bs-breadcrumb-item-active-color)}.breadcrumb{padding:.5rem 1rem !important;background-color:#f5f5f5 !important;border-radius:.375rem !important}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item i.label-sub{font-size:.85em;font-weight:normal}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a{text-decoration:none}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item.active{font-weight:bold}.breadcrumb .breadcrumb-item+.breadcrumb-item::before{background-image:url('data:image/svg+xml;charset=UTF-8, <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" data-prefix="far" data-icon="chevron-double-right" role="img" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 448 512" class="svg-inline--fa fa-chevron-double-right fa-w-14 fa-7x"><path style="fill: rgb(97, 104, 118);" d="M57.7 38.1l209.4 209.4c4.7 4.7 4.7 12.3 0 17L57.7 473.9c-4.7 4.7-12.3 4.7-17 0l-19.8-19.8c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17L201.6 256 20.9 74.9c-4.7-4.7-4.7-12.3 0-17l19.8-19.8c4.7-4.7 12.3-4.7 17 0zm143 0l-19.8 19.8c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17L361.6 256 180.9 437.1c-4.7 4.7-4.7 12.3 0 17l19.8 19.8c4.7 4.7 12.3 4.7 17 0l209.4-209.4c4.7-4.7 4.7-12.3 0-17L217.7 38.1c-4.7-4.7-12.3-4.7-17 0z" class=""></path></svg>');background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;content:"";width:.5rem;height:100%;margin-right:.5rem}.list-group{--bs-list-group-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.125);--bs-list-group-border-width: 1px;--bs-list-group-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-list-group-item-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-list-group-action-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-color: #495057;--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg: #f8f9fa;--bs-list-group-action-active-color: #212529;--bs-list-group-action-active-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-list-group-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-list-group-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-color: #fff;--bs-list-group-active-bg: #526d78;--bs-list-group-active-border-color: #526d78;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding-left:0;margin-bottom:0;border-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius)}.list-group-numbered{list-style-type:none;counter-reset:section}.list-group-numbered>.list-group-item::before{content:counters(section, ".") ". ";counter-increment:section}.list-group-item-action{width:100%;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-color);text-align:inherit}.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-action:focus{z-index:1;color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-hover-bg)}.list-group-item-action:active{color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-action-active-bg)}.list-group-item{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-y) var(--bs-list-group-item-padding-x);color:var(--bs-list-group-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-bg);border:var(--bs-list-group-border-width) solid var(--bs-list-group-border-color)}.list-group-item:first-child{border-top-left-radius:inherit;border-top-right-radius:inherit}.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-right-radius:inherit;border-bottom-left-radius:inherit}.list-group-item.disabled,.list-group-item:disabled{color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-list-group-disabled-bg)}.list-group-item.active{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-list-group-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-list-group-active-border-color)}.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:0}.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-top:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-horizontal{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}@media(min-width: 576px){.list-group-horizontal-sm{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-sm>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 768px){.list-group-horizontal-md{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-md>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 992px){.list-group-horizontal-lg{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-lg>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.list-group-horizontal-xl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.list-group-horizontal-xxl{flex-direction:row}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:first-child:not(:last-child){border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item:last-child:not(:first-child){border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-list-group-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item.active{margin-top:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width);border-left-width:0}.list-group-horizontal-xxl>.list-group-item+.list-group-item.active{margin-left:calc(-1 * var(--bs-list-group-border-width));border-left-width:var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}}.list-group-flush{border-radius:0}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item{border-width:0 0 var(--bs-list-group-border-width)}.list-group-flush>.list-group-item:last-child{border-bottom-width:0}.list-group-item-primary{color:#314148;background-color:#dce2e4}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#314148;background-color:#c6cbcd}.list-group-item-primary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#314148;border-color:#314148}.list-group-item-secondary{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-secondary.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.list-group-item-success{color:#0f5132;background-color:#d1e7dd}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#0f5132;background-color:#bcd0c7}.list-group-item-success.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#0f5132;border-color:#0f5132}.list-group-item-info{color:#055160;background-color:#cff4fc}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#055160;background-color:#badce3}.list-group-item-info.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#055160;border-color:#055160}.list-group-item-warning{color:#664d03;background-color:#fff3cd}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#664d03;background-color:#e6dbb9}.list-group-item-warning.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#664d03;border-color:#664d03}.list-group-item-danger{color:#851a31;background-color:#f8d5dc}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#851a31;background-color:#dfc0c6}.list-group-item-danger.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#851a31;border-color:#851a31}.list-group-item-light{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#fafbfb}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#5d5e5f;background-color:#e1e2e2}.list-group-item-light.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#5d5e5f;border-color:#5d5e5f}.list-group-item-dark{color:#192023;background-color:#d4d7d8}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:hover,.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action:focus{color:#192023;background-color:#bfc2c2}.list-group-item-dark.list-group-item-action.active{color:#fff;background-color:#192023;border-color:#192023}.badge{--bs-badge-padding-x: 0.65em;--bs-badge-padding-y: 0.35em;--bs-badge-font-size:0.75em;--bs-badge-font-weight: 700;--bs-badge-color: #fff;--bs-badge-border-radius: 0.375rem;display:inline-block;padding:var(--bs-badge-padding-y) var(--bs-badge-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-badge-font-size);font-weight:var(--bs-badge-font-weight);line-height:1;color:var(--bs-badge-color);text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;vertical-align:baseline;border-radius:var(--bs-badge-border-radius)}.badge:empty{display:none}.btn .badge{position:relative;top:-1px}.btn-group,.btn-group-vertical{position:relative;display:inline-flex;vertical-align:middle}.btn-group>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn{position:relative;flex:1 1 auto}.btn-group>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group>.btn:hover,.btn-group>.btn:focus,.btn-group>.btn:active,.btn-group>.btn.active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:checked+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-check:focus+.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:hover,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:focus,.btn-group-vertical>.btn:active,.btn-group-vertical>.btn.active{z-index:1}.btn-toolbar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:flex-start}.btn-toolbar .input-group{width:auto}.btn-group{border-radius:.375rem}.btn-group>:not(.btn-check:first-child)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-left:-1px}.btn-group>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group>.btn.dropdown-toggle-split:first-child,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.btn-group>.btn:nth-child(n+3),.btn-group>:not(.btn-check)+.btn,.btn-group>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.5625rem;padding-left:.5625rem}.dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropup .dropdown-toggle-split::after,.dropend .dropdown-toggle-split::after{margin-left:0}.dropstart .dropdown-toggle-split::before{margin-right:0}.btn-sm+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-sm>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.375rem;padding-left:.375rem}.btn-lg+.dropdown-toggle-split,.btn-group-lg>.btn+.dropdown-toggle-split{padding-right:.75rem;padding-left:.75rem}.btn-group-vertical{flex-direction:column;align-items:flex-start;justify-content:center}.btn-group-vertical>.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group{width:100%}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:first-child),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child){margin-top:-1px}.btn-group-vertical>.btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:last-child)>.btn{border-bottom-right-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.btn-group-vertical>.btn~.btn,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:not(:first-child)>.btn{border-top-left-radius:0;border-top-right-radius:0}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 109, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526d78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526d78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.list-group a.list-group-item{border-color:#f8fafc}.list-group a.list-group-item.active{background-color:#526d78}.list-group a.list-group-item h3{margin:0;line-height:1.5;font-size:.95rem;font-family:system-ui,-apple-system,"Segoe UI",Roboto,"Helvetica Neue","Noto Sans","Liberation Sans",Arial,sans-serif,"Apple Color Emoji","Segoe UI Emoji","Segoe UI Symbol","Noto Color Emoji";padding-bottom:0}.list-group a.list-group-item h3:hover{color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item h3 .badge{line-height:1.25}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover{background-color:#526d78;color:#fff}.list-group a.list-group-item:hover h3{color:inherit}i.anchor{display:block;position:relative;visibility:hidden;top:calc(-25vh + 15px)}.article__props{font-size:.8rem;color:#000;font-style:italic;padding:.2rem 0;margin:0 auto;display:block}.content h6,.h6,h5,.h5,h4,.h4,h3,.h3,h2,.h2,h1,.h1{margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:.5rem}titre_main+titre_subs{margin-left:.25em}pc,.pc{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:.8em}h2 .pc,h3 .pc,h4 .pc,h5 .pc,h6 .pc{font-size:inherit !important}.sup-sub{position:relative;margin-right:1rem}.sup-sub sup,.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{position:absolute;display:block;left:0}.sup-sub sup{top:.25rem}.sup-sub sub,.sup-sub inf{bottom:.25rem}p:empty{display:none !important}.content.whole .read-more{display:none}blockquote{position:relative;text-align:center;padding:1rem 1.4rem;width:80%;margin:1rem auto 2rem;font-family:Times;font-style:italic;box-shadow:0 .5rem 1rem rgba(0,0,0,.15);border-radius:.375rem}blockquote:before{position:absolute;color:#526d78;font-size:3rem;content:"«";top:-22px;margin-right:-28px;right:100%}blockquote:after{position:absolute;color:#526d78;font-size:3rem;content:"»";margin-left:-28px;left:100%;top:auto;bottom:-12px}.offcanvas,.offcanvas-xxl,.offcanvas-xl,.offcanvas-lg,.offcanvas-md,.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-zindex: 1045;--bs-offcanvas-width: 400px;--bs-offcanvas-height: 30vh;--bs-offcanvas-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-offcanvas-color: ;--bs-offcanvas-bg: #fff;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 1px;--bs-offcanvas-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-offcanvas-box-shadow: 0 0.125rem 0.25rem rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075)}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 575.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-sm{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.offcanvas-sm.showing,.offcanvas-sm.hiding,.offcanvas-sm.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 576px){.offcanvas-sm{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-sm .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 767.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-md{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.offcanvas-md.showing,.offcanvas-md.hiding,.offcanvas-md.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 768px){.offcanvas-md{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-md .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 991.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-lg{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.offcanvas-lg.showing,.offcanvas-lg.hiding,.offcanvas-lg.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 992px){.offcanvas-lg{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-lg .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.offcanvas-xl.showing,.offcanvas-xl.hiding,.offcanvas-xl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.offcanvas-xl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px)and (prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas-xxl{transition:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.offcanvas-xxl.showing,.offcanvas-xxl.hiding,.offcanvas-xxl.show{visibility:visible}}@media(min-width: 1400px){.offcanvas-xxl{--bs-offcanvas-height: auto;--bs-offcanvas-border-width: 0;background-color:transparent !important}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-header{display:none}.offcanvas-xxl .offcanvas-body{display:flex;flex-grow:0;padding:0;overflow-y:visible;background-color:transparent !important}}.offcanvas{position:fixed;bottom:0;z-index:var(--bs-offcanvas-zindex);display:flex;flex-direction:column;max-width:100%;color:var(--bs-offcanvas-color);visibility:hidden;background-color:var(--bs-offcanvas-bg);background-clip:padding-box;outline:0;transition:transform .3s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.offcanvas{transition:none}}.offcanvas.offcanvas-start{top:0;left:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-right:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-end{top:0;right:0;width:var(--bs-offcanvas-width);border-left:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateX(100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-top{top:0;right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-bottom:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(-100%)}.offcanvas.offcanvas-bottom{right:0;left:0;height:var(--bs-offcanvas-height);max-height:100%;border-top:var(--bs-offcanvas-border-width) solid var(--bs-offcanvas-border-color);transform:translateY(100%)}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.show:not(.hiding){transform:none}.offcanvas.showing,.offcanvas.hiding,.offcanvas.show{visibility:visible}.offcanvas-backdrop{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:1040;width:100vw;height:100vh;background-color:#000}.offcanvas-backdrop.fade{opacity:0}.offcanvas-backdrop.show{opacity:.5}.offcanvas-header{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x)}.offcanvas-header .btn-close{padding:calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) * .5) calc(var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x) * .5);margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y));margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y))}.offcanvas-title{margin-bottom:0;line-height:1.5}.offcanvas-body{flex-grow:1;padding:var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-y) var(--bs-offcanvas-padding-x);overflow-y:auto}.article__single__toc .float-end{float:right !important}.article__single__toc .list-group-item{border:none;border-radius:0}.article__single__toc .list-group-item i{transition:transform .2s;position:absolute;left:.25rem;margin-top:.25rem}.article__single__toc .list-group-item.expanded i{transform:rotateZ(90deg)}.article__single__toc>.list-group{background:transparent}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.5em}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group{margin-left:.75em;border-left:1px solid #ccc}.article__single__toc>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group>.list-group-item{padding:.5em}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}.free-toc-container{position:fixed;bottom:3em;left:.5em;max-width:300px;z-index:10}@media(max-width: 768px){.free-toc-container{bottom:5em}}#free-toc{max-height:calc(100vh - 275px);overflow:auto}.free-toc-container .list-group a{text-decoration:none}.free-toc-container .list-group li:not(.active):hover{background-color:#f5f5f5;color:#fff}.free-toc-container .list-group .active a{color:#fff;pointer-events:none;font-weight:bold}.pagination{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.95rem;--bs-pagination-color: var(--bs-link-color);--bs-pagination-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-border-width: 1px;--bs-pagination-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-pagination-hover-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-hover-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-hover-border-color: #dee2e6;--bs-pagination-focus-color: var(--bs-link-hover-color);--bs-pagination-focus-bg: #e9ecef;--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow: 0 0 0 0.25rem rgba(82, 109, 120, 0.25);--bs-pagination-active-color: #fff;--bs-pagination-active-bg: #526d78;--bs-pagination-active-border-color: #526d78;--bs-pagination-disabled-color: #6c757d;--bs-pagination-disabled-bg: #fff;--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color: #dee2e6;display:flex;padding-left:0;list-style:none}.page-link{position:relative;display:block;padding:var(--bs-pagination-padding-y) var(--bs-pagination-padding-x);font-size:var(--bs-pagination-font-size);color:var(--bs-pagination-color);text-decoration:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-bg);border:var(--bs-pagination-border-width) solid var(--bs-pagination-border-color);transition:color .15s ease-in-out,background-color .15s ease-in-out,border-color .15s ease-in-out,box-shadow .15s ease-in-out}@media(prefers-reduced-motion: reduce){.page-link{transition:none}}.page-link:hover{z-index:2;color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-hover-border-color)}.page-link:focus{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-focus-bg);outline:0;box-shadow:var(--bs-pagination-focus-box-shadow)}.page-link.active,.active>.page-link{z-index:3;color:var(--bs-pagination-active-color);background-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-active-border-color)}.page-link.disabled,.disabled>.page-link{color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-color);pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-bg);border-color:var(--bs-pagination-disabled-border-color)}.page-item:not(:first-child) .page-link{margin-left:-1px}.page-item:first-child .page-link{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.page-item:last-child .page-link{border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius);border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-pagination-border-radius)}.pagination-lg{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 1.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.75rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:1.1875rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.5rem}.pagination-sm{--bs-pagination-padding-x: 0.5rem;--bs-pagination-padding-y: 0.25rem;--bs-pagination-font-size:0.83125rem;--bs-pagination-border-radius: 0.25rem}.table{--bs-table-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-bg: transparent;--bs-table-border-color: var(--bs-border-color);--bs-table-accent-bg: transparent;--bs-table-striped-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-striped-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);--bs-table-active-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-active-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);--bs-table-hover-color: var(--bs-body-color);--bs-table-hover-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.075);width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;color:var(--bs-table-color);vertical-align:top;border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.5rem .5rem;background-color:var(--bs-table-bg);border-bottom-width:1px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 0 9999px var(--bs-table-accent-bg)}.table>tbody{vertical-align:inherit}.table>thead{vertical-align:bottom}.table-group-divider{border-top:2px solid currentcolor}.caption-top{caption-side:top}.table-sm>:not(caption)>*>*{padding:.25rem .25rem}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*{border-width:1px 0}.table-bordered>:not(caption)>*>*{border-width:0 1px}.table-borderless>:not(caption)>*>*{border-bottom-width:0}.table-borderless>:not(:first-child){border-top-width:0}.table-striped>tbody>tr:nth-of-type(odd)>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-striped-columns>:not(caption)>tr>:nth-child(even){--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-striped-bg);color:var(--bs-table-striped-color)}.table-active{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-active-bg);color:var(--bs-table-active-color)}.table-hover>tbody>tr:hover>*{--bs-table-accent-bg: var(--bs-table-hover-bg);color:var(--bs-table-hover-color)}.table-primary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-table-border-color: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d1d7d9;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #c6cbcd;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ccd1d3;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-secondary{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e2e3e5;--bs-table-border-color: #cbccce;--bs-table-striped-bg: #d7d8da;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #cbccce;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d1d2d4;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-success{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-table-border-color: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c7dbd2;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #bcd0c7;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #c1d6cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-info{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-table-border-color: #badce3;--bs-table-striped-bg: #c5e8ef;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #badce3;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #bfe2e9;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-warning{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-table-border-color: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-striped-bg: #f2e7c3;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #e6dbb9;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #ece1be;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-danger{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-table-border-color: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-striped-bg: #eccad1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #dfc0c6;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #e5c5cc;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-light{--bs-table-color: #000;--bs-table-bg: #e8eced;--bs-table-border-color: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-striped-bg: #dce0e1;--bs-table-striped-color: #000;--bs-table-active-bg: #d1d4d5;--bs-table-active-color: #000;--bs-table-hover-bg: #d7dadb;--bs-table-hover-color: #000;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-dark{--bs-table-color: #fff;--bs-table-bg: #29363a;--bs-table-border-color: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-striped-bg: #344044;--bs-table-striped-color: #fff;--bs-table-active-bg: #3e4a4e;--bs-table-active-color: #fff;--bs-table-hover-bg: #394549;--bs-table-hover-color: #fff;color:var(--bs-table-color);border-color:var(--bs-table-border-color)}.table-responsive{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}@media(max-width: 575.98px){.table-responsive-sm{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 767.98px){.table-responsive-md{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 991.98px){.table-responsive-lg{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1199.98px){.table-responsive-xl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}@media(max-width: 1399.98px){.table-responsive-xxl{overflow-x:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}}span.rg{font-weight:bold}.lined-bg{background:repeating-linear-gradient(45deg, #606dbc, #606dbc 10px, #465298 10px, #465298 20px)}@media(min-width: 768px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(2, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}@media(min-width: 1200px){.geography-list-group{grid-template-columns:repeat(3, 1fr);display:grid;grid-gap:.5rem}.geography-list-group .list-group-item+.list-group-item{border-top-width:1px}}table .note{font-size:.8rem;line-height:1.1;position:relative;padding-left:.8rem;display:block;margin-bottom:.5rem;font-style:italic}table .note b{position:absolute;font-style:normal;left:0;top:0}h1 em.label-sub{font-style:normal}.event-date{font-size:1rem;font-style:italic;color:#526d78}.event-label{font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0}.event-label .event-date{font-size:.8em}.badge{background-color:#e8eced !important;border-radius:0;color:#526d78}.badge.text-bg-primary{color:#fff !important;background-color:#0d6efd !important}.badge.text-bg-success{color:#fff !important;background-color:#198754 !important}.badge .bad a{text-decoration:underline}.event-single .badge{font-size:.85rem;font-weight:normal;margin-top:-0.25rem;padding-left:1rem !important;padding-right:1rem !important}.figure{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center}@media(max-width: 768px){.figure{background:#f5f5f5;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075);margin-bottom:1em !important;padding-top:.5em !important}.figure .popover{background:transparent}.figure .popover .popover-header{color:#222}}img.media_resized{max-width:100%;height:auto;width:auto;margin:0 auto;max-height:200px}.protected{position:relative}.protected:after{position:absolute;content:"";width:100%;height:100%;top:0;left:0;background:transparent}@media(min-width: 992px){.inline-media-group{display:flex;justify-content:space-around}}@media screen and (max-width: 480px){.nav.nav-tabs{display:block}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-item{display:block !important}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link{border:none;width:100%;margin:0}.nav.nav-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:#e8eced;margin:0}}.index-list{border:1px solid #dfdfdf;background-color:#fafafa;border-radius:.375em;box-shadow:0 .125rem .25rem rgba(0,0,0,.075) !important;margin-bottom:1rem !important;margin-right:.25rem !important;margin-left:.25rem !important;padding:1rem}.index-list a{padding:.125em .25em;border-radius:.375em;display:inline-block}.index-list a.active{background:#526d78;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}.index-list a.text-muted{color:#a4a9ae !important}.card{--bs-card-spacer-y: 1rem;--bs-card-spacer-x: 1rem;--bs-card-title-spacer-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-border-width: 1px;--bs-card-border-color: var(--bs-border-color-translucent);--bs-card-border-radius: 0.375rem;--bs-card-box-shadow: ;--bs-card-inner-border-radius: calc(0.375rem - 1px);--bs-card-cap-padding-y: 0.5rem;--bs-card-cap-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-card-cap-bg: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);--bs-card-cap-color: ;--bs-card-height: ;--bs-card-color: ;--bs-card-bg: #fff;--bs-card-img-overlay-padding: 1rem;--bs-card-group-margin: 0.75rem;position:relative;display:flex;flex-direction:column;min-width:0;height:var(--bs-card-height);word-wrap:break-word;background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);background-clip:border-box;border:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color);border-radius:var(--bs-card-border-radius)}.card>hr{margin-right:0;margin-left:0}.card>.list-group{border-top:inherit;border-bottom:inherit}.card>.list-group:first-child{border-top-width:0;border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.list-group:last-child{border-bottom-width:0;border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card>.card-header+.list-group,.card>.list-group+.card-footer{border-top:0}.card-body{flex:1 1 auto;padding:var(--bs-card-spacer-y) var(--bs-card-spacer-x);color:var(--bs-card-color)}.card-title{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y)}.card-subtitle{margin-top:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-title-spacer-y));margin-bottom:0}.card-text:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.card-link+.card-link{margin-left:var(--bs-card-spacer-x)}.card-header{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);margin-bottom:0;color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-bottom:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-header:first-child{border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) 0 0}.card-footer{padding:var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y) var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x);color:var(--bs-card-cap-color);background-color:var(--bs-card-cap-bg);border-top:var(--bs-card-border-width) solid var(--bs-card-border-color)}.card-footer:last-child{border-radius:0 0 var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius) var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-header-tabs{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-bottom:calc(-1 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-y));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));border-bottom:0}.card-header-tabs .nav-link.active{background-color:var(--bs-card-bg);border-bottom-color:var(--bs-card-bg)}.card-header-pills{margin-right:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x));margin-left:calc(-.5 * var(--bs-card-cap-padding-x))}.card-img-overlay{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;padding:var(--bs-card-img-overlay-padding);border-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-top,.card-img-bottom{width:100%}.card-img,.card-img-top{border-top-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-top-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-img,.card-img-bottom{border-bottom-right-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius);border-bottom-left-radius:var(--bs-card-inner-border-radius)}.card-group>.card{margin-bottom:var(--bs-card-group-margin)}@media(min-width: 576px){.card-group{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.card-group>.card{flex:1 0 0%;margin-bottom:0}.card-group>.card+.card{margin-left:0;border-left:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child){border-top-right-radius:0;border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-header{border-top-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:last-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-right-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child){border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-top,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-header{border-top-left-radius:0}.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-img-bottom,.card-group>.card:not(:first-child) .card-footer{border-bottom-left-radius:0}}.alert{--bs-alert-bg: transparent;--bs-alert-padding-x: 1rem;--bs-alert-padding-y: 1rem;--bs-alert-margin-bottom: 1rem;--bs-alert-color: inherit;--bs-alert-border-color: transparent;--bs-alert-border: 1px solid var(--bs-alert-border-color);--bs-alert-border-radius: 0.375rem;position:relative;padding:var(--bs-alert-padding-y) var(--bs-alert-padding-x);margin-bottom:var(--bs-alert-margin-bottom);color:var(--bs-alert-color);background-color:var(--bs-alert-bg);border:var(--bs-alert-border);border-radius:var(--bs-alert-border-radius)}.alert-heading{color:inherit}.alert-link{font-weight:700}.alert-dismissible{padding-right:3rem}.alert-dismissible .btn-close{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:2;padding:1.25rem 1rem}.alert-primary{--bs-alert-color: #314148;--bs-alert-bg: #dce2e4;--bs-alert-border-color: #cbd3d7}.alert-primary .alert-link{color:#27343a}.alert-secondary{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-secondary .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.alert-success{--bs-alert-color: #0f5132;--bs-alert-bg: #d1e7dd;--bs-alert-border-color: #badbcc}.alert-success .alert-link{color:#0c4128}.alert-info{--bs-alert-color: #055160;--bs-alert-bg: #cff4fc;--bs-alert-border-color: #b6effb}.alert-info .alert-link{color:#04414d}.alert-warning{--bs-alert-color: #664d03;--bs-alert-bg: #fff3cd;--bs-alert-border-color: #ffecb5}.alert-warning .alert-link{color:#523e02}.alert-danger{--bs-alert-color: #851a31;--bs-alert-bg: #f8d5dc;--bs-alert-border-color: #f5bfcb}.alert-danger .alert-link{color:#6a1527}.alert-light{--bs-alert-color: #5d5e5f;--bs-alert-bg: #fafbfb;--bs-alert-border-color: #f8f9fa}.alert-light .alert-link{color:#4a4b4c}.alert-dark{--bs-alert-color: #192023;--bs-alert-bg: #d4d7d8;--bs-alert-border-color: #bfc3c4}.alert-dark .alert-link{color:#141a1c}.media-landing .media-reference-copy{display:block;position:relative !important;top:auto;left:auto;width:auto;height:auto}.media-landing .media-reference-copy:after{content:"Afficher le média";background:rgba(255,255,255,.1);position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;color:#222;font-size:2em;font-weight:bold;text-shadow:0 0 5px #fff;backdrop-filter:blur(5px)}.media-landing .media-reference-copy img{width:auto !important;height:auto !important}</style><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Encyclopædia Universalis", "alternateName": "Universalis", "url": "https://www.universalis.fr", "sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/EncyclopedieUniversalis/", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/encyclopaedia-universalis", "https://www.twitter.com/universalisfr", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow" ] } </script> </head> <body id="page_3" class="edu SENIOR loading" > <div class="loader"></div> <a href="#main-content" id="skip"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-arrow-down"></i> Accéder au contenu </a> <header class="d-none d-md-block d-print-none"> <div class="container row-between"> <a class="header-logo mr-3" title="Retour à la page d'accueil" href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 370 76.44" height="70" width="277" id="logo-main"> <text class="fill-universalis text-darkblue" transform="translate(74.25 37.1)" font-family="Arial" font-size="43.37"> <tspan x="0" y="0">UNIVERSALIS</tspan> </text> <text class="text-darkblue subtitle" transform="translate(76.75 66.74)" font-family="Arial" font-size="35.8"> <tspan class="fill-universalis-up" x="0" y="0" font-size=".85em">.fr</tspan> </text> <g> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M57,6.36H4.25C1.9,6.36,0,8.27,0,10.62V62.51c0,2.35,1.9,4.25,4.25,4.25H57c2.35,0,4.25-1.9,4.25-4.25V10.62c0-2.35-1.9-4.25-4.25-4.25ZM29.63,31.87h7.33v8.06c-.77-1.77-1.61-2.99-2.96-4.38-1.41-1.44-2.42-2.35-4.36-3.29v-.39Zm2.37,29.2c-.85,.68-1.75,1.28-2.71,1.75-.11,.05-.22,.1-.33,.15H13.39c-1.67-.77-3.19-1.8-4.53-3.14-3.13-3.13-4.69-7.06-4.69-11.77s1.56-8.84,4.67-12.04c3.12-3.19,7.02-4.79,11.72-4.79,2.71,0,5.14,.49,7.3,1.43,1.81,.79,3.44,1.9,4.87,3.36,1.35,1.38,2.4,2.97,3.17,4.74,1,2.31,1.52,4.94,1.52,7.9l-.03,1.51H11.86c.37,2.25,1.36,4.04,2.95,5.37,1.6,1.33,3.64,1.99,6.13,1.99,2.79,0,4.96-.67,6.99-2.49l6.74,3.26c-.84,1.12-1.61,1.9-2.67,2.75Zm24.74-15.61c0,5.53-.44,9.31-1.31,11.35-1.07,2.49-2.64,4.39-4.72,5.72-.24,.15-.49,.3-.75,.44h-14.33c-.44-.23-.87-.49-1.26-.77-.26-.18-.43-.29-.66-.49,.29-.3,2.13-2.54,3.11-3.92,0,0-7.13-3.32-7.3-3.39-.22-1.04-.28-1.34-.44-2.83h7.98c.1,1.11,.27,1.26,.5,1.93,.41,1.15,1.07,2.05,1.97,2.69,.9,.64,2.02,.96,3.34,.96s2.45-.32,3.37-.95c.92-.63,1.61-1.55,2.06-2.78,.33-.91,.5-2.86,.5-5.85v-15.51h7.95v13.42Z"/> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M29.44,43.92c-.32-1.09-.87-2.04-1.58-2.88-.44-.52-.93-1-1.52-1.43-1.54-1.11-3.34-1.66-5.38-1.66-2.22,0-4.16,.62-5.83,1.86-1.05,.78-2.02,2.14-2.92,4.11H29.44Z"/> </g> </svg> </a> <div class="p-1 d-flex justify-content-end flex-column" style="height: 80px"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper" style="align-items: flex-end; display: flex; flex-direction: column" data-identification_uri="/identification/"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="toast-manager"></div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="d-print-none sticky-top"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Navigation mobile" class="main-navbar-wrapper shadow"> <a class="navbar-brand-md d-none d-md-block" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_3bdd01b6ad.webp " width="32" height="32" alt=""> </a> <div class="container"> <nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-dark"> <a class="navbar-brand d-md-none" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_3bdd01b6ad.webp " width="36" height="36" alt=""> </a> <div id="navbar-collapse-grid" class="navbar-collapse collapse pt-2 pt-md-0"> <ul class="navbar-nav me-auto"> <li><a href="/" title="Niveaux" class="nav-link">Accueil</a></li> <li><a href="/atlas/" title="Atlas" class="nav-link">Atlas</a></li><li><a href="/datapays/" title="DataPays" class="nav-link">DataPays</a></li><li><a href="/classification/" title="Classification" class="nav-link">Classification</a></li><li><a href="/dictionnaire/" title="Dictionnaire français Universalis : retrouvez toutes les définitions, étymologies, expressions, synonymes, exemples, et flexions de plus de 120 000 mots de la langue française." class="nav-link">Dictionnaire</a></li><li><a href="https://boutique.universalis.fr" title="Boutique" class="nav-link">Boutique</a></li> </ul> </div> <form method="get" name="searchQuery" class="flex-grow-1 my-1" id="search-form" autocomplete="off" action="/recherche/redirect/"> <div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@extension]" value="SolrData" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@controller]" value="SearchForm" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@action]" value="showFr" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][arguments]" value="YTowOnt9789d077876a7a0adeb4a9a4c4853f315af9bb201" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@request]" value="{"@extension":"SolrData","@controller":"SearchForm","@action":"showFr"}db953a457671272659a1e7710096726899d321a7" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__trustedProperties]" value="{"data-action":1,"searchQuery":{"resultType":1,"searchedString":1}}36e15bfcc110b23d6ba91a6810381c8ec6b87146" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[data-action]" value="https://www.universalis.fr/recherche/___searchedString___/article/1/" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][resultType]" value="ARTICLE" /> <div class="input-wrapper input-group"> <input placeholder="Rechercher sur Universalis" class="form-control" id="searchedString" autocomplete="off" type="text" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][searchedString]" value="" /> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-sm btn-light"> <span class="d-none d-md-block">Recherche</span> <span class="visually-hidden">Recherche</span> <span class="d-md-none"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-magnifying-glass"></i></span> </button> </div> </form> <button title="Afficher / masquer le menu du site" class="navbar-toggler ms-1" type="button" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbar-collapse-grid"> <span class="navbar-toggler-icon"></span> </button> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <main class="site-fr container main rounded-bottom shadow mb-3"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="ad_topslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_4de68c3a6b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <div class="free-toc-container"> <ul id="free-toc" class="collapse list-group shadow-sm mb-1" style="overflow: hidden"> <li class="list-group-item active"> <a class="d-block" title="PRÉDATION, Les données du problème" href="/encyclopedie/predation/"> 1. Les données du problème </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="PRÉDATION, La prédation chez les invertébrés" href="/encyclopedie/predation/2-la-predation-chez-les-invertebres/"> 2. La prédation chez les invertébrés </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="PRÉDATION, La prédation chez les vertébrés" href="/encyclopedie/predation/3-la-predation-chez-les-vertebres/"> 3. La prédation chez les vertébrés </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="PRÉDATION, L'envers de la prédation" href="/encyclopedie/predation/4-l-envers-de-la-predation/"> 4. L'envers de la prédation </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="PRÉDATION, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/predation/5-bibliographie/"> 5. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>PRÉDATION</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yP150121_0"><i class="anchor" id="yP150121_0"></i><p>La prédation, activité qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements très complexes et très différents suivant les espèces. Elle pose de graves problèmes aussi bien à l' <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L 'éthologie est la science qui étudie l'évolution du comportement animal . Raymond Campan et Felicita Scapini (2002) ajoutent que l'éthologie est l'étude du comportement dans toutes ses manifestations et à tous les niveaux (de la cellule à l'organisme entier, dans les sociétés animales), des causes qui le déterminent et de ses fonctions. Vaste programme qui illustre à lui seul la ..." title="Article : ÉTHOLOGIE" href="/encyclopedie/ethologie/">éthologie</a> qu'à la science de l'évolution.</p><p>Les éthologistes ont mis assez longtemps à accorder à la prédation toute l'attention qu'elle méritait. On s'était plutôt intéressé jusque-là aux comportements de rapprochement des sexes ou de soins aux jeunes. Pourtant, des études déjà nombreuses sur ce sujet mettent en évidence des comportements très complexes faisant appel aux facultés cérébrales les plus élevées. On décèle notamment la présence de stratégies de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La chasse est passée en quelques milliers d'années d'une pratique de survie à celle d'un loisir, en passant par la splendeur d'une représentation de l'autorité seigneuriale et royale. Un encadrement juridique de rigueur croissante et une intolérance à la mort animale conduisent cette pratique ancestrale à une remise en cause inédite.. Actuellement, alors qu'il n'existe en France aucun..." title="Article : CHASSE" href="/encyclopedie/chasse/">chasse</a> peu différentes de celles qu'emploient les hommes.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yP150121_1"><i class="anchor" id="yP150121_1"></i><h2>Les données du problème</h2><p><em>Prédation et</em><em> agression</em>. Contrairement à ce qu'on pourrait croire, la différence est grande entre ces deux termes. Le comportement d'agression s'exerce entre sujets de la même espèce et très souvent de la même bande ou de la même famille. Il se manifeste par toute une série d'attitudes dites de menace, hautement ritualisées ; la conclusion n'en est pas nécessairement le combat avec blessures, mais le plus souvent le retrait de l'animal qui se sent dominé. La prédation est interspécifique. Le comportement de chasse qui précède la capture de la proie et même la mise à mort de celle-ci doivent être distingués avec soin du comportement d'agression. Les attitudes et les mimiques ne sont pas du tout les mêmes. Il suffit pour en être convaincu d'observer le comportement du chat qui a capturé une souris : le félin ne présente pas les signes de la colère qui sont si nets quand il s'en prend, par exemple, à un congénère. Bien au contraire, son attitude est plutôt celle du jeu. La prédation fait intervenir les comportements les plus compliqués et souvent les plus difficiles à interpréter.</p><p><em>L'aspect philosophique</em>. On n'ignore pas les controverses infinies sur l'agression : est-elle innée ou acquise, y a-t-il des gènes de l'agression, doit-on étudier les phénomènes d'agression chez l'homme du point de vue génétique, etc. ? Ces controverses sont sans intérêt réel : elles n'expriment que des convictions idéologiques et politiques, les adversaires ayant leur solution toute prête et cherchant à écraser l'interlocuteur plutôt qu'à le convaincre. Nous sommes ici tout à fait en dehors de la science.</p><p>Malheureusement, nous n'échappons pas à l'idéologie en traitant de la prédation. La <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La sociobiologie désigne la recherche systématique des bases biologiques des comportements sociaux. Le terme a été créé au début des années 1940 dans le contexte de l’étude des comportements des insectes sociaux. Il est devenu populaire à partir de 1975 avec la publication de l’ouvrage Sociobiology : The N ew S ynthesi s , rédigé par l’entomologiste américain Edward O...." title="Article : SOCIOBIOLOGIE" href="/encyclopedie/sociobiologie/">sociobiologie</a>, que nourrit un néodarwinisme particulièrement naïf, soutient que la sélection naturelle a forcément optimisé toutes les conduites et en particulier celles de prédation ; cette école aboutit, en fait, à un finalisme forcené. Là non plus, nous ne sommes pas tout à fait sur un terrain strictement scientifique : les sociobiologistes ne cherchent pas la vérité avec un esprit parfaitement libre, ils veulent surtout trouver de nouveaux arguments à l'appui d'une théorie préétablie. Nous en dirons quelques mots à propos de la prédation chez les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Dans le monde animal , les Vertébrés appartiennent au phylum (embranchement) des Cordés caractérisés comme métazoaires, triploblastiques, cœlomates, deutérostomiens à symétrie bilatérale, épineuriens, qui possèdent, à l'état embryonnaire au moins, superposés dans le plan de symétrie bilatérale, des organes dits axiaux : tube nerveux dorsal, corde, tube digestif ventral dont ..." title="Article : VERTÉBRÉS" href="/encyclopedie/vertebres/">vertébrés</a>.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="P150121_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="CHAUVIN, Rémy"><a title="Auteur : Rémy CHAUVIN" rel="author" href="/auteurs/remy-chauvin/"><strong>Rémy CHAUVIN</strong></a> : professeur titulaire à l'université René-Descartes-Sorbonne </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : PRÉDATION" href="/carte-mentale/predation/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yP150121_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Éthologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/ethologie/"> Éthologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Comportement animal"> <a title="Classification : Comportement animal" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/ethologie/comportement-animal/"> Comportement animal </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Monde animal" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/"> Monde animal </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Invertébrés"> <a title="Classification : Invertébrés" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/invertebres/"> Invertébrés </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 3"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> Sciences de la vie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Zoologie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/"> Zoologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Monde animal" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/"> Monde animal </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Cordés" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/cordes/"> Cordés </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Craniates" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/cordes/craniates/"> Craniates </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Vertébrés"> <a title="Classification : Vertébrés" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/zoologie/monde-animal/cordes/craniates/vertebres/"> Vertébrés </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yP150121_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Média</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-12 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH991018" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Agélène (<it>Agelena labyrinthica</it>), araignée" href="/media/agelene-agelena-labyrinthica-araignee-ph991018/"> <img id="PH991018" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_ph991018_1076fdd04c.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Agélène (<it>Agelena labyrinthica</it>), araignée - crédits : Christoph Burki/ Getty Images" data-description="Cette espèce d'araignée fabrique une toile en forme de nappe prolongée par un entonnoir, sur le bord duquel elle se tient ici. Sur cet individu femelle, de l'avant vers l'arrière, on distingue: les deux chélicères (masse noire à l'avant de la tête), puis la paire de pédipalpes et enfin les quatre…" data-copyright="Christoph Burki/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="689" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Agélène (<it>Agelena labyrinthica</it>), araignée </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Christoph Burki/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yP150121_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/animal-modalites-alimentaires/#c89163"> <span class="rg">ANIMAUX </span><span class="pc">MODES D'ALIMENTATION DES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">René LAFONT</span> et <span rel="author">Martine MAÏBECHE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">4 312 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> La majorité des animaux carnivores (qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec le taxon des Carnivores) sont des carnassiers prédateurs : la masse alimentaire est mobile et il y a nécessité de capturer la proie avant ingestion, avec des organes spécialisés (pouvant déverser des <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Les venins sont des sécrétions toxiques produites par de nombreuses espèces animales grâce à une glande exocrine spécialisée, la glande venimeuse. Les animaux pourvus d'un tel système sont dits venimeux. Par définition, ces toxines agissent par voie parentérale, c'est-à-dire par pénétration dans le milieu intérieur d'un être vivant, après rupture de la barrière cutanéo-muq..." title="Article : VENINS" href="/encyclopedie/venins/">venins</a> toxiques) et... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/arachnides/#c89163"> <span class="rg">ARACHNIDES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Christine ROLLARD</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 671 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : ARACHNIDES" href="/encyclopedie/arachnides/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Uropyge - crédits : R. M. Bolton/ Shutterstock" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/0/csm_ph143182_c59052032e.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Les arachnides sont des organismes <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme carnivore désigne à la fois un régime alimentaire et un ordre de mammifères comprenant des prédateurs, mais aussi des charognards et des espèces omnivores, voire végétariennes.. Les animaux appartenant à cet ordre sont caractérisés par la présence de dents carnassières (quatrième prémolaire supérieure et première molaire inférieure) qui sont développées et ada..." title="Article : MAMMIFÈRES CARNIVORES" href="/encyclopedie/carnivores/">carnivores</a>, la plupart <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme insectivore désigne aussi bien un animal dont le régime alimentaire est à dominante d' insectes et d'invertébrés, qu'un ordre de mammifères qui aujourd'hui n'a plus aucune signification du point de vue de la classification. En fait, l'adaptation à l'insectivorie conduit à un ensemble de caractères anatomiques convergents qu'on a longtemps pris pour des rapports de parent�..." title="Article : INSECTIVORES" href="/encyclopedie/insectivores/">insectivores</a>. Les proies sont capturées à l’aide des chélicères et des pédipalpes, selon des techniques de chasse très diversifiées, qu’elles soient actives ou passives, en utilisant ou non des pièges. Leur <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme « digestion » désigne l’ensemble des transformations, d'ordre mécanique ou chimique, subies par les aliments dans le tube digestif avant de parvenir à l'état sous lequel ils sont assimilables par les cellules ( T résor de la langue française informatisé ).. Les aliments absorbés sont presque invariablement complexes, ils doivent être décomposés en molécules plus simple..." title="Article : DIGESTION" href="/encyclopedie/digestion/">digestion</a> est partiellement... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/araignees-araneides/#c89163"> <span class="rg">ARAIGNÉES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">ARANÉIDES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Christine ROLLARD</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">5 386 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">7 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : ARAIGN&Eacute;ES ou ARAN&Eacute;IDES" href="/encyclopedie/araignees-araneides/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Épeire fasciée, araignée - crédits : B. De Reviers" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/4/8/csm_ph130070b_e2636c8a03.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Les araignées sont des animaux <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme carnivore désigne à la fois un régime alimentaire et un ordre de mammifères comprenant des prédateurs, mais aussi des charognards et des espèces omnivores, voire végétariennes.. Les animaux appartenant à cet ordre sont caractérisés par la présence de dents carnassières (quatrième prémolaire supérieure et première molaire inférieure) qui sont développées et ada..." title="Article : MAMMIFÈRES CARNIVORES" href="/encyclopedie/carnivores/">carnivores</a>. Elles ne se nourrissent que de proies vivantes. Leurs comportements de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La prédation, activité qu'il ne faut pas confondre avec l'agression, met en jeu des comportements très complexes et très différents suivant les espèces. Elle pose de graves problèmes aussi bien à l' éthologie qu'à la science de l'évolution.. Les éthologistes ont mis assez longtemps à accorder à la prédation toute l'attention qu'elle méritait. On s'était plutôt intéressé jus..." title="Article : PRÉDATION" href="/encyclopedie/predation/">prédation</a> sont diversifiés ainsi que les moyens utilisés. Il existe de nombreuses stratégies de capture, avec ou sans piège. Les modes de chasse et la structure de l'habitat conditionnent... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/biocenoses/#c89163"> <span class="rg">BIOCÉNOSES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Paul DUVIGNEAUD</span> , <span rel="author">Maxime LAMOTTE</span> , <span rel="author">Didier LAVERGNE</span> et <span rel="author">Jean-Marie PÉRÈS</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">9 774 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">8 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : BIOC&Eacute;NOSES" href="/encyclopedie/biocenoses/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Forêt caducifoliée - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/8/c/csm_v040127_37c542ee7f.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...les <em>chaînes alimentaires</em>, qu'il vaut mieux d'ailleurs appeler <em>réseaux trophiques</em>, car les interrelations y sont innombrables. De fait, un prédateur capture souvent des proies très diverses qui varient par surcroît au cours de sa vie, et inversement un animal ou une plante peuvent être victimes... </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/predation/"> Afficher les 21 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_f303c484f7.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item d-none d-md-inline-block"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2024 Encyclopædia Universalis France. Tous droits de propriété industrielle et intellectuelle réservés.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <script>(()=>{var e,a,r,_,d,c={},b={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=b[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var r=b[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return c[e].call(r.exports,r,r.exports,__webpack_require__),r.loaded=!0,r.exports}__webpack_require__.m=c,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var r in a)__webpack_require__.o(a,r)&&!__webpack_require__.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:a[r]})},__webpack_require__.f={},__webpack_require__.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(__webpack_require__.f).reduce(((a,r)=>(__webpack_require__.f[r](e,a),a)),[])),__webpack_require__.u=e=>"js/"+e+"."+{13:"80d7e21db2f95ae99720",26:"378d7d0789f5af40346c",32:"f20d73ca82d98e7527c8",69:"7313a4f3fed161acce4b",89:"c626d929711e7d9749bb",596:"f42a3891c8a58bdfb96a",603:"ea3de1982fc803344bdd",689:"31c396836cb7e99e178d",709:"d4e0658f463af05ae223",897:"3e91b02003555b671e4b",1095:"9e59e92f30df1ec926e4",1203:"76e8c707d971e06822da",1250:"9865f41df828b2e8b447",1292:"93adae3e6784d8a8a976",1349:"9efae443d9392248187c",1377:"446728afc62ef1c19520",1394:"86027a2d101b1eb260c8",1419:"1387d471be2d6ae0a0aa",1641:"20b900e0adda4c80db1d",1651:"c86d270cf7725cab1d79",1956:"74c8ff5a5ca0f4903469",2034:"10aef63b282d61d6c639",2035:"e1aebed4bfd6bd09ee7e",2353:"44bbdb8df13e8a622208",2372:"a22ed3ddae437e986477",2724:"0bf0368274ee9e0747d2",2832:"eb28f9840b1271c7d62a",2936:"62bb94fb29069bd56587",2966:"2c1ff93e3007f7225cb8",2979:"d966b75bfce67342eeac",3107:"4ae39080543abe3da100",3138:"75edb076a18972355143",3195:"8dc5dbdee19baf1191a1",3292:"4204bb21e63dbda3313b",3493:"b843364884901abc3eb0",3559:"0407e4aa7480eddd0ef1",3581:"e65b43625d381405a12c",3716:"d6ab7b12b699eee673e0",3862:"4213b001dbf03cea161e",3963:"49b1c889b28a0c5714d1",4123:"874e7dece76e9760a495",4152:"70172b2b6a2202bc19e4",4254:"05f327b93d437c2f3601",4299:"37495161e93e1b14a62a",4325:"88bc29304269c158b066",4407:"767000e4cd0f3e15307e",4512:"f82c4b423f5c0dbd30dd",4531:"7457626c1fb01d704537",4644:"2721494c4c12cc6d3bc2",4785:"a097bbcd58df09778180",4840:"1b05bd12ede150f03e77",4947:"676f3abafc2b02c5fa31",5015:"211414a16467b37cae34",5058:"c0ca6a30fe8b53f6d2b2",5106:"908216bcff18d3fd7aad",5133:"74d1d5d467c9be5ef47a",5267:"e5a307f4cc5995492285",5274:"0be3aa33d3ffc719dcff",5505:"313286a530596f7a6b25",5662:"9b43b1237225d7ff7542",5667:"851d77804ca881f31ac9",5797:"861f7e8a005e9a4063c6",5865:"f1a798618f3b6f9903b0",5977:"bf7db06c1133a66449f3",5987:"028c01be18ffb17f5482",6017:"f4e0251f6746e3f339f1",6322:"30a126263c6970e6793a",6363:"9d5f249f8ba4467549c4",6574:"6f9df14941f855202a9d",6903:"d6dfc26ae3076c85ed1f",7024:"f436d8b414f7a558c554",7084:"4cdc22dfd7d247240602",7090:"291628b7c2c07c2d6f94",7131:"c27aefd28ade057122d1",7204:"3e5234153f1f490db272",7262:"0380fb22702b7b1fbf61",7269:"a46d5b5fe65c5fd574e8",7329:"430ef38cd030411e470c",7335:"920664487a3d2ae93e13",7345:"66b366ea63a5ec112a1d",7357:"557d366dc6db747c3062",7363:"f3c9aaf269ff7f29b793",7369:"38be51a057fc00f0f7ef",7539:"45b957bf1324ccf78ffe",7697:"35e517bb715e4b5c7b10",7794:"4e5dcc0a46043951fd82",8010:"1d4a0c12caaaca4542da",8113:"1a49932d3f9f58a0e19b",8151:"286ead9d06e13c599aa4",8211:"983a3e4ce7f9d841c8fb",8224:"972a60c780f0448a5f47",8236:"2aead7cb9f823d2b0bd9",8285:"01146be20c37f70177c6",8519:"69cf4d6707f67ab66004",8603:"5723927781ff4ed61db8",8661:"7093c6c8677b30f38493",8852:"d237c16bb6b8e4258674",9019:"633dbe3b28ca96a0abf5",9049:"d9917b1342dda4789bae",9198:"097d936d40dd0f3aa9da",9229:"5d03eb6d1503a7e3708e",9411:"fa23eea5dd4e55cc2da6",9416:"6ee4ffb0e861caab07f2",9529:"f93f4d7733e910b1cad8",9612:"48e1d8ac85448df568dc",9767:"51e75328b2c6a3d3fe16"}[e]+".bundle.js",__webpack_require__.miniCssF=e=>4826===e?"css/index.css":"css/"+e+".css",__webpack_require__.g=function(){if("object"==typeof globalThis)return globalThis;try{return this||new Function("return this")()}catch(e){if("object"==typeof window)return window}}(),__webpack_require__.o=(e,a)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,a),e={},a="@universalis/web_fr:",__webpack_require__.l=(r,_,d,c)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(_);else{var b,f;if(void 0!==d)for(var t=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),i=0;i<t.length;i++){var n=t[i];if(n.getAttribute("src")==r||n.getAttribute("data-webpack")==a+d){b=n;break}}b||(f=!0,(b=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",b.timeout=120,__webpack_require__.nc&&b.setAttribute("nonce",__webpack_require__.nc),b.setAttribute("data-webpack",a+d),b.src=r),e[r]=[_];var onScriptComplete=(a,_)=>{b.onerror=b.onload=null,clearTimeout(u);var d=e[r];if(delete e[r],b.parentNode&&b.parentNode.removeChild(b),d&&d.forEach((e=>e(_))),a)return a(_)},u=setTimeout(onScriptComplete.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:b}),12e4);b.onerror=onScriptComplete.bind(null,b.onerror),b.onload=onScriptComplete.bind(null,b.onload),f&&document.head.appendChild(b)}},__webpack_require__.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},__webpack_require__.nmd=e=>(e.paths=[],e.children||(e.children=[]),e),__webpack_require__.p="/_web/assets/",r=(e,a,r)=>{var _=document.createElement("link");return _.rel="stylesheet",_.type="text/css",_.onload=a,_.onerror=function(a){var d=a&&a.target&&a.target.src||e,c=new Error("Loading CSS chunk "+chunkId+" failed.\n("+d+")");c.code="CSS_CHUNK_LOAD_FAILED",c.request=d,_.parentNode.removeChild(_),r(c)},_.href=e,document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(_),_},_=e=>new Promise(((a,_)=>{var d=__webpack_require__.miniCssF(e),c=__webpack_require__.p+d;if(((e,a)=>{for(var r=document.getElementsByTagName("link"),_=0;_<r.length;_++){var d=(b=r[_]).getAttribute("data-href")||b.getAttribute("href");if("stylesheet"===b.rel&&(d===e||d===a))return b}var c=document.getElementsByTagName("style");for(_=0;_<c.length;_++){var b;if((d=(b=c[_]).getAttribute("data-href"))===e||d===a)return b}})(d,c))return a();r(c,a,_)})),d={4826:0},__webpack_require__.f.miniCss=(e,a)=>{d[e]?a.push(d[e]):0!==d[e]&&{1203:1,2724:1,2979:1,4644:1,5667:1,6363:1}[e]&&a.push(d[e]=_(e).then((()=>{d[e]=0}),(a=>{throw delete d[e],a})))},(()=>{var e={4826:0};__webpack_require__.f.j=(a,r)=>{var _=__webpack_require__.o(e,a)?e[a]:void 0;if(0!==_)if(_)r.push(_[2]);else{var d=new Promise(((r,d)=>_=e[a]=[r,d]));r.push(_[2]=d);var c=__webpack_require__.p+__webpack_require__.u(a),b=new Error;__webpack_require__.l(c,(r=>{if(__webpack_require__.o(e,a)&&(0!==(_=e[a])&&(e[a]=void 0),_)){var d=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),c=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;b.message="Loading chunk "+a+" failed.\n("+d+": "+c+")",b.name="ChunkLoadError",b.type=d,b.request=c,_[1](b)}}),"chunk-"+a,a)}};var webpackJsonpCallback=(a,r)=>{var _,d,[c,b,f]=r,t=0;if(c.some((a=>0!==e[a]))){for(_ in b)__webpack_require__.o(b,_)&&(__webpack_require__.m[_]=b[_]);if(f)f(__webpack_require__)}for(a&&a(r);t<c.length;t++)d=c[t],__webpack_require__.o(e,d)&&e[d]&&e[d][0](),e[d]=0},a=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr||[];a.forEach(webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,0)),a.push=webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,a.push.bind(a))})(),__webpack_require__.nc=void 0,document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",(function(){__webpack_require__.e(3138).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,73138)).then((function(){Promise.all([__webpack_require__.e(9529),__webpack_require__.e(2372)]).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,82372)).then((function(e){e.default()}))}))}))})();</script> <script> let eu_article_ucode = "P150121"</script> </body> </html>