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href="#High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_implies_sex-selective_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 High or low human sex ratio implies sex-selective abortion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_implies_sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_may_be_natural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_may_be_natural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 High or low human sex ratio may be natural </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_may_be_natural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_on_human_sex_ratio_at_birth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_on_human_sex_ratio_at_birth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Data on human sex ratio at birth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_on_human_sex_ratio_at_birth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_reliability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_reliability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Data reliability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_reliability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prenatal_sex_discernment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_sex_discernment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Prenatal sex discernment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_sex_discernment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa_and_the_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_and_the_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Africa and the Middle East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_and_the_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Asia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Asia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Pakistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 South Korea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Asian_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Asian_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Other Asian countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Asian_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Europe </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Europe subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caucasus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caucasus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Caucasus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caucasus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Southeast Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Americas </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Americas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Americas subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Other countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimates_of_missing_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimates_of_missing_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Estimates of missing women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimates_of_missing_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disparate_gendered_access_to_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disparate_gendered_access_to_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Disparate gendered access to resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disparate_gendered_access_to_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_sex-selective_abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_sex-selective_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Reasons for sex-selective abortion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reasons_for_sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reasons for sex-selective abortion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Socioeconomic_reasons_for_son_preference_and_daughter_aversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socioeconomic_reasons_for_son_preference_and_daughter_aversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Socioeconomic reasons for son preference and daughter aversion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socioeconomic_reasons_for_son_preference_and_daughter_aversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_preference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_preference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Cultural preference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_preference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dowry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dowry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.2 Dowry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dowry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trivers–Willard_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trivers–Willard_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.3 Trivers–Willard hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trivers–Willard_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-child_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-child_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 One-child policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-child_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Societal effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Societal effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Missing_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missing_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Missing women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missing_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trafficking,_forced_marriage_and_sex_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trafficking,_forced_marriage_and_sex_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Trafficking, forced marriage and sex work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trafficking,_forced_marriage_and_sex_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Widening_of_the_gender_social_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Widening_of_the_gender_social_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Widening of the gender social gap </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Widening_of_the_gender_social_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_positive_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_positive_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Potential positive effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_positive_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Controversies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex-selective_abortion_in_the_context_of_abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex-selective_abortion_in_the_context_of_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Sex-selective abortion in the context of abortion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex-selective_abortion_in_the_context_of_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws,_campaigns_and_policies_against_sex-selective_abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws,_campaigns_and_policies_against_sex-selective_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Laws, campaigns and policies against sex-selective abortion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Laws,_campaigns_and_policies_against_sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Laws, campaigns and policies against sex-selective abortion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Laws,_campaigns_and_policies_against_sex-selective_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 International </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 By country </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sex-selective abortion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" > 23 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3" title="الإجهاض الانتقائي بسبب الجنس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإجهاض الانتقائي بسبب الجنس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="লিঙ্গ ভিত্তিক গৰ্ভপাত – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লিঙ্গ ভিত্তিক গৰ্ভপাত" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selektiv_abort" title="Selektiv abort – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Selektiv abort" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="লিঙ্গভিত্তিক গর্ভপাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গভিত্তিক গর্ভপাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avortament_selectiu_en_funci%C3%B3_del_sexe" title="Avortament selectiu en funció del sexe – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Avortament selectiu en funció del sexe" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschlechtsselektive_Abtreibung" title="Geschlechtsselektive Abtreibung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschlechtsselektive Abtreibung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aborto_selectivo_por_sexo" title="Aborto selectivo por sexo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aborto selectivo por sexo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortu_selektibo" title="Abortu selektibo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Abortu selektibo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%82%D8%B7_%D8%AC%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="سقط جنین بر پایه جنسیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سقط جنین بر پایه جنسیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avortement_sexo-s%C3%A9lectif" title="Avortement sexo-sélectif – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Avortement sexo-sélectif" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%BE_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE_%D5%B0%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A8%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Սեռով պայմանավորված հղիության ընդհատում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեռով պայմանավորված հղիության ընդհատում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="कन्या भ्रूण हत्या – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कन्या भ्रूण हत्या" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aborsi_selektif_jenis_kelamin" title="Aborsi selektif jenis kelamin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aborsi selektif jenis kelamin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="भ्रूणहत्या – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भ्रूणहत्या" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnsseleksjon_ved_hjelp_av_abort_eller_spedbarnsdrap" title="Kjønnsseleksjon ved hjelp av abort eller spedbarnsdrap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjønnsseleksjon ved hjelp av abort eller spedbarnsdrap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AE%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86" title="د جنسيت له مخې د ماشوم زيان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جنسيت له مخې د ماشوم زيان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aborto_seletivo" title="Aborto seletivo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aborto seletivo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion_and_infanticide&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex-selective abortion and infanticide">Sex-selective abortion and infanticide</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pregnancy termination based on predicted sex</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/300px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/450px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg/600px-2012_Birth_Sex_Ratio_World_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>World map of birth sex ratios, 2012</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movement in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li>Sex-selective abortion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sex-selective abortion is the practice of terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the infant. The selective <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> of female fetuses is most common where male children are valued over female children, especially in parts of <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> (particularly in countries such as <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>), as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Balkans">Western Balkans</a>, and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_1999-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gettis-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-czgparis-3">[3]</a> Based on the third National Family and Health Survey, results showed that if both partners, mother and father, or just the father, preferred male children, sex-selective abortion was more common. In cases where only the mother prefers sons, this is likely to result in sex-selective neglect in which the child is not likely to survive past infancy.<a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-4">[4]</a> Sex-selective abortion was first documented in 1975,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> and became commonplace by the late 1980s in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and China and around the same time or slightly later in India. Sex-selective abortion affects the <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_ratio" title="Human sex ratio">human sex ratio</a>—the relative number of males to females in a given age group,<a href="#cite_note-coevolution-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> with China and India, the two <a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states and dependencies by population">most populous countries</a> of the world, having unbalanced gender ratios. Studies and reports focusing on sex-selective abortion are predominantly statistical; they assume that birth-sex ratio—the overall ratio of boys and girls at birth—for a regional population is an indicator of sex-selective abortion. This assumption has been questioned by some scholars.<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a> Researchers have shown that in India there are approximately 50,000 to 100,000 female abortions each year, significantly affecting the human sex ratio.<a href="#cite_note-Nandi_2015-9">[9]</a> Recent studies have expanded the understanding of this issue by quantifying trends in conditional sex ratios (CSRs) among Asian diaspora populations in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US, showing that sex selection practices have persisted among diaspora communities from 1999 to 2019.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Research into the past four decades of sex-selective abortions in China highlights the significant role these practices have played in shaping the country's demographic profile, despite challenges in estimating exact numbers due to underreporting and the controversial level of sex ratio at birth (SRB).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> According to demographic scholarship, the expected birth-sex ratio range is 103 to 107 males to 100 females at birth.<a href="#cite_note-unfpa2012-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-kseb-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-naturalratio-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_sex_ratio_at_birth">Human sex ratio at birth</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Human sex ratio at birth">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_ratio" title="Human sex ratio">Human sex ratio</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abortion_Laws.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abortion_Laws.svg/400px-Abortion_Laws.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abortion_Laws.svg/600px-Abortion_Laws.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Abortion_Laws.svg/800px-Abortion_Laws.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2756" data-file-height="1399" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_ratio" title="Human sex ratio">human sex ratio</a> at birth can vary for natural reasons as well as from sex-selective abortion. In many nations abortion is legal (see above map, dark blue).</figcaption></figure> Sex-selective abortion affects the <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_ratio" title="Human sex ratio">human sex ratio</a>—the relative number of males to females in a given age group.<a href="#cite_note-coevolution-6">[6]</a> Studies and reports that discuss sex-selective abortion are based on the assumption that birth sex ratio—the overall ratio of boys and girls at birth for a regional population, is an indicator of sex-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> The natural human sex ratio at birth was estimated, in a 2002 study, to be close to 106 boys to 100 girls.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11976243-16">[16]</a> Human sex ratio at birth that is significantly different from 106 is often assumed to be correlated to the prevalence and scale of sex-selective abortion. Countries considered to have significant practices of sex-selective abortion are those with birth sex ratios of 108 and above (selective abortion of females), and 102 and below (selective abortion of males).<a href="#cite_note-unfpa2012-12">[12]</a> This assumption is controversial, and the subject of continuing scientific studies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_implies_sex-selective_abortion">High or low human sex ratio implies sex-selective abortion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: High or low human sex ratio implies sex-selective abortion">edit</a>]</div> One school of scholars suggest that any birth sex ratio of boys to girls that is outside of the normal 105–107 range, necessarily implies sex-selective abortion. These scholars<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> claim that both the sex ratio at birth and the population sex ratio are remarkably constant in human populations. Significant deviations in birth sex ratios from the normal range can only be explained by manipulation, that is sex-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> In a widely cited article,<a href="#cite_note-Sen_1990-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> compared the birth sex ratio in Europe (106) and the United States (105) with those in Asia (107+) and argued that the high sex ratios in East Asia, West Asia and South Asia may be due to excessive female mortality. Sen pointed to research that had shown that if men and women receive similar nutritional and medical attention and good health care then females have better survival rates, and it is the male which is the genetically fragile sex.<a href="#cite_note-kseb-13">[13]</a> Sen estimated <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of Asia">'missing women' from extra women who would have survived in Asia</a> if it had the same ratio of women to men as Europe and the United States. According to Sen, the high birth sex ratio over decades implies a female shortfall of 11% in Asia, or over 100 million women as missing from the 3 billion combined population of South Asia, West Asia, North Africa and China. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_or_low_human_sex_ratio_may_be_natural">High or low human sex ratio may be natural</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: High or low human sex ratio may be natural">edit</a>]</div> Other scholars question whether birth sex ratio outside 103–107 can be due to natural reasons. William James and others<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meslé_2007-23">[23]</a> suggest that conventional assumptions have been: <ul><li>there are equal numbers of X and Y chromosomes in mammalian sperms</li> <li>X and Y stand equal chance of achieving conception</li> <li>therefore equal number of male and female zygotes are formed, and that</li> <li>therefore any variation of sex ratio at birth is due to sex selection between conception and birth.</li></ul> James cautions that available scientific evidence stands against the above assumptions and conclusions. He reports that there is an excess of males at birth in almost all human populations, and the natural sex ratio at birth is usually between 102 and 108. However the ratio may deviate significantly from this range for natural reasons such as early marriage and fertility, teenage mothers, average maternal age at birth, paternal age, age gap between father and mother, late births, ethnicity, social and economic stress, warfare, environmental and hormonal effects.<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> This school of scholars support their alternate hypothesis with historical data when modern sex-selection technologies were unavailable, as well as birth sex ratio in sub-regions, and various ethnic groups of developed economies.<a href="#cite_note-rjhmam-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-tvlkjt-26">[26]</a> They suggest that direct abortion data should be collected and studied, instead of drawing conclusions indirectly from human sex ratio at birth. James' hypothesis is supported by historical birth sex ratio data before technologies for ultrasonographic sex-screening were discovered and commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, as well by reverse abnormal sex ratios currently observed in Africa. Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys.<a href="#cite_note-Garenne_2004-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different from the presumed 104 to 106 as natural human birth sex ratio.<a href="#cite_note-Garenne_2004-27">[27]</a>: 95  <a href="/wiki/John_Graunt" title="John Graunt">John Graunt</a> noted that in London over a 35-year period in the 17th century (1628–62),<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> the birth sex ratio was 1.07; while Korea's historical records suggest a birth sex ratio of 1.13, based on 5 million births, in 1920s over a 10-year period.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Other historical records from Asia too support James' hypothesis. For example, Jiang et al. claim that the birth sex ratio in China was 116–121 over a 100-year period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; in the 120–123 range in the early 20th century; falling to 112 in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_on_human_sex_ratio_at_birth">Data on human sex ratio at birth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Data on human sex ratio at birth">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, the sex ratios at birth over the period 1970–2002 were 105 for the white non-Hispanic population, 104 for Mexican Americans, 103 for African Americans and Native Americans, and 107 for mothers of Chinese or Filipino ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-NCHS-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the aggregated results of 56 Demographic and Health Surveys<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> in African countries, the birth sex ratio was found to be 103, though there is also considerable country-to-country, and year-to-year variation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12617497-36">[36]</a> In a 2005 study, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported sex ratio at birth in the United States from 1940 over 62 years.<a href="#cite_note-NCHS-32">[32]</a> This statistical evidence suggested the following: For mothers having their first baby, the total sex ratio at birth was 106 overall, with some years at 107. For mothers having babies after the first, this ratio consistently decreased with each additional baby from 106 towards 103. The age of the mother affected the ratio: the overall ratio was 105 for mothers aged 25 to 35 at the time of birth; while mothers who were below the age of 15 or above 40 had babies with a sex ratio ranging between 94 and 111, and a total sex ratio of 104. This United States study also noted that American mothers of Hawaiian, Filipino, Chinese, Cuban and Japanese ethnicity had the highest sex ratio, with years as high as 114 and average sex ratio of 107 over the 62-year study period. Outside of United States, European nations with extensive birth records, such as Finland, report similar variations in birth sex ratios over a 250-year period, that is from 1751 to 1997 AD.<a href="#cite_note-tvlkjt-26">[26]</a> Female Selective abortions in Asia are predominantly practiced in areas such as Taiwan, China, and India. The Sex ratio at birth in Asia based on worldwide data is 104 and 107 males per 100 females, which was the accepted norm before sex selective abortion was available. Unfortunately, census results from 2000 are still being reviewed and currently unavailable.<a href="#cite_note-Miller_2001-37">[37]</a> In 2017, according to CIA estimates,<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> the countries with the highest birth sex ratio were <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a> (125), <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a> (116), <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (114), <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> (112), <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> (112), <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> (112), <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> (110), <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> (110), <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (110), <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> (109), <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> (109), <a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a> (109), <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (108), <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> (108) and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a> (108). Also in 2017 the lowest ratio (i.e. more girls born) was in <a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> at 83.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> There were ratios of 102 and below in several countries, most of them African countries or Black/African majority population Caribbean countries: Angola, Aruba, Barbados, Bermuda, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kazakhstan, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Togo, Uganda, Zambia.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> There is controversy about the notion of the exact natural sex ratio at birth. In a study around 2002, the natural sex ratio at birth was estimated to be close to 1.06 males/female.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11976243-16">[16]</a> There is controversy whether sex ratios outside the 103-107 range are due to sex-selection, as suggested by some scholars, or due to natural causes. The claims that unbalanced sex ratios are necessary due to sex selection have been questioned by some researchers.<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a> Some researchers argue that an unbalanced sex ratio should not be automatically held as evidence of prenatal sex-selection; Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys.<a href="#cite_note-Garenne_2004-27">[27]</a> Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different than the presumed "normal" sex ratio, meaning that significantly more girls have been born in such societies.<a href="#cite_note-Garenne_2004-27">[27]</a>: 95  In addition, in many developing countries there are problems with <a href="/wiki/Birth_registration" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth registration">birth registration</a> and data collection, which can complicate the issue.<a href="#cite_note-The_consequences_of_son_preference-39">[39]</a> With regard to the prevalence of sex selection, the media and international attention has focused mainly on a few countries, such as China, India and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, ignoring other countries with a significant sex imbalance at birth. For example, <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a>'s sex ratio is far worse than that of those countries, but little has been discussed about it, and virtually no suggestions have been made that it may practice sex selection, although it is a very conservative country where <a href="/wiki/1984_Liechtenstein_women%27s_suffrage_referendum" title="1984 Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum">women could not vote until 1984</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> At the same time, there have been accusations that the situation in some countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, has been exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 2017, Georgia' sex ratio at birth was 107, according to CIA statistics.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_reliability">Data reliability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Data reliability">edit</a>]</div> The estimates for birth sex ratios, and thus derived sex-selective abortion, are a subject of dispute as well. For example, United States' CIA projects<a href="#cite_note-cia-44">[44]</a> the birth sex ratio for <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> to be 106, while the Switzerland's Federal Statistical Office that tracks actual live births of boys and girls every year, reports the latest birth sex ratio for Switzerland as 107.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Other variations are more significant; for example, CIA projects<a href="#cite_note-cia-44">[44]</a> the birth sex ratio for <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to be 105, United Nations FPA office claims<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> the birth sex ratio for Pakistan to be 110, while the government of Pakistan claims its average birth sex ratio is 111.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The two most studied nations with high sex ratio and sex-selective abortion are China and India. The CIA estimates<a href="#cite_note-cia-44">[44]</a> a birth sex ratio of 112 for both in recent years. However, The World Bank claims the birth sex ratio for China in 2009 was 120 boys for every 100 girls;<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> while United Nations FPA estimates China's 2011 birth sex ratio to be 118.<a href="#cite_note-unfpaaugust2012-51">[51]</a> For India, the United Nations FPA claims a birth sex ratio of 111 over 2008–10 period,<a href="#cite_note-unfpaaugust2012-51">[51]</a> while The World Bank and India's official 2011 Census reports a birth sex ratio of 108.<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> These variations and data reliability is important as a rise from 108 to 109 for India, or 117 to 118 for China, each with large populations, represent a possible sex-selective abortion of about 100,000 girls. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg/220px-%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg/330px-%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg/440px-%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E8%87%BA%E4%B8%AD%E7%B8%BD%E9%86%AB%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E5%BE%BD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Bias is due to the unreported births in hospitals which makes a slight difference on the data they report vs the census. If parents obtain sex testing before birth, and abortion was made and it was based on female fetus, it is more likely for the abortion to happen in the hospital for safety purposes and would have been reported. With no comparative data with hospitals vs nonhospital births the length of biased would be unable to determine opposed to those countries where most hospital births occur and are actually reported.<a href="#cite_note-Miller_2001-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prenatal_sex_discernment">Prenatal sex discernment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Prenatal sex discernment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_sex_discernment" title="Prenatal sex discernment">Prenatal sex discernment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sex_determination_ban.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sex_determination_ban.JPG/220px-Sex_determination_ban.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sex_determination_ban.JPG/330px-Sex_determination_ban.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sex_determination_ban.JPG/440px-Sex_determination_ban.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Sign in an Indian hospital stating that prenatal sex determination is not done there and is illegal</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boy.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Boy.JPG/220px-Boy.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Boy.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption>Ultrasonography image showing the fetus is a boy</figcaption></figure> The earliest post-implantation test, <a href="/wiki/Cell_free_fetal_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell free fetal DNA">cell free fetal DNA</a> testing, involves taking a blood sample from the mother and isolating the small amount of fetal <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> that can be found within it. When performed after week seven of pregnancy, this method is about 98% accurate.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a>, either transvaginally or transabdominally, checks for various markers of fetal sex. It can be performed at or after week 12 of pregnancy. At this point, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>3⁄4 of fetal sexes can be correctly determined, according to a 2001 study.<a href="#cite_note-mazza-56">[56]</a> Accuracy for males is approximately 50% and for females almost 100%. When performed after week 13 of pregnancy, ultrasonography gives an accurate result in almost 100% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-mazza-56">[56]</a> The most invasive measures are <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a> (CVS) and <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a>, which involve testing of the chorionic villus (found in the placenta) and <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a>, respectively. Both techniques typically test for <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">chromosomal disorders</a> but can also reveal the sex of the child and are performed early in the pregnancy. However, they are often more expensive and more dangerous than blood sampling or ultrasonography, so they are seen less frequently than other sex determination techniques.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Prenatal sex determination is restricted in many countries, and so is the communication of the sex of the fetus to the pregnant woman or her family, in order to prevent sex selective abortion. In India, prenatal sex determination is regulated under the <a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_and_Prenatal_Diagnostic_Techniques_(Prohibition_of_Sex_Selection)_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-conception and Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act">Pre-conception and Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act</a> 1994.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <dl><dt>Availability</dt></dl> China launched its first ultrasonography machine in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> Chinese health care clinics began introducing ultrasound technologies that could be used to determine prenatal sex in 1982. By 1991, Chinese companies were producing 5,000 ultrasonography machines per year. Almost every rural and urban hospital and family planning clinics in China had a good quality sex discernment equipment by 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> The launch of ultrasonography technology in India too occurred in 1979, but its expansion was slower than China. Ultrasound sex discernment technologies were first introduced in major cities of India in the 1980s, its use expanded in India's urban regions in the 1990s, and became widespread in the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-maydrgermany-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Africa_and_the_Middle_East">Africa and the Middle East</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Africa and the Middle East">edit</a>]</div> Sex selective abortion based on son preference is significant in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_2015-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_consequences_of_son_preference-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> The total numbers of "missing women" are about 11.9 million and 10.6 million in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> respectively, out of 23 million world-wide, according to a 2019 study.<a href="#cite_note-naturalratio-14">[14]</a> Given that the total number of recorded abortions is much lower than that, some dispute those numbers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Son_preference_in_China" title="Son preference in China">Son preference in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">Female infanticide in China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_gender_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio">List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/250px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/375px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg/500px-G106-Dajipu-to-Daye-hills-0068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A roadside slogan calls motorists to crack down on medically unnecessary antenatal sex identification and sex-selective pregnancy termination practices. (<a href="/wiki/Daye,_Hubei" class="mw-redirect" title="Daye, Hubei">Daye, Hubei</a>, 2008)</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg/250px-PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg/375px-PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg/500px-PRC_family_planning_don%27t_abandon_girls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Roadside sign in Danshan Township, which reads "It is forbidden to discriminate against, abuse or abandon baby girls"</figcaption></figure> China, the most populous country in the world, has a serious problem with an unbalanced sex ratio population. A 2010 BBC article stated that the sex birth ratio was 119 boys born per 100 girls, which rose to 130 boys per 100 girls in some rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-62">[62]</a> The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences estimated that more than 24 million Chinese men of marrying age could find themselves without spouses by 2020.<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-62">[62]</a> In 1979, China enacted the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>, which, within the country's deeply patriarchal culture, resulted in an unbalanced birth sex ratio. The one child policy was enforced throughout the years, including through <a href="/wiki/Forced_abortion" title="Forced abortion">forced abortions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced sterilization">forced sterilizations</a>, but gradually loosened until it was formally abolished in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> When sex ratio began being studied in China in 1960, it was still within the normal range. However, it climbed to 111.9 by 1990<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> and to 118 by 2010 per its official census.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Researchers believe that the causes of this sex ratio imbalance are increased female infant mortality, underreporting of female births and sex-selective abortion. According to Zeng et al. (1993), the most prominent cause is probably sex-selective abortion, but this is difficult to prove that in a country with little reliable birth data because of the hiding of "illegal" (under the One-Child Policy) births.<a href="#cite_note-zengyi93-66">[66]</a> These illegal births have led to underreporting of female infants. Zeng et al., using a reverse survival method, estimate that underreporting keeps about 2.26% male births and 5.94% female births off the books. Adjusting for unreported illegal births, they conclude that the corrected Chinese sex ratio at birth for 1989 was 111 rather than 115.<a href="#cite_note-zengyi93-66">[66]</a> These national averages over time, mask the regional sex ratio data. For example, in 2005 <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, had a sex ratio at birth of more than 130.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hesketh-68">[68]</a> Traditional Chinese techniques have been used to determine sex for hundreds of years, primarily with unknown accuracy. It was not until <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonography">ultrasonography</a> became widely available in urban and rural China that sex was able to be determined scientifically. In 1986, the Ministry of Health posted the Notice on Forbidding Prenatal Sex Determination, but it was not widely followed.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Three years later, the Ministry of Health outlawed the use of sex determination techniques, except for in diagnosing hereditary diseases.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Individuals or clinics that violated the ban on prenatal determination at the request of the mother were subject to financial penalties, and the ban was repeatedly affirmed in the 1980s, early 1990s, and early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> However, many people have personal connections to medical practitioners and strong <a href="/wiki/Son_preference" title="Son preference">son preference</a> still dominates culture, leading to the widespread use of sex determination techniques.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> Hardy, Gu, and Xie suggest sex-selective abortion is more prevalent in rural China because son preference is much stronger there.<a href="#cite_note-Xie-72">[72]</a> Urban areas of China, on average, are moving toward greater equality for both sexes, while rural China tends to follow more traditional views of gender. This is partially due to the belief that, while sons are always part of the family, daughters are only temporary, going to a new family when they marry. Additionally, if a woman's firstborn child is a son, her position in society moves up, while the same is not true of a firstborn daughter.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> Families in China are aware of the critical lack of female children and its implication on marriage prospects in the future; many parents are beginning to work extra when their sons are young so that they will be able to pay for a bride for them.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png/450px-Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png/675px-Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Sex_ratio_at_birth_in_mainland_China.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>Birth sex ratios have dramatically changed in China since the implementation of the <a href="/wiki/One-Child_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-Child Policy">One-Child Policy</a>.</figcaption></figure> In a 2005 study, Zhu, Lu, and Hesketh found that the highest sex ratio was for those ages 1–4, and two provinces, Tibet and Xinjiang, had sex ratios within normal limits. Two other provinces had a ratio over 140, four had ratios between 130 and 139, and seven had ratios between 120 and 129, each of which is significantly higher than the natural sex ratio.<a href="#cite_note-Hesketh-68">[68]</a> The birth sex ratio in China, according to a 2012 news report, has decreased to 117 males born for every 100 females.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The sex ratio peaked in 2004 at around 121, and had declined to around 112 in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The ratio was forecast to drop below 112 by 2020 and 107 by 2030, according to the National Population Development Outline by the State Council.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In December 2016, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a> reported that the missing women might be largely a result of administrative under-reporting and that delayed registration of females, instead of abortion and <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> practices. The finding questioned the earlier assumptions that rural Chinese villagers aborted their daughters on a massive scale and concluded that as many as 10 to 15 million missing women hadn't received proper birth registration since 1982.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The reason for underreporting was attributed to families trying to avoid penalties when girls were born, and local government concealing the lack of enforcement from the central government. This implied that the sex disparity of the Chinese newborns was likely exaggerated significantly in previous analyses.<a href="#cite_note-shi_kennedy-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-cnn_161201-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Though the degree of data discrepancy, the challenge in relation to sex-ratio imbalance in China is still disputed among scholars.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Female_foeticide_in_India" title="Female foeticide in India">Female foeticide in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg/200px-2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg/300px-2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg/400px-2011_Census_sex_ratio_map_for_the_states_and_Union_Territories_of_India_Boys_to_Girls_0_to_1_age_group.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="1738" /></a><figcaption>A map of India's child sex ratio, 2011.</figcaption></figure> A research by <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> based on Union government data indicates foeticide of at least 9 million females in the years 2000–2019. The research found that 86.7% of these foeticides were by <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> (80% of the population), followed by <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a> (1.7% of the population) with 4.9%, and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> (14% of the population) with 6.6%. The research also indicated an overall decline in preference for sons in the time period.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> India's 2001 census revealed a national 0–6 age child sex ratio of 108, which increased to 109 according to 2011 census (927 girls per 1000 boys and 919 girls per 1000 boys respectively, compared to expected normal ratio of 943 girls per 1000 boys).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The national average masks the variations in regional numbers according to 2011 census—Haryana's ratio was 120, Punjab's ratio was 118, Jammu & Kashmir was 116, and Gujarat's ratio was 111.<a href="#cite_note-cc2011-86">[86]</a> The 2011 Census found eastern states of India had birth sex ratios between 103 and 104, lower than normal.<a href="#cite_note-tec2011-87">[87]</a> In contrast to decadal nationwide census data, small non-random sample surveys report higher child sex ratios in India.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The child sex ratio in India shows a regional pattern. India's 2011 census found that all eastern and southern states of India had a child sex ratio between 103 and 107,<a href="#cite_note-cc2011-86">[86]</a> typically considered as the "natural ratio." The highest sex ratios were observed in India's northern and northwestern states – <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> (120), <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a> (118) and <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu & Kashmir</a> (116).<a href="#cite_note-ci20012011-89">[89]</a> The western states of Maharashtra and Rajasthan 2011 census found a child sex ratio of 113, Gujarat at 112 and Uttar Pradesh at 111.<a href="#cite_note-ci20012011-89">[89]</a> The Indian census data suggests there is a positive correlation between abnormal sex ratio and better socio-economic status and literacy. Urban India has higher child sex ratio than rural India according to 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census data, implying higher prevalence of sex selective abortion in urban India. Similarly, child sex ratio greater than 115 boys per 100 girls is found in regions where the predominant majority is Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian; furthermore "normal" child sex ratio of 104 to 106 boys per 100 girls are also found in regions where the predominant majority is Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian. These data contradict any hypotheses that may suggest that sex selection is an archaic practice which takes place among uneducated, poor sections or particular religion of the Indian society.<a href="#cite_note-cc2011-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-wbhindia-90">[90]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png/250px-India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png/375px-India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png/500px-India_Male_to_Female_Sex_Ratio_1941_1951_1961_1981_1991_2001_2011.png 2x" data-file-width="10263" data-file-height="6138" /></a><figcaption>The male to female sex ratio for India, based on its official census data from 1941 through to 2011. The data suggests the existence of high sex ratios before and after the arrival of ultrasound-based prenatal care and sex screening technologies in India.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg/200px-6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg/300px-6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg/400px-6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bourke,_6th_Earl_of_Mayo" title="Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo">Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo</a>, who was <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General of India</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Female_Infanticide_Prevention_Act,_1870" title="Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870">Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870</a>.</figcaption></figure> Rutherford and Roy, in their 2003 paper, suggest that techniques for determining sex prenatally that were pioneered in the 1970s, gained popularity in India.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> These techniques, claim Rutherford and Roy, became broadly available in 17 of 29 Indian states by the early 2000s. Such prenatal sex determination techniques, claim Sudha and Rajan in a 1999 report, where available, favored male births.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Arnold, Kishor, and Roy, in their 2002 paper, too hypothesize that modern fetal sex screening techniques have skewed child sex ratios in India.<a href="#cite_note-Arnold-93">[93]</a> Ganatra et al., in their 2000 paper, use a small survey sample to estimate that <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄6 of reported abortions followed a sex determination test.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The Indian government and various advocacy groups have continued the debate and discussion about ways to prevent sex selection. The immorality of prenatal sex selection has been questioned, with some arguments in favor of prenatal discrimination as more humane than postnatal discrimination by a family that does not want a female child. Others question whether the morality of sex selective abortion is any different over morality of abortion when there is no risk to the mother nor to the fetus, and abortion is used as a means to end an unwanted pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> India passed its first abortion-related law, the so-called Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1971, making abortion legal in most states, but specified legally acceptable reasons for abortion such as medical risk to mother and rape. The law also established physicians who can legally provide the procedure and the facilities where abortions can be performed, but did not anticipate sex selective abortion based on technology advances.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> With increasing availability of sex screening technologies in India through the 1980s in urban India, and claims of its misuse, the Government of India passed the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Conception_and_Pre-Natal_Diagnostic_Techniques_Act,_1994" title="Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994">Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PNDT)</a> in 1994. This law was further amended into the Pre-Conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) (PCPNDT) Act in 2004 to deter and punish prenatal sex screening and sex selective abortion. The impact of the law and its enforcement is unclear. However, research shows that there was about a 0.7%-1% increase in female births after the PNDT Act was passed in 1994. Unfortunately, this data was not significant.<a href="#cite_note-Nandi_2015-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a> and India's National Human Rights Commission, in 2009, asked the Government of India to assess the impact of the law. The Public Health Foundation of India, an activist NGO in its 2010 report, claimed a lack of awareness about the Act in parts of India, inactive role of the Appropriate Authorities, ambiguity among some clinics that offer prenatal care services, and the role of a few medical practitioners in disregarding the law.<a href="#cite_note-wbhindia-90">[90]</a> At the start of passing this act, women were still able to travel across borders to continue having sex-selective abortions. This was until the national PNDT was passed in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Nandi_2015-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a> of India has targeted education and media advertisements to reach clinics and medical professionals to increase awareness. The Indian Medical Association has undertaken efforts to prevent prenatal sex selection by giving its members Beti Bachao (save the daughter) badges during its meetings and conferences.<a href="#cite_note-wbhindia-90">[90]</a> In November 2007, MacPherson estimated that 100,000 abortions every year continue to be performed in India solely because the fetus is female.<a href="#cite_note-macpherson-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pakistan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_Pakistan" title="Female infanticide in Pakistan">Female infanticide in Pakistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pakistan_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/220px-Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/330px-Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/440px-Pakistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> has a tradition of sex selection. Similarly with India, the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> plays role.</figcaption></figure> For Pakistan, the United Nations Population Fund, in its 2012 report estimates the Pakistan birth sex ratio to be 110. In the urban regions, particularly its densely populated region of Punjab, report a sex ratio above 112 (less than 900 females per 1000 males).<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Hudson and Den Boer estimate the resulting deficit to be about 6 million missing girls in Pakistan than what would normally be expected.<a href="#cite_note-hudsonboer-101">[101]</a> In 2017, two Pakistani organisations discovered large cases of infanticide in Pakistani cities. This was led by the Edhi Foundation and Chhipa Welfare Foundation. The infanticide was mainly almost all were female infants. The reason given by the local authorities were poverty and local customs, where boys are preferred to girls. However, the large discovery in Karachi shows that many of the female infants were killed because of the local Islamic clerics, who ordered that out-of-wedlock babies should be disregarded. This is due to the fact that fornication is a major sin in Islam, although it is also <a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">haram</a> (forbidden) to kill an innocent soul, which babies and children fall under.<a href="#cite_note-thenews.com.pk-102">[102]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">From January 2017 to April 2018, Edhi Center foundation and Chhipa Welfare organisation have found 345 such new born babies dumped in garbage in Karachi only and 99 percent of them were girls. "We have been dealing with such cases for years and there are a few such incidents which shook our souls as much. It left us wondering whether our society is heading back to primitive age," Anwar Kazmi, a senior manager in Edhi Foundation Karachi, told The News. Edhi Foundation has found 355 such dead infants from the garbage dumps across the country in 2017; 99 percent of them were identified girls. And Karachi has topped in this notorious ranking with 180 cases in 2017. As many as 72 dead girls have been buried in the first four months of this year by Edhi Foundation alone in the metropolitan city. The given data is just tip of the iceberg as Edhi foundation maintains the data of those cities where it provides services.<a href="#cite_note-thenews.com.pk-102">[102]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: South Korea">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion_in_South_Korea" title="Sex-selective abortion in South Korea">Sex-selective abortion in South Korea</a></div> Sex-selective abortion gained popularity in the mid-1980s to early 1990s in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, where selective female abortions were commonplace as male children were preferred. Historically, much of Korea's values and traditions were based on Confucianism that dictated the patriarchal system,<a href="#cite_note-Chun_2009-103">[103]</a> motivating the heavy preference for sons. Additionally, even though the abortion ban existed, the combination of son preference and availability of sex-selective technology led to an increasing number of sex-selective abortions and boys born.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> As a result, South Korea experienced drastically high sex ratios around mid-1980s to early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Chun_2009-103">[103]</a> However, in recent years, with the changes in family policies and modernization, attitudes towards son preference have changed, normalizing the sex ratio and lowering the number of sex-selective abortions.<a href="#cite_note-Chun_2009-103">[103]</a> With that being said, there has been no explicit data on the number of induced sex selective abortions reportedly performed due to the abortion ban and controversy surrounding the topic. Therefore, scholars have been continuously analyzing and generating connections among sex-selection, abortion policies, gender discrimination, and other cultural factors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Asian_countries">Other Asian countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other Asian countries">edit</a>]</div> Other countries with large populations but high sex ratios include <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. The United Nations Population Fund, in its 2012 report,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> claims the birth sex ratio of Vietnam at 111 with its densely populated <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Red River Delta</a> region at 116. <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> has reported a sex ratio at birth between 1.07 and 1.11 every year, across 4 million births, over the 20-year period from 1991 to 2011, with the highest birth sex ratios in the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Sex-selective abortion is reported to be common in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> too, but its incidence has declined in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_consequences_of_son_preference-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> As of 2015, South Korea's sex ratio at birth was 1.07 male/female.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> had a sex ratio at birth of 1.12 male/female.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> A 2001 study on births in the late 1990s concluded that "sex selection or sex-selective abortion might be practiced among Hong Kong Chinese women".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Recently, a rise in the sex ratio at birth has been noted in some parts of <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu_Valley" title="Kathmandu Valley">Kathmandu Valley</a>, but also in districts such as <a href="/wiki/Kaski_District" title="Kaski District">Kaski</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23674444-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> High sex ratios at birth are most notable amongst richer, more educated sections of the population in urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23674444-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> Abnormal sex ratios at birth, possibly explained by growing incidence of sex-selective abortion, have also been noted in some other countries outside South and East Asia. According to CIA, the most imbalanced birth sex ratios in Europe (2017) are in Liechtenstein, Armenia, Albania, Azerbaijan, San Marino, Kosovo and Macedonia; with Liechtenstein having the most imbalanced sex ratio in the world.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caucasus">Caucasus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Caucasus">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg/250px-Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg/375px-Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg/500px-Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="898" /></a><figcaption>Topography of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, a region at the border of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, situated between the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> seas</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> has been named a "male-dominated region", and as families have become smaller in recent years, the pressures to have sons has increased.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Before the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in the early 1990s, the birth sex ratio in Caucasus countries such as <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> was in the 105 to 108 range. After the collapse, the birth sex ratios sharply climbed and have remained high for the last 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-Meslé_2007-23">[23]</a> Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan have seen strongly imbalanced birth sex ratios in the first decade of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a> In Georgia, the birth sex ratio for the years 2005–2009 was cited by <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> to be about 120, a trend The Economist claims suggests that the practice of sex-selective abortion in the Caucasus has been similar to those in East Asia and South Asia in recent decades.<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a> According to an article in The Economist the sex ratio in Armenia is seen to be a function of birth order. The article claimed that among first born children, there are 138 boys for every 100 girls.<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a> Overall, the birth sex ratio in Armenia exceeded 115 in some years, far higher than India's which was cited at 108.<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bongaarts_2013-114">[114]</a> While these high birth sex ratios suggest sex-selective abortion, there is no direct evidence of observed large-scale sex-selective abortions in Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-Meslé_2007-23">[23]</a> According to latest CIA data, the 2017 sex ratio in the region is 112 for Armenia, 109 for Azerbaijan, and 107 for Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Europe">Southeast Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Southeast Europe">edit</a>]</div> An imbalanced birth sex ratio has been present in the 21st century in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Balkans">Western Balkans</a>, in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>. Scholars claim this suggests that sex-selective abortions are common in southeast Europe.<a href="#cite_note-czgparis-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> As of 2017, according to CIA estimates, Albania's birth sex ratio is 109.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> According to Eurostat and birth record data over 2008–11, the birth sex ratios of Albania and Montenegro for that period were 112 and 110 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-unfpaaugust2012-51">[51]</a> In recent years, Montenegrin health authorities have expressed concern with regard to the significant imbalance between the number of male and female births.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> However the data from CIA in 2017 cites the birth ratio for Montenegro within the normal range, at 106.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> In recent years, the birth registration data for Macedonia and Kosovo indicate unbalanced birth sex ratios, including a birth rate in 2010 of 112 for Kosovo<a href="#cite_note-unfpaaugust2012-51">[51]</a>: 23  As 2017, CIA cited both Macedonia and Kosovo at 108.<a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Americas">Americas</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> As in other countries, sex-selective abortion is difficult to track in the United States because of lack of data. While the vast majority of parents in the United States do not practice sex-selective abortion, there is certainly a trend toward male preference. According to a 2011 <a href="/wiki/Gallup_poll" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup poll">Gallup poll</a>, if they were only allowed to have one child, 40% of respondents said they would prefer a boy, while only 28% preferred a girl.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> When told about prenatal sex selection techniques such as sperm sorting and in-vitro-fertilization embryo selection, 40% of Americans surveyed thought that picking embryos by sex was an acceptable manifestation of reproductive rights.<a href="#cite_note-Jesudason-119">[119]</a> These selection techniques are available at about half of American fertility clinics, as of 2006.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> However, other studies show a larger preference for females. According to the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 80% of American couples who wanted to get gender selection wanted girls over boys.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> However, it is notable that minority groups that immigrate into the United States bring their cultural views and mindsets into the country with them. A study carried out at a Massachusetts infertility clinic shows that the majority of couples using these techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> came from a Chinese or Asian background. This is thought to branch from the social importance of giving birth to male children in China and other Asian countries.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> A study of the 2000 United States Census suggests possible male bias in families of Chinese, Korean and Indian immigrants, which was getting increasingly stronger in families where the first one or two children were female. In those families where the first two children were girls, the birth-sex ratio of the third child was 1.51:1.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Because of this movement toward sex preference and selection, many bans on sex-selective abortion have been proposed at the state and federal level. In 2010 and 2011, sex-selective abortions were banned in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, respectively. Legislators in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> have also tried to pass acts banning the procedure.<a href="#cite_note-Jesudason-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other countries">edit</a>]</div> A 2013 study<a href="#cite_note-Bongaarts_2013-114">[114]</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Bongaarts" title="John Bongaarts">John Bongaarts</a> based on surveys in 61 major countries calculates the sex ratios that would result if parents had the number of sons and daughters they want. In 35 countries, claims Bongaarts, the desired birth sex ratio in respective countries would be more than 110 boys for every 100 girls if parents in these countries had a child matching their preferred gender (higher than India's, which The Economist claims is 108).<a href="#cite_note-teconomist-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimates_of_missing_women">Estimates of missing women</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Estimates of missing women">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg/220px-Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg/330px-Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg/440px-Number_of_%27Missing_Women%27_in_the_world%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Number of 'Missing Women' in the world, Our World in Data.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></figcaption></figure> Estimates of implied missing girls, considering the "normal" birth sex ratio to be the 103–107 range, vary considerably between researchers and underlying assumptions for expected post-birth mortality rates for men and women. For example, a 2005 study estimated that over 90 million females were "missing" from the expected population in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> alone, and suggested that sex-selective abortion plays a role in this deficit.<a href="#cite_note-Gettis-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-hudsonboer-101">[101]</a> For early 1990s, Sen estimated 107 million missing women, Coale estimated 60 million as missing, while Klasen estimated 89 million missing women in China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> Guilmoto,<a href="#cite_note-czg-125">[125]</a> in his 2010 report, uses recent data (except for Pakistan), and estimates a much lower number of missing girls, but notes that the higher sex ratios in numerous countries have created a gender gap – shortage of girls – in the 0–19 age group. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Gender gap 0–19 age group (2010)<a href="#cite_note-czg-125">[125]</a></th> <th>% of <a href="/wiki/Minor_(law)" title="Minor (law)">minor</a> females<a href="#cite_note-czg-125">[125]</a></th> <th>Region</th> <th>Religious situation[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research">improper synthesis?</a>] </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></td> <td align="right">265,000</td> <td align="center">3.0</td> <td>South Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Mostly Islam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></td> <td align="right">21,000</td> <td align="center">4.2</td> <td>Southeast Europe</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a></td> <td align="right">35,000</td> <td align="center">8.4</td> <td>Caucasus</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Mostly Christianity</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></td> <td align="right">111,000</td> <td align="center">8.3</td> <td>Caucasus</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Mostly Islam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></td> <td align="right">416,000</td> <td align="center">1.4</td> <td>South Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Mostly Islam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td align="right">25,112,000</td> <td align="center">15.0</td> <td>East Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td> <td align="right">24,000</td> <td align="center">4.6</td> <td>Caucasus</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Mostly Christianity</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td align="right">12,618,000</td> <td align="center">5.3</td> <td>South Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></td> <td align="right">3,000</td> <td align="center">3.6</td> <td>Southeast Europe</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Mostly Christianity</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></td> <td align="right">125,000</td> <td align="center">1.8</td> <td>South Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Mostly Hinduism</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td> <td align="right">206,000</td> <td align="center">0.5</td> <td>South Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Mostly Islam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td> <td align="right">336,000</td> <td align="center">6.2</td> <td>East Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td> <td align="right">21,000</td> <td align="center">3.5</td> <td>Southeast Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td> <td align="right">139,000</td> <td align="center">1.0</td> <td>Southeast Asia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Religiously diverse</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disparate_gendered_access_to_resources">Disparate gendered access to resources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Disparate gendered access to resources">edit</a>]</div> Although there is significant evidence of the prevalence of sex-selective abortions in many nations (especially India and China), there is also evidence to suggest that some of the variation in global sex ratios is due to disparate access to resources. As MacPherson (2007) notes, there can be significant differences in gender violence and access to food, healthcare, immunizations between male and female children. This leads to high infant and childhood mortality among girls, which causes changes in sex ratio.<a href="#cite_note-macpherson-99">[99]</a> Disparate, gendered access to resources appears to be strongly linked to socioeconomic status. Specifically, poorer families are sometimes forced to ration food, with daughters typically receiving less priority than sons.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> However, Klasen's 2001 study revealed that this practice is less common in the poorest families, but rises dramatically in the slightly less poor families.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> Klasen and Wink's 2003 study suggests that this is "related to greater female economic independence and fewer cultural strictures among the poorest sections of the population". In other words, the poorest families are typically less bound by cultural expectations and norms, and women tend to have more freedom to become family breadwinners out of necessity.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> Increased sex ratios can be caused by disparities in aspects of life other than vital resources. According to Sen (1990), differences in wages and job advancement also have a dramatic effect on sex ratios. This is why high sex ratios are sometimes seen in nations with little sex-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-Sen_1990-19">[19]</a> Additionally, high female education rates are correlated with lower sex ratios (World Bank 2011).<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Lopez and Ruzikah (1983) found that, when given the same resources, women tend to outlive men at all stages of life after infancy. However, globally, resources are not always allocated equitably. Thus, some scholars argue that disparities in access to resources such as healthcare, education, and nutrition play at least a small role in the high sex ratios seen in some parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> For example, Alderman and Gerter (1997) found that unequal access to healthcare is a primary cause of female death in developing nations, especially in Southeast Asia. Moreover, in India, lack of equal access to healthcare has led to increased disease and higher rates of female mortality in every age group until the late thirties (Sen 1990). This is particularly noteworthy because, in regions of the world where women receive equal resources, women tend to outlive men (Sen 1990). Women outlive men in all but 2 countries.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Economic disadvantage alone may not always lead to increased sex ratio, claimed Sen in 1990. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, one of the most economically disadvantaged regions of the world, there is an excess of women. So, if economic disadvantage is uncorrelated with sex ratio in Africa, some other factor(s) may be at play.<a href="#cite_note-Sen_1990-19">[19]</a> More detailed analysis of African demographics, in 2002, suggests that Africa too has wide variation in birth sex ratios (from 1.01 in Bantu populations of East Africa to 1.08 in Nigeria and Ethiopia).<a href="#cite_note-pmid12617497-36">[36]</a> Thus economic disadvantage remains a possible unresolved hypothesis for Africa as well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons_for_sex-selective_abortion">Reasons for sex-selective abortion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Reasons for sex-selective abortion">edit</a>]</div> According to the 2012 report of the United Nations Fund for Population Activities on sex imbalances at birth, there are three preconditions for sex-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-128">[128]</a> First, the practice should be feasible with the availability of abortion methods and prenatal sex-screening technologies (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">obstetric ultrasonography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">cell-free fetal DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hohmann_2014-129">[129]</a> Second, changing the sex composition of children should be advantageous to the parents and the family. A variety of socioeconomic factors can account for this sex preference such as inherence rules, patronymic transmission, dowry systems, social preference of family composition.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hohmann_2014-129">[129]</a> Third, sex-selective abortion should be necessary because of low or decreasing fertility. Given the existence of the social benefits associated with sons, the need for having sons while maintaining a limited number of children is intensified by low fertility.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_2015-60">[60]</a> Low fertility can be a result of social norms of family size, rising marginal costs of an additional child, or birth control policies. Some demographers question whether sex-selective abortion or infanticide claims are accurate, because underreporting of female births may also explain high sex ratios.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Natural reasons may also explain some of the abnormal sex ratios.<a href="#cite_note-James_2008-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-rjhmam-25">[25]</a> In contrast to these possible causes of abnormal sex ratio, Klasen and Wink suggest India and China's high sex ratios are primarily the result of sex-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-Klausen_2003-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomic_reasons_for_son_preference_and_daughter_aversion">Socioeconomic reasons for son preference and daughter aversion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic reasons for son preference and daughter aversion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cultural_preference">Cultural preference</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cultural preference">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burying_Babies_in_China_(p.40,_March_1865,_XXII).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/200px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/300px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg/400px-Burying_Babies_in_China_%28p.40%2C_March_1865%2C_XXII%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1583" data-file-height="965" /></a><figcaption>Burying Babies in China (p.40, March 1865, XXII). There is a long tradition of <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">female infanticide in China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Offering1865-132">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Infanticide-ganges.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Infanticide-ganges.jpg/200px-Infanticide-ganges.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Infanticide-ganges.jpg/300px-Infanticide-ganges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Infanticide-ganges.jpg/400px-Infanticide-ganges.jpg 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Infanticide committed by throwing an infant into the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges river">Ganges river</a></figcaption></figure> The reason for intensifying sex-selection abortion in China and India can be seen through history and cultural background. Generally, before the <a href="/wiki/Information_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Information era">information era</a>, male babies were preferred because they provided manual labor and continuation of the family <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">lineage</a>. Labor is still important in developing nations as China and India, but when it comes to family lineage, it is of great importance. The selective abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where cultural norms value male children over female children for a variety of social and economic reasons.<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_1999-1">[1]</a> A son is often preferred as an "asset" since he can earn and support the family; a daughter is a "liability" since she will be married off to another family, and so will not contribute financially to her parents. Sex selective female abortion is a continuation, in a different form, of a practice of <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">female infanticide</a> or withholding of postnatal health care for girls in certain households.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta_2005-133">[133]</a> Furthermore, in some cultures sons are expected to take care of their parents in their old age.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> These factors are complicated by the effect of diseases on child sex ratio, where communicable and noncommunicable diseases affect males and females differently.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta_2005-133">[133]</a> In parts of India and Pakistan, there are social norms such as <a href="/wiki/Purdah" title="Purdah">purdah</a>, which stipulate that female seclusion and confinement to the home is necessary. Such practices are prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities in South Asia. When females interact with men, or are believed to do so, the "<a href="/wiki/Family_honor" title="Family honor">family honor</a>" is tarnished. Historically, in many South Asian populations, women were allocated a very low status, evidenced through practices such as <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">sati</a>, an ancient funeral custom where a <a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">widow</a> immolated herself on her husband's <a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">pyre</a> or committed <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> in another fashion shortly after her husband's death.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-julialeslie-137">[137]</a> Such societies, in placing almost no value on females, encouraged parents to commit <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> of girls or to abandon them. The modern practice of sex-selective abortion is therefore a continuation of other historical practices. During the 19th century, in the Northwest <a href="/wiki/British_raj" class="mw-redirect" title="British raj">British India</a>, one-fourth of the population preserved only half the daughters, while other 3/4th of the population had balanced sex ratio. There were 118 males per 100 females. This is comparable to the contemporary sex ratio in the area, now divided between India and Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> is deeply patriarchal. Pre-modern Chinese society was predominantly patriarchal and patrilineal from at least the 11th century BC onwards.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> There has long been a son preference in China, leading to high rates of female infanticide, as well as a strong tradition of restricting the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> of women, particularly upper-class women, manifested through the practice of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>. Although the legal and social standing of women have greatly improved in the 20th century, son preference remains still strong, and the situation was aggravated by the <a href="/wiki/One_child_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One child policy">one child policy</a>. Interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> have been argued to contribute to the low status of women. The gender roles prescribed in the <a href="/wiki/Three_Obediences_and_Four_Virtues" title="Three Obediences and Four Virtues">Three Obediences and Four Virtues</a> became a cornerstone of the family, and thus, societal stability. Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. In the later dynasties, more emphasis was placed on the virtue of chastity. The Song dynasty Confucian <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter."<a href="#cite_note-ebrey-140">[140]</a> The "cult of chastity" accordingly, condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> on remarriage.<a href="#cite_note-Adler-141">[141]</a> In modern East Asia, a large part of the pattern of preferences leading to this practice can be condensed simply as a desire to have a male heir. Monica Das Gupta (2005) observes, from 1989 birth data for China, there was no evidence of selective abortion of female fetuses among firstborn children. However, there was a strong preference for a boy if the first born was a girl.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta_2005-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dowry">Dowry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dowry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Say_no_to_dowry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/220px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/330px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/440px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1613" data-file-height="2511" /></a><figcaption>A social awareness campaign in India against dowries</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India" title="Dowry system in India">Dowry system in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg/200px-India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg/300px-India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg/400px-India_-_Delhi_wedding_-_5438.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2212" /></a><figcaption>Wedding gifts for the son of the Imam of Delhi, India, with soldiers and 2000 guests. Large dowries are expected among several populations in South Asia, especially in India and Pakistan.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a> is the property that parents of a female transfer at her marriage. Dowry is an ancient practice, that has been common in many cultures around the world, and which is today prevalent especially in South Asia. The custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a> and that expect women to reside with or near their husband's family (<a href="/wiki/Patrilocality" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilocality">patrilocality</a>).<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Kirti Singh states that dowry is widely considered to be both a cause and a consequence of son preference, and this may lead to girls being unwanted, sex selective abortion, <a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">female infanticide</a> or abuse of female children.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dowry_system_in_India" title="Dowry system in India">dowry system in India</a> is a major part of <a href="/wiki/Indian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian culture">Indian culture</a> and refers to the durable goods, cash, and real or movable property that the bride's family gives to the bridegroom, his parents, or his relatives as a condition of the marriage.<a href="#cite_note-Jethmalani_1995-144">[144]</a> Dowry consists of a payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to the bridegroom's family along with the bride and includes cash, jewelry, electrical appliances, furniture, bedding, crockery, utensils and other household items that help the newlyweds set up their home.<a href="#cite_note-Diwan_1997-145">[145]</a> Disputes regarding dowry sometimes lead to <a href="/wiki/Dowry_death" title="Dowry death">dowry deaths</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trivers–Willard_hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Trivers–Willard hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a> argues that resource availability affects male <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> more than female and that, consequently, parents should prefer males when resources are plentiful and females when resources are scarce. This has been applied to resource differences between individuals in a society and also to resource differences between societies. Empirical evidence is mixed, with higher support in better studies, according to Cronk in a 2007 review. One example: in a 1997 study of a group with a preference for females was <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, a low-status group. They "had a female-biased sex ratio at birth, were more likely to abort a fetus after having had one or more daughters, nursed their daughters longer, and sent their daughters to school for longer."<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-child_policy">One-child policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: One-child policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg/200px-Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg/300px-Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg/400px-Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/One_child_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One child policy">one child policy</a> in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> has contributed to the imbalanced sex ratios. Image shows a community bulletin board in Nonguang Village, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichuan province">Sichuan province</a>, China, keeping track of the town's female population, listing recent births by name and noting that several thousand yuan of fines for unauthorized births remain unpaid from the previous year.</figcaption></figure> Following the 1949 creation of the People's Republic of China, the issue of population control came into the national spotlight. In the early years of the Republic, leaders believed that telling citizens to reduce their fertility was enough, repealing laws banning <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a> and instead promoting its use. However, the contraceptives were not widely available, both because of lack of supply and because of cultural taboo against discussing sex. Efforts were slowed following the famine of 1959–61 but were resumed shortly thereafter with virtually the same results. Then, in 1964, the Family Planning Office was established to enforce stricter guidelines regarding fertility and it was moderately successful.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In 1979, the government adopted the <a href="/wiki/One-Child_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-Child Policy">One-Child Policy</a>, which limited many families to one child, unless specified by provincial regulations. It was instituted as an attempt to boost the Chinese economy. Under it, families who break rules regarding the number of children they are allowed are given various punishments (primarily monetary), dependent upon the province in which they live.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> As stated above, the sex ratios of a province are largely determined by the type of restriction placed upon the family, pointing to the conclusion that much of the imbalance in sex ratio in China can be attributed to the policy. Research by Junhong (2001) found that many parents are willing to pay to ensure that their child is male (especially if their first child is female), but will not do the same to ensure their child is female.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> Likely, fear of the harsh monetary punishments of the One-Child Policy make ensuring a son's birth a smart investment. Therefore, son's cultural and economic importance to families and the large expenses associated with multiple children are primary factors leading to China's disparate sex ratio. In 2013, China announced plans to formally change the One-Child policy, making it less stringent. The National People's Congress has changed the policy to allow couples to have two children, so long as one of the partners is an only child. This change was not sparked by sex ratios, but rather by an aging population that is causing the workforce to become increasingly smaller. It is estimated that this new law will lead to two million more births per year and could cause a baby boom in China. In 2015, China officially relaxed its one child law.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Unfortunately, many of China's social problems are based on overpopulation. So, it is unclear if this new law will actually lead to women being more valued in Chinese society as the number of citizens increases.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_effects">Societal effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Societal effects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missing_women">Missing women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Missing women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Missing_women" title="Missing women">Missing women</a></div> The idea of "missing women" was first suggested by Amartya Sen, one of the first scholars to study high sex ratios and their causes globally, in 1990. In order to illustrate the gravity of the situation, he calculated the number of women that were not alive because of sex-selective abortion or discriminatory practices. He found that there were 11 percent fewer women than there "should" have been, if China had the natural sex ratio. This figure, when combined with statistics from around the world, led to a finding of over 100 million missing women. In other words, by the early 1990s, the number of missing women was "larger than the combined casualties of all famines in the twentieth century" (Sen 1990).<a href="#cite_note-Sen_1990-19">[19]</a> This has led to particular concern due to a critical shortage of wives. In some rural areas, there is already a shortage of women, which is tied to migration into urban areas (Park and Cho 1995).<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, high male sex ratios and declining birth rates over several decades have led to cross-cultural marriage between local men and foreign women from countries such as mainland China, Vietnam and the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> However, sex-selective abortion is not the only cause of this phenomenon; it is also related to migration and declining fertility.<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trafficking,_forced_marriage_and_sex_work">Trafficking, forced marriage and sex work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Trafficking, forced marriage and sex work">edit</a>]</div> Some scholars argue that as the proportion of women to men decreases globally, there will be an increase in <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">trafficking</a> and sex work (both forced and self-elected), as many men will be willing to do more to obtain a sexual partner (Junhong 2001).<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> Already, there are reports of women from <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> systematically trafficked to mainland <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and sold into <a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">forced marriages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hvistendahl_WSJ-153">[153]</a> Moreover, Ullman and Fidell (1989) suggested that pornography and sex-related crimes of violence (i.e., rape and molestation) would also increase with an increasing sex ratio.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Widening_of_the_gender_social_gap">Widening of the gender social gap</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Widening of the gender social gap">edit</a>]</div> As Park and Cho (1995) note, families in areas with high sex ratios that have mostly sons tend to be smaller than those with mostly daughters (because the families with mostly sons appear to have used sex-selective techniques to achieve their "ideal" composition).<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> Particularly in poor areas, large families tend to have more problems with resource allocation, with daughters often receiving fewer resources than sons.<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> Blake (1989) is credited for noting the relationship between family size and childhood "quality." Therefore, if families with daughters continue to be predominantly large, it is likely that the social gap between genders will widen due to traditional cultural discrimination and lack of resource availability.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Guttentag and Secord (1983) hypothesized that when the proportion of males throughout the world is greater, there is likely to be more violence and war.<a href="#cite_note-Guttentag-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_positive_effects">Potential positive effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Potential positive effects">edit</a>]</div> Some scholars believe that when sex ratios are high, women actually become valued more because of their relative shortage.<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> Park and Cho (1995) suggest that as women become more scarce, they may have "increased value for conjugal and reproductive functions" (75). Eventually, this could lead to better social conditions, followed by the birth of more women and sex ratios moving back to natural levels.<a href="#cite_note-ParkCho-151">[151]</a> This claim is supported by the work of demographer Nathan Keifitz. Keifitz (1983) wrote that as women become fewer, their relative position in society will increase. However, to date, no data has supported this claim.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> It has been suggested by Belanger (2002) that sex-selective abortion may have positive effects on the mother choosing to abort the female fetus. This is related to the historical duty of mothers to produce a son in order to carry on the family name. As previously mentioned, women gain status in society when they have a male child, but not when they have a female child. Oftentimes, bearing of a son leads to greater legitimacy and agency for the mother. In some regions of the world where son preference is especially strong, sonless women are treated as outcasts. In this way, sex-selective abortion is a way for women to select for male fetuses, helping secure greater family status.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Goodkind (1999)<a href="#cite_note-Goodkind_1999-1">[1]</a> argues that sex-selective abortion should not be banned purely because of its discriminatory nature. Instead, he argues, we must consider the overall lifetime possibilities of discrimination. In fact, it is possible that sex-selective abortion takes away much of the discrimination women would face later in life. Since families have the option of selecting for the fetal sex they desire, if they choose not to abort a female fetus, she is more likely to be valued later in life. In this way, sex-selective abortion may be a more humane alternative to infanticide, abandonment, or neglect. Goodkind (1999) poses an essential philosophical question, "if a ban were enacted against prenatal sex testing (or the use of abortion for sex-selective purposes), how many excess postnatal deaths would a society be willing to tolerate in lieu of whatever sex-selective abortions were avoided?" <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversies">Controversies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Controversies">edit</a>]</div> There are many controversies surrounding sex-selective abortion. Just like the practice of sex-selective abortion has been criticized, the solutions proposed or enacted by governments have also been criticized.<a href="#cite_note-nwlc.org-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eklund_&_Purewal_2017-160">[160]</a> Eklund & Purewal argued that the response to a patriarchal practice (sex selection) should not be another patriarchal practice (restricting women's reproductive rights), as such a situation creates a cycle: women's social status is lowered, which in turn leads to more sex-selective abortions.<a href="#cite_note-Eklund_&_Purewal_2017-160">[160]</a> The association of public discourse on sex-selective abortion with the <a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-abortion movement">anti-abortion movement</a> also complicates the situation.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Furthermore, access to safe abortion is seen by some as important from a <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> perspective; in India, although the abortion law is relatively liberal, most efforts are put into preventing sex-selective abortion, rather than adequate access to safe abortion,<a href="#cite_note-Eklund_&_Purewal_2017-160">[160]</a> as a result nearly 78% of all abortions in India take place outside of health facilities, with such <a href="/wiki/Unsafe_abortions" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsafe abortions">unsafe abortions</a> representing the third largest cause of maternal death in India.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Another controversy in that of <a href="/wiki/Population_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Population planning">population planning</a> campaigns such as the <a href="/wiki/One_child_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One child policy">one child policy</a> in China, and efforts from the governments of several Asian countries, including India and South Korea, from the 1970s onward to limit the number of children a family could have, which have intensified the desire to quickly have a son. An article by <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Arabic" title="Al Jazeera Arabic">Al Jazeera</a> titled "How Western family planners helped curb the birth of girls in developing countries, the effects of which are felt today" claimed that it was such population policies (which included <a href="/wiki/Forced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced sterilization">forced sterilization</a>), which were fully supported, even pushed by the West, that contributed to unbalanced sex ratios.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex-selective_abortion_in_the_context_of_abortion">Sex-selective abortion in the context of abortion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sex-selective abortion in the context of abortion">edit</a>]</div> MacPherson estimates that 100,000 sex-selective abortions every year continue to be performed in India.<a href="#cite_note-macpherson-99">[99]</a> For a contrasting perspective, in the United States with a population <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄4th of India, over 1.2 million abortions every year were performed between 1990 and 2007.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> with a population <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄20th of India, over 189,000 abortions were performed in 2011, or a yearly rate of 17.5 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The average for the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> was 30 abortions per year per 1,000 women.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Many scholars have noted the difficulty in reconciling the discriminatory nature of sex-selective abortion with the right of women to have control over their own bodies. This conflict manifests itself primarily when discussing laws about sex-selective abortion. Weiss (1995:205) writes: "The most obvious challenge sex-selective abortion represents for <a href="/wiki/Pro-choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-choice">pro-choice</a> feminists is the difficulty of reconciling a pro-choice position with moral objections one might have to sex selective abortion (especially since it has been used primarily on female fetuses), much less the advocacy of a law banning sex-selective abortion."<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> As a result, arguments both for and against sex-selective abortion are typically highly reflective of one's own personal beliefs about abortion in general. Warren (1985:104) argues that there is a difference between acting within one's rights and acting upon the most morally sound choice, implying that sex-selective abortion might be within rights but not morally sound. Warren also notes that, if we are to ever reverse the trend of sex-selective abortion and high sex ratios, we must work to change the patriarchy-based society which breeds the strong son preference.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Laws against sex-selective abortion, especially those that exist in some <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a>, are controversial, because it is not clear how they can be enforced, and <a href="/wiki/Pro-choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-choice">pro-choice</a> activists argue that such laws are brought by <a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-abortion movement">anti-abortion movement</a> forces who are using this as a <a href="/wiki/Pretext" title="Pretext">pretext</a> to restrict women's access to safe and legal abortion and to harass doctors who perform abortions: <a href="/wiki/NARAL" class="mw-redirect" title="NARAL">NARAL</a> states that "For many years, anti-choice lawmakers have tried to ban abortion using every possible reason and excuse –including, now, on the grounds of purported concern about race or sex selection."<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> There is concern that such bans may put women who seek sex-selective abortions in danger because they may seek unsafe abortions, and that these bans do not address the root cause of sex-selective abortion, including the pregnant women's fear that they or their future daughters will suffer abuse, violence and stigmatization.<a href="#cite_note-nwlc.org-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laws,_campaigns_and_policies_against_sex-selective_abortion">Laws, campaigns and policies against sex-selective abortion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Laws, campaigns and policies against sex-selective abortion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Something_you_wouldn%27t_see_in_America_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1732" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption>Sign in an Indian clinic reading "Prenatal disclosure of sex of foetus is prohibited under law" in English and Hindi</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International">International</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: International">edit</a>]</div> The practice of prenatal sex selection has been condemned internationally. It is often seen as a result of discriminatory social views which consider females inferior to males. In 1994 over 180 states signed the Programme of Action of the <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a>, agreeing to "eliminate all forms of discrimination against the girl child".<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> In 2011 the resolution of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe" title="Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe">PACE</a>'s Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men condemned the practice of prenatal sex selection.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_country">By country</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: By country">edit</a>]</div> Many nations have attempted to address sex-selective abortion rates through a combination of media campaigns and policy initiatives. <dl><dt>Canada</dt></dl> In Canada, a group of MPs led by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Warawa" title="Mark Warawa">Mark Warawa</a> are working on having the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament</a> pass a resolution condemning sex-selective pregnancy termination.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <dl><dt>USA</dt></dl> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> has debated legislation that would outlaw the practice.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The legislation ultimately failed to pass in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> On the state level, laws against sex-selective abortions have been passed in a number of U.S. states;<a href="#cite_note-christie20130529-177">[177]</a> the law passed in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> in 2011 prohibits both sex-selective and race-selective abortion.<a href="#cite_note-christie20130529-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <dl><dt>United Kingdom</dt></dl> The law on sex-selective abortion is unresolved in the United Kingdom. In order for an abortion to be legal, doctors need to show that continuing the pregnancy could threaten the physical or mental health of the mother. In a recent case, two doctors were caught on camera offering a sex-selective abortion but the Director of Public Prosecution deemed it not in the public interest to proceed with the prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Following this incidence, MPs voted 181 to 1 for a Bill put forward by <a href="/wiki/Tessa_Munt" title="Tessa Munt">Tessa Munt</a> and 11 other MPs aiming to end confusion about the legality of this practice.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Organisations such as <a href="/wiki/BPAS" class="mw-redirect" title="BPAS">BPAS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abortion_Rights_(Organisation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion Rights (Organisation)">Abortion Rights</a> have been lobbying for the decriminalisation of sex-selective abortions.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <dl><dt>China</dt></dl> China's government has increasingly recognized its role in a reduction of the national sex ratio. As a result, since 2005, it has sponsored a "boys and girls are equal campaign."<a href="#cite_note-JianSong-185">[185]</a> For example, in 2000, the Chinese government began the "Care for Girls" Initiative.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Furthermore, several levels of government have been modified to protect the "political, economic, cultural, and social" rights of women.<a href="#cite_note-JianSong-185">[185]</a> Finally, the Chinese government has enacted policies and interventions to help reduce the sex ratio at birth. In 2005, sex-selective abortion was made illegal in China. This came in response to the ever-increasing sex ratio and a desire to try to detract from it and reach a more normal ratio.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> The sex ratio among firstborn children in urban areas from 2000 to 2005 did not rise at all, so there is hope that this movement is taking hold across the nation.<a href="#cite_note-Junhong_2001-15">[15]</a> UNICEF and UNFPA have partnered with the Chinese government and grassroots-level women's groups such as All China Women's Federation to promote gender equality in policy and practice, as well engage various social campaigns to help lower birth sex ratio and to reduce excess female child mortality rates.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <dl><dt>India</dt></dl> In India, according to a 2007 study by MacPherson, Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PCPNDT Act) was highly publicized by NGOs and the government. Many of the ads used depicted abortion as violent, creating fear of abortion itself within the population. The ads focused on the religious and moral shame associated with abortion. MacPherson claims this media campaign was not effective because some perceived this as an attack on their character, leading to many becoming closed off, rather than opening a dialogue about the issue.<a href="#cite_note-macpherson-99">[99]</a> This emphasis on morality, claims MacPherson, increased fear and shame associated with all abortions, leading to an increase in unsafe abortions in India.<a href="#cite_note-macpherson-99">[99]</a> The government of India, in a 2011 report, has begun better educating all stakeholders about its MTP and PCPNDT laws. In its communication campaigns, it is clearing up public misconceptions by emphasizing that sex determination is illegal, but abortion is legal for certain medical conditions in India. The government is also supporting implementation of programs and initiatives that seek to reduce gender discrimination, including media campaign to address the underlying social causes of sex selection.<a href="#cite_note-wbhindia-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Other recent policy initiatives adopted by numerous states of India, claims Guilmoto,<a href="#cite_note-czg-125">[125]</a> attempt to address the assumed economic disadvantage of girls by offering support to girls and their parents. These policies provide <a href="/wiki/Conditional_cash_transfer" title="Conditional cash transfer">conditional cash transfer</a> and scholarships only available to girls, where payments to a girl and her parents are linked to each stage of her life, such as when she is born, completion of her childhood immunization, her joining school at grade 1, her completing school grades 6, 9 and 12, her marriage past age 21. Some states are offering higher pension benefits to parents who raise one or two girls. Different states of India have been experimenting with various innovations in their girl-driven welfare policies. For example, the state of Delhi adopted a pro-girl policy initiative (locally called Laadli scheme), which initial data suggests may be lowering the birth sex ratio in the state.<a href="#cite_note-czg-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <table width="100%"> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td width="50%"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_debate" title="Abortion debate">Abortion debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">Child abandonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_rights" title="Fetal rights">Fetal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Feticide">Feticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_foeticide_in_India" title="Female foeticide in India">Female foeticide in India</a></li></ul> </td> <td width="100%"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_abortion" title="Genetics and abortion">Genetics and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">Infanticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of Asia">Missing women of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychohistorical_views_on_infanticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychohistorical views on infanticide">Psychohistorical views on infanticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_reduction" title="Selective reduction">Selective reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex-selective_abortion&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Goodkind_1999-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodkind_1999_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodkind_1999_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodkind_1999_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Manipulation of statistical records in response to China's population policies"</a>. Demography. 37 (1): 109–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2648100">10.2307/2648100</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2648100">2648100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10748993">10748993</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41085573">41085573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Demography&rft.atitle=Are+births+underreported+in+rural+China%3F+Manipulation+of+statistical+records+in+response+to+China%27s+population+policies&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-126&rft.date=2000-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10748993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41085573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2648100%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2648100&rft.aulast=Merli&rft.aufirst=MG&rft.au=Raftery%2C+AE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2648100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Offering1865-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Offering1865_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1VwEAAAAQAAJ">"Burying Babies in China"</a>. Wesleyan Juvenile Offering. XXII: 40. March 1865. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240411212316/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VwEAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2024. Retrieved December 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wesleyan+Juvenile+Offering&rft.atitle=Burying+Babies+in+China&rft.volume=XXII&rft.pages=40&rft.date=1865-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1VwEAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gupta_2005-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_2005_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_2005_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gupta_2005_133-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gupta MD (September 2005). "Explaining Asia's "missing women": a new look at the data". Population and Development Review. 31 (3): 529–535. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2005.00082.x">10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00082.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=Explaining+Asia%27s+%22missing+women%22%3A+a+new+look+at+the+data.&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=529-535&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2005.00082.x&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=MD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahalingam2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mahalingam R (2007). "Culture, ecology, and beliefs about gender in son preference caste groups". Evolution and Human Behavior. 28 (5): 319–329. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EHumB..28..319M">2007EHumB..28..319M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.evolhumbehav.2007.01.004">10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.01.004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution+and+Human+Behavior&rft.atitle=Culture%2C+ecology%2C+and+beliefs+about+gender+in+son+preference+caste+groups&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=319-329&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.evolhumbehav.2007.01.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007EHumB..28..319M&rft.aulast=Mahalingam&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilmartin1997" class="citation journal cs1">Gilmartin S (1997). "The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century". Victorian Literature and Culture. 25 (1): 141–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1060150300004678">10.1017/S1060150300004678</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25058378">25058378</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162954709">162954709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Literature+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Sati%2C+the+Bride%2C+and+the+Widow%3A+Sacrificial+Woman+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-158&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162954709%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25058378%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1060150300004678&rft.aulast=Gilmartin&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1988" class="citation book cs1">Sharma A (1988). Sati: historical and phenomenological essays (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 19–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120804647" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120804647"><bdi>978-8120804647</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sati%3A+historical+and+phenomenological+essays&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=19-21&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-8120804647&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-julialeslie-137"><a href="#cite_ref-julialeslie_137-0">^</a> On attested Rajput practice of sati during wars, see, for example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie1993" class="citation book cs1">Leslie J (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vPdYkFguJ8IC&pg=PA46">"Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor?"</a>. In Arnold D, Robb PG (eds.). Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader. Vol. 10. London: Routledge. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0284-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0284-8"><bdi>978-0-7007-0284-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Suttee+or+Sati%3A+Victim+or+Victor%3F&rft.btitle=Institutions+and+Ideologies%3A+A+SOAS+South+Asia+Reader&rft.place=London&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0284-8&rft.aulast=Leslie&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvPdYkFguJ8IC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1987" class="citation book cs1">Hughes NS (1987). Child Survival: Anthropological Perspectives on the Treatment and Maltreatment of Children. Springer. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55608-028-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55608-028-9"><bdi>978-1-55608-028-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Child+Survival%3A+Anthropological+Perspectives+on+the+Treatment+and+Maltreatment+of+Children&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-1-55608-028-9&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=NS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wu X (2009). "周代男女角色定位及其对现代社会的影响" [Role orientation of men and women in the Zhou Dynasty and their effects on modern society]. Chang'An Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban) (in Chinese). 11 (3): 86–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chang%27An+Daxue+Xuebao+%28Shehui+Kexue+Ban%29&rft.atitle=%E5%91%A8%E4%BB%A3%E7%94%B7%E5%A5%B3%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2%E5%AE%9A%E4%BD%8D%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E5%AF%B9%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E5%93%8D&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=86-92&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey-140"><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatricia_Buckley_Ebrey2002" class="citation book cs1">Patricia Buckley Ebrey (September 19, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GDPskRXfl5cC&pg=PA10">Women and the Family in Chinese History</a>. Routledge. pp. 10–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28822-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28822-4"><bdi>978-0-415-28822-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240411212314/https://books.google.com/books?id=GDPskRXfl5cC&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2024. 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XIV, no. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060320105840/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Women.htm">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2006. Retrieved May 18, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ASIANetwork+Exchange%2C+vol.+XIV%2C+no.+2&rft.atitle=Daughter%2FWife%2FMother+or+Sage%2FImmortal%2FBodhisattva%3F+Women+in+the+Teaching+of+Chinese+Religions&rft.ssn=winter&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=JA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.kenyon.edu%2FDepts%2FReligion%2FFac%2FAdler%2FWritings%2FWomen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/dowry">"Dowry | marriage custom"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_wcd/wcd/Home/Delhi+Ladli+Scheme/">the original</a> on July 8, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Government+of+Delhi%2C+India&rft.atitle=Delhi+Laadli+Scheme&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdelhi.gov.in%2Fwps%2Fwcm%2Fconnect%2Fdoit_wcd%2Fwcd%2FHome%2FDelhi%2BLadli%2BScheme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex-selective+abortion" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abortion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abortion" title="Template:Abortion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abortion" title="Template talk:Abortion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abortion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abortion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abortion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_abortion" title="Definitions of abortion">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion" title="History of abortion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Methods_of_abortion" title="Category:Methods of abortion">Methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_debate" title="Abortion debate">Abortion debate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_aspects_of_the_abortion_debate" title="Philosophical aspects of the abortion debate">Philosophical aspects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion-rights movements">Abortion-rights movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-abortion movement">Anti-abortion movements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_and_mental_health" title="Abortion and mental health">Abortion and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beginning_of_human_personhood" title="Beginning of human personhood">Beginning of human personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beginning_of_pregnancy_controversy" title="Beginning of pregnancy controversy">Beginning of pregnancy controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion%E2%80%93breast_cancer_hypothesis" title="Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis">Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_violence" title="Anti-abortion violence">Anti-abortion violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_under_communism" title="Abortion under communism">Abortion under communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_pregnancy_center" title="Crisis pregnancy center">Crisis pregnancy center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_aspects_of_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical aspects of abortion">Ethical aspects of abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_rights" title="Fetal rights">Fetal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_abortion" title="Forced abortion">Forced abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_abortion" title="Genetics and abortion">Genetics and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late-term_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-term abortion">Late-term abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalized_abortion_and_crime_effect" title="Legalized abortion and crime effect">Legalized abortion and crime effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_abortion" title="Libertarian perspectives on abortion">Libertarian perspectives on abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_of_viability" class="mw-redirect" title="Limit of viability">Limit of viability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Men's rights">Men's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minors_and_abortion" title="Minors and abortion">Minors and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_rights_and_abortion" title="Paternal rights and abortion">Paternal rights and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-abortion_care" title="Post-abortion care">Post-abortion care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Prenatal development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-induced_abortion" title="Self-induced abortion">Self-induced abortion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_counseling" title="Sidewalk counseling">Sidewalk counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_towards_abortion" title="Societal attitudes towards abortion">Societal attitudes towards abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_perspectives_on_abortion" title="Socialist perspectives on abortion">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Termination_for_medical_reasons" title="Termination for medical reasons">Termination for medical reasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_abortion" title="Toxic abortion">Toxic abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsafe_abortion" title="Unsafe abortion">Unsafe abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Africa" title="Abortion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Algeria" title="Abortion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Angola" title="Abortion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Benin" title="Abortion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Botswana" title="Abortion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Abortion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Cameroon" title="Abortion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Abortion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Abortion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Chad" title="Abortion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Comoros" title="Abortion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Egypt" title="Abortion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Abortion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Eswatini" title="Abortion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Gabon" title="Abortion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Gambia" title="Abortion in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Ghana" title="Abortion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Guinea" title="Abortion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Kenya" title="Abortion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Lesotho" title="Abortion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Liberia" title="Abortion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Madagascar" title="Abortion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malawi" title="Abortion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Mauritius" title="Abortion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Namibia" title="Abortion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Nigeria" title="Abortion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Senegal" title="Abortion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Seychelles" title="Abortion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Abortion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_South_Africa" title="Abortion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Tanzania" title="Abortion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Togo" title="Abortion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Uganda" title="Abortion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Zambia" title="Abortion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Abortion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Afghanistan" title="Abortion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Armenia" title="Abortion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Abortion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bahrain" title="Abortion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bangladesh" title="Abortion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bhutan" title="Abortion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Brunei" title="Abortion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Cambodia" title="Abortion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Cyprus" title="Abortion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_East_Timor" title="Abortion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Abortion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_India" title="Abortion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Iran" title="Abortion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Israel" title="Abortion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Japan" title="Abortion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Abortion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_North_Korea" title="Abortion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_South_Korea" title="Abortion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Laos" title="Abortion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Lebanon" title="Abortion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malaysia" title="Abortion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Nepal" title="Abortion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Abortion in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Philippines" title="Abortion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Qatar" title="Abortion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Abortion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Singapore" title="Abortion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Taiwan" title="Abortion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Turkey" title="Abortion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Vietnam" title="Abortion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Yemen" title="Abortion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Europe" title="Abortion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Albania" title="Abortion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Andorra" title="Abortion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Austria" title="Abortion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Belarus" title="Abortion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Belgium" title="Abortion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Abortion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bulgaria" title="Abortion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Croatia" title="Abortion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion in Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Denmark" title="Abortion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Estonia" title="Abortion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Finland" title="Abortion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_France" title="Abortion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Germany" title="Abortion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Greece" title="Abortion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Hungary" title="Abortion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Iceland" title="Abortion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Abortion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Italy" title="Abortion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Abortion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Latvia" title="Abortion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Abortion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Lithuania" title="Abortion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Luxembourg" title="Abortion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malta" title="Abortion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Moldova" title="Abortion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Monaco" title="Abortion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Montenegro" title="Abortion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Abortion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Abortion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Norway" title="Abortion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Poland" title="Abortion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Portugal" title="Abortion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Romania" title="Abortion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Russia" title="Abortion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_San_Marino" title="Abortion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Serbia" title="Abortion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Slovakia" title="Abortion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Slovenia" title="Abortion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Spain" title="Abortion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Sweden" title="Abortion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Switzerland" title="Abortion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Ukraine" title="Abortion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abortion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Abortion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Belize" title="Abortion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Canada" title="Abortion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Abortion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Cuba" title="Abortion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Abortion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_El_Salvador" title="Abortion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Guatemala" title="Abortion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Honduras" title="Abortion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Mexico" title="Abortion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Nicaragua" title="Abortion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Panama" title="Abortion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Abortion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion law in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Australia" title="Abortion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Abortion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Fiji" title="Abortion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Kiribati" title="Abortion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Abortion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_New_Zealand" title="Abortion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Abortion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Samoa" title="Abortion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Abortion in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Tonga" title="Abortion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Tuvalu" title="Abortion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Vanuatu" title="Abortion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Argentina" title="Abortion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Bolivia" title="Abortion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Brazil" title="Abortion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Chile" title="Abortion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Colombia" title="Abortion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Ecuador" title="Abortion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Guyana" title="Abortion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Paraguay" title="Abortion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Peru" title="Abortion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Suriname" title="Abortion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Uruguay" title="Abortion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Venezuela" title="Abortion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abortion_case_law" title="Category:Abortion case law">Case law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abortion_constitutional_law" title="Category:Abortion constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion#Legal:_History_of_abortion_law" title="History of abortion">History of abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law#National_laws" title="Abortion law">Laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_protection_of_access_to_abortion" title="Legal protection of access to abortion">Buffer zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_to_abortion" title="Conscientious objection to abortion">Conscientious objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_rights" title="Fetal rights">Fetal protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-week_abortion_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="Six-week abortion ban">Six-week bans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent#Abortion" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late-term_abortion#Legal_restrictions_on_later_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-term abortion">Late-term restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minors_and_abortion" title="Minors and abortion">Parental involvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_rights_and_abortion#Men_and_abortion_in_law" title="Paternal rights and abortion">Spousal consent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_aspiration" title="Vacuum aspiration">Vacuum aspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilation_and_evacuation" title="Dilation and evacuation">Dilation and evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilation_and_curettage" title="Dilation and curettage">Dilation and curettage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intact_dilation_and_extraction" title="Intact dilation and extraction">Intact D&X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterotomy_abortion" title="Hysterotomy abortion">Hysterotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instillation_abortion" title="Instillation abortion">Instillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_extraction" title="Menstrual extraction">Menstrual extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_abortion" title="Medical abortion">Medical abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortifacient" title="Abortifacient">Abortifacient drugs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">Methotrexate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mifepristone" title="Mifepristone">Mifepristone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misoprostol" title="Misoprostol">Misoprostol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-induced_abortion" title="Self-induced abortion">Self-induced abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsafe_abortion" title="Unsafe abortion">Unsafe abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_abortion" title="Religion and abortion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_abortion" title="Buddhism and abortion">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_abortion" title="Christianity and abortion">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_abortion" title="Catholic Church and abortion">Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_abortion" title="Hinduism and abortion">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_abortion" title="Islam and abortion">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_abortion" title="Judaism and abortion">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_and_abortion" title="Scientology and abortion">Scientology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Abortion" title="Category:Abortion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Population" title="Category:Population">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movement in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" 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