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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_and_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Growth and reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Taxonomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominent_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Prominent species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kelp_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelp_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Kelp forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelp_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commercial_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Commercial production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelp</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B4%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="عشب البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عشب البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminarials" title="Laminarials – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Laminarials" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lludwymon" title="Lludwymon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Lludwymon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AD%CE%BB%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κέλπιες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κέλπιες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DA%A9" title="کتانجک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کتانجک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilp" title="Ceilp – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceilp" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%8B%9C%EB%A7%88%EB%AA%A9" title="다시마목 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="다시마목" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eari" title="Þari – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þari" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A4" title="קלפ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלפ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ლამინარიასნაირნი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლამინარიასნაირნი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D" title="കെല്പ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കെല്പ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A8" title="طحلب الكلب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="طحلب الكلب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarer" title="Tarer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tarer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tare" title="Tare – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tare" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_(Seealgen)" title="Kelp (Seealgen) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kelp (Seealgen)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listownicowce" title="Listownicowce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Listownicowce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varec" title="Varec – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Varec" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_(%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA)" title="Ламинариевые (порядок) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ламинариевые (порядок)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kelp" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" title="Laminariales – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Laminariales" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Ламінаріальні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ламінаріальні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_T%E1%BA%A3o_b%E1%BA%B9" title="Bộ Tảo bẹ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ Tảo bẹ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kelp_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kelp (disambiguation)">Kelp (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,250,80)">Kelp<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">Lutetian–Present</span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:203.73015384615px; width:16.269846153846px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:203.73015384615px; width:16.269846153846px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:204.73015384615px; width:14.269846153846px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span><sup id="cite_ref-Miller_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg/220px-Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg/330px-Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg/440px-Kelp_In_Freycinet_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3425" data-file-height="2406" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Laminariales" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gyrista" title="Gyrista">Gyrista</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subphylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ochrophyte" title="Ochrophyte">Ochrophytina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">Phaeophyceae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laminariales</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Walter_Migula" title="Walter Migula">Migula</a>, 1909<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,250,80)">Families </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agaraceae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agaraceae (page does not exist)">Agaraceae</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Akkesiphycaceae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akkesiphycaceae (page does not exist)">Akkesiphycaceae</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Alariaceae" title="Alariaceae">Alariaceae</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aureophycaceae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aureophycaceae (page does not exist)">Aureophycaceae</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Chordaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordaceae">Chordaceae</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Laminariaceae" title="Laminariaceae">Laminariaceae</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Lessoniaceae" title="Lessoniaceae">Lessoniaceae</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Pseudochordaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudochordaceae">Pseudochordaceae</a> </p> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Kelps</b> are large <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> that make up the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <b>Laminariales</b>. There are about 30 different <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HMR_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMR-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its appearance and use of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a>, kelp is technically not a <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> but a <a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">stramenopile</a> (a group containing many <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-BioOne_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BioOne-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kelp grow from stalks close together in <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">very dense areas like forests</a> under shallow temperate and Arctic oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-HMR_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMR-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were previously thought to have appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>, 5 to 23 million years ago based on fossils from California.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New fossils of kelp holdfasts from early Oligocene rocks in Washington State show that kelps were present in the northeastern Pacific Ocean by at least 32 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organisms require nutrient-rich water with temperatures between 6 and 14 °C (43 and 57 °F). They are known for their high growth rate—the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Nereocystis" title="Nereocystis">Nereocystis</a></i> can grow as fast as half a metre a day (that is, about 20 inches a day), ultimately reaching 30 to 80 metres (100 to 260 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas-2002_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through the 19th century, the word "kelp" was closely associated with seaweeds that could be burned to obtain <a href="/wiki/Soda_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda ash">soda ash</a> (primarily sodium carbonate). The seaweeds used included species from both the orders Laminariales and <a href="/wiki/Fucales" title="Fucales">Fucales</a>. The word "kelp" was also used directly to refer to these processed ashes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg/260px-Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg/390px-Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg/520px-Chowiet_Island_beach_kelp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaskan</a> beach kelp</figcaption></figure> <p>The thallus (or body) consists of flat or leaf-like structures known as blades that originate from elongated stem-like structures, the stipes. A root-like structure, the <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfast</a>, anchors the kelp to the substrate of the ocean. Gas-filled bladders (<a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">pneumatocysts</a>) form at the base of blades of American species, such as <i>Nereocystis lueteana,</i> (Mert. & Post & Rupr.)<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas-2002_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to hold the kelp blades close to the surface. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_and_reproduction">Growth and reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Growth and reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Growth occurs at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristem</a>, where the blades and stipe meet. Growth may be limited by grazing. <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchins</a>, for example, can reduce entire areas to <a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">urchin barrens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kelp life cycle involves a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> and haploid <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> stage. The haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> then results in the beginning of the diploid sporophyte stage, which will develop into a mature individual. </p><p>The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a mucilage layer, rather than cuticle.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seaweed were generally considered homologues of <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_plant" title="Terrestrial plant">terrestrial plants</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are only very distantly related to plants, and have evolved plant-like structures through <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Drobnitch-2015_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drobnitch-2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where plants have leaves, stems, and reproductive organs, kelp have independently evolved blades, stipes, and <a href="/wiki/Sporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangia">sporangia</a>. With <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> and the measure Ma “unequivocal minimum constraint for total group <a href="/wiki/Pinaceae" title="Pinaceae">Pinaceae</a>” <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> have been measured as having evolved around 419–454 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the ancestors of Laminariales are much younger at 189 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these groups are distantly related as well as different in evolutionary age, there are still comparisons that can be made between the structures of terrestrial plants and kelp but in terms of evolutionary history, most of these similarities come from convergent evolution. </p><p>Some kelp species including giant kelp, have evolved transport mechanisms for organic as well as <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compounds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> similar to mechanisms of transport in <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>. In kelp this transportation network uses trumpet-shaped sieve elements (SEs). A 2015 study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Giant_kelp" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant kelp">giant kelp</a> (<i>Macrocystis pyrifera</i>) transport anatomy looked at 6 different laminariales species to see if they had typical vascular plant allometric relationships (if SEs had a correlation with the size of an organism). Researchers expected to find the kelp’s phloem to work similarly to a plant's <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and therefore display similar <a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">allometric</a> trends to minimize <a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">pressure gradient</a>. The study found no universal allometric scaling between all tested structures of the laminariales species which implies that the transport network of brown algae is only just beginning to evolve to efficiently fit their current niches.<sup id="cite_ref-Drobnitch-2015_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drobnitch-2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from undergoing convergent evolution with plants, species of kelp have undergone convergent evolution within their own phylogeny that has led to <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_niche_conservatism" title="Phylogenetic niche conservatism">niche conservatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Starko-2020_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starko-2020-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This niche conservatism means that some species of kelp have convergently evolved to share similar niches, as opposed to all species diverging into distinct niches through <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiation</a>. A 2020 study looked at functional traits (blade mass per area, stiffness, strength, etc.) of 14 species of kelp and found that many of these traits evolved convergently across kelp phylogeny. With different species of kelp filling slightly different environmental niches, specifically along a wave disturbance gradient, many of these convergently evolved traits for structural reinforcement also correlate with distribution along that gradient. The wave disturbance gradient that this study refers to is the environments that this kelp inhabit have a varied level of perturbation from the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a> and waves that pull at the kelp. It can be assumed from these results that niche partitioning along wave disturbance gradients is a key driver of divergence between closely related kelp.<sup id="cite_ref-Starko-2020_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starko-2020-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the often varied and turbulent habitat that kelp inhabit, <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">plasticity</a> of certain structural traits has been a key for the evolutionary history of the phyla. Plasticity helps with a very important aspect of kelp adaptations to ocean environments, and that is the unusually high levels of morphological <a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasy</a> between lineages. This in fact has made classifying brown algae difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelp often have similar <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> features to other species within its own area since the roughness of the wave disturbance regime, but can look fairly different from other members of its own species that are found in different wave disturbance regimes. Plasticity in kelps most often involves blade morphology such as the width, ruffle, and thickness of blades.<sup id="cite_ref-Koehl-2008_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koehl-2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just one example is the giant bull kelp <i><a href="/wiki/Bull_kelp" title="Bull kelp">Nereocystis luetkeana</a></i>, which have evolved to change blade shape in order to increase drag in water and interception of light when exposed to certain environments. Bull kelp are not unique in this adaptation; many kelp species have evolved a genetic plasticity for blade shapes for different water flow habitats. So individuals of the same species will have differences to other individuals of the same species due to what <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> they grow in.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species have different <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologies</a> for different wave disturbance regimes<sup id="cite_ref-Koehl-2008_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koehl-2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but giant kelp <i><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis integrifolia</a></i> has been found to have plasticity allowing for 4 distinct types of blade morphology depending on habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where many species only have two or three different blade shapes for maximizing efficiency in only two or three habitats. These different blade shapes were found to decrease breakage and increase ability to <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesize</a>. Blade adaptations like these are how kelp have evolved for efficiency in structure in a turbulent ocean environment, to the point where their stability can shape entire habitats. Apart from these structural adaptations, the evolution of dispersal methods relating to structure have been important for the success of kelp as well. </p><p>Kelp have had to adapt <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a> methods that can make successful use of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a>. <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a> of certain kelp structures allows for species to disperse with the flow of water.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain kelp form kelp rafts, which can travel great distances away from the source <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> and colonize other areas. The bull kelp genus <i>Durvillaea</i> includes six species, some that have adapted buoyancy and others that have not. Those that have adapted buoyancy have done so thanks to the evolution of a gas filled structure called the <a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">pneumatocysts</a> which is an adaptation that allows the kelp to float higher towards the surface to photosynthesize and also aids in dispersal by floating kelp rafts.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <i><a href="/wiki/Giant_kelp" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant kelp">Macrocystis pyrifera</a></i>, adaptation of pneumatocysts and raft forming have made the species dispersal method so successful that the immense spread of coast in which the species can be found has been found to actually be very recently <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonized</a>. This can be observed by the low genetic diversity in the <a href="/wiki/Subantarctic" title="Subantarctic">subantarctic</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dispersal by rafts from buoyant species also explains some evolutionary history for non-buoyant species of kelp. Since these rafts commonly have hitchhikers of other diverse species, they provide a mechanism for dispersal for species that lack buoyancy. This mechanism has been recently confirmed to be the cause of some dispersal and evolutionary history for kelp species in a study done with <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomic analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies of kelp structure evolution have helped in the understanding of the adaptations that have allowed for kelp to not only be extremely successful as a group of organisms but also successful as an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a>, some of the most diverse and dynamic ecosystems on earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prominent_species">Prominent species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prominent species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bull kelp, <i><a href="/wiki/Nereocystis_luetkeana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nereocystis luetkeana">Nereocystis luetkeana</a></i>, a northwestern American species. Used by coastal <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Fishing_net" title="Fishing net">fishing nets</a>.</li> <li>Giant kelp, <i><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">Macrocystis pyrifera</a></i>, the largest seaweed. Found in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kombu#Prominent_species" title="Kombu">Kombu</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_japonica" title="Saccharina japonica">Saccharina japonica</a></i> (formerly <i>Laminaria japonica</i>) and others, several edible species of kelp found in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.</li></ul> <p>Species of <i>Laminaria</i> in the British Isles; </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_digitata" title="Laminaria digitata">Laminaria digitata</a></i> (Hudson) J.V. Lamouroux (Oarweed; Tangle)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_hyperborea" title="Laminaria hyperborea">Laminaria hyperborea</a></i> (Gunnerus) Foslie (Curvie)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_ochroleuca" title="Laminaria ochroleuca">Laminaria ochroleuca</a></i> Bachelot de la Pylaie</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_saccharina" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminaria saccharina">Saccharina latissima</a></i> (Linnaeus) J.V.Lamouroux (sea belt; sugar kelp; sugarwack)</li></ul> <p>Species of <i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria" title="Laminaria">Laminaria</a></i> worldwide, listing of species at <a href="/wiki/AlgaeBase" title="AlgaeBase">AlgaeBase</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_agardhii" title="Laminaria agardhii">Laminaria agardhii</a></i> (NE. <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_bongardina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria bongardina (page does not exist)">Laminaria bongardina</a></i> Postels et Ruprecht (Bering Sea to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_cuneifolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria cuneifolia (page does not exist)">Laminaria cuneifolia</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_dentigera" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminaria dentigera">Laminaria dentigera</a></i> Klellm. (California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_digitata" title="Laminaria digitata">Laminaria digitata</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_ephemera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria ephemera (page does not exist)">Laminaria ephemera</a></i> Setchell (Sitka, Alaska, to Monterey County, California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_farlowii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria farlowii (page does not exist)">Laminaria farlowii</a></i> Setchell (Santa Cruz, California, to Baja California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_groenlandica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria groenlandica (page does not exist)">Laminaria groenlandica</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_longicruris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria longicruris (page does not exist)">Laminaria longicruris</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_nigripes" title="Laminaria nigripes">Laminaria nigripes</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_ontermedia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria ontermedia (page does not exist)">Laminaria ontermedia</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_pallida" title="Laminaria pallida">Laminaria pallida</a></i> Greville ex J. Agardh (<a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_platymeris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria platymeris (page does not exist)">Laminaria platymeris</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_saccharina" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminaria saccharina">Laminaria saccharina</a></i> (Linnaeus) Lamouroux, synonym of <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima" title="Saccharina latissima">Saccharina latissima</a></i> (north east Atlantic Ocean, Barents Sea south to Galicia - Spain)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_setchellii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria setchellii (page does not exist)">Laminaria setchellii</a></i> Silva (Aleutian Islands, Alaska to Baja California America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_sinclairii" title="Laminaria sinclairii">Laminaria sinclairii</a></i> (Harvey ex Hooker f. ex Harvey) Farlow, Anderson et Eaton (Hope Island, British Columbia to Los Angeles, California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_solidungula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria solidungula (page does not exist)">Laminaria solidungula</a></i> (NE. America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laminaria_stenophylla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laminaria stenophylla (page does not exist)">Laminaria stenophylla</a></i> (NE. America)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Five-ribbed_kelp_(Costaria_costata).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg/220px-Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg/330px-Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg/440px-Five-ribbed_kelp_%28Costaria_costata%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><i>Costaria costata,</i> five-ribbed kelp</figcaption></figure> <p>Other species in the <a href="/wiki/Laminariales" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminariales">Laminariales</a> that may be considered as kelp: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alaria_esculenta" title="Alaria esculenta">Alaria esculenta</a></i> (North Atlantic)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alaria_marginata" title="Alaria marginata">Alaria marginata</a></i> Post. & Rupr. (Alaska and California - <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Costaria_costata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Costaria costata (page does not exist)">Costaria costata</a></i> (C.Ag.) Saunders (Japan; Alaska, California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecklonia_brevipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ecklonia brevipes (page does not exist)">Ecklonia brevipes</a></i> J. Agardh (Australia; New Zealand)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecklonia_maxima" title="Ecklonia maxima">Ecklonia maxima</a></i> (Osbeck) Papenfuss (South Africa)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecklonia_radiata" title="Ecklonia radiata">Ecklonia radiata</a></i> (C.Agardh) J. Agardh (Australia; Tasmania; New Zealand; South Africa)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eisenia_arborea" title="Eisenia arborea">Eisenia arborea</a></i> Aresch. (Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Montrey, Santa Catalina Island, California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Egregia_menziesii" class="mw-redirect" title="Egregia menziesii">Egregia menziesii</a></i> (Turn.) Aresch.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hedophyllum_sessile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hedophyllum sessile (page does not exist)">Hedophyllum sessile</a> (C.Ag.) Setch (Alaska, California - America)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">Macrocystis pyrifera</a></i> (Linnaeus, C.Agardh) (Australia; Tasmania and South Africa)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pleurophycus_gardneri" title="Pleurophycus gardneri">Pleurophycus gardneri</a></i> Setch. & Saund. (Alaska, California - America)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pterygophora_californica" title="Pterygophora californica">Pterygophora californica</a></i> Rupr. (Vancouver Island, British Columbia to Bahia del Ropsario, Baja California and California - America)</li></ul> <p>Non-Laminariales species that may be considered as kelp: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Durvillea_antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Durvillea antarctica">Durvillea antarctica</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Fucales" title="Fucales">Fucales</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Durvillea_willana" class="mw-redirect" title="Durvillea willana">Durvillea willana</a></i>, Fucales (New Zealand)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Durvillaea_potatorum" title="Durvillaea potatorum">Durvillaea potatorum</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Jacques_Labillardi%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Labillardière">Labillardière</a>) Areschoug, Fucales (<a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>; Australia)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG/250px-KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG/375px-KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG/500px-KelpforestI2500ppx.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg/150px-Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg/225px-Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg/300px-Anemone_and_seastar_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Anemone and seastar in kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kelp_forests">Kelp forests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kelp forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></div> <p>Kelp may develop dense forests with high production,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> biodiversity and ecological function. Along the Norwegian coast these forests cover 5,800 km<sup>2</sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they support large numbers of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Christie-2003_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christie-2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Sessile_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessile animals">sessile animals</a> (sponges, bryozoans and ascidians) are found on kelp stipes and mobile invertebrate fauna are found in high densities on epiphytic algae on the kelp stipes and on kelp holdfasts.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 100,000 mobile invertebrates per square meter are found on kelp stipes and holdfasts in well-developed kelp forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Christie-2003_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christie-2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While larger invertebrates and in particular sea urchins (<i><a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_droebachiensis" title="Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis">Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis</a></i>) are important secondary consumers controlling large barren ground areas on the Norwegian coast, they are scarce inside dense kelp forests.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactions">Interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some animals are named after the kelp, either because they inhabit the same <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a> as kelp or because they feed on kelp. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_kelp_crab" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern kelp crab">Northern kelp crab</a> (<i>Pugettia producta</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Graceful_kelp_crab" class="mw-redirect" title="Graceful kelp crab">graceful kelp crab</a> (<i>Pugettia gracilis</i>), Pacific coast of North America.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelpfish_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kelpfish (disambiguation)">Kelpfish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Blenny" class="mw-redirect" title="Blenny">blenny</a>) (e.g., <i>Heterosticbus rostratus</i>, genus <i><a href="/wiki/Gibbonsia" title="Gibbonsia">Gibbonsia</a></i>), Pacific coast of North America.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_goose" title="Kelp goose">Kelp goose (kelp hen)</a> (<i>Chloephaga hybrida</i>), South America and the Falkland Islands</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheathbill" title="Sheathbill">Kelp pigeon (sheathbill)</a> (<i>Chionis alba</i> and <i>Chionis minor</i>), Antarctic</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation">Conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overfishing nearshore ecosystems leads to the degradation of kelp forests. Herbivores are released from their usual population regulation, leading to over-grazing of kelp and other algae. This can quickly result in barren landscapes where only a small number of species can thrive.<sup id="cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala1998_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major factors which threaten kelp include <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a> and the quality of water, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate changes</a> and certain invasive species.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kelp forests are some of the most productive ecosystems in the world - they are home to a great diversity of species. Many groups, like those at the <a href="/wiki/Seattle_Aquarium" title="Seattle Aquarium">Seattle Aquarium</a>, are studying the health, habitat, and population trends in order to understand why certain kelp (like <a href="/wiki/Bull_kelp" title="Bull kelp">bull kelp</a>) thrives in some areas and not others. <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely Operated Vehicles</a> are used in the surveying of sites and the data extracted is used to learn about which conditions are best suited for kelp restoration. <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Kelp farming</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox nowrap"><caption class="infobox-title" style="white-space:normal; padding-bottom:0.15em;">Seaweed, kelp, raw</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">Energy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">180 kJ (43 kcal)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">9.57 g</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugars</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.6</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">Dietary fiber</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">1.3 g</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">0.56 g</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/wiki/Protein_(nutrient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein (nutrient)">Protein</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">1.68 g</div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; ;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Vitamins and minerals</div></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><b style="margin-left:-0.65em"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a></b></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><b>Quantity</b> <div style="float: right;"><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Thiamine (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">1</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">4%</div> 0.05 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">2</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">12%</div> 0.15 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (nutrient)">Niacin (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">3</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">3%</div> 0.47 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Pantothenic_acid" title="Pantothenic acid">Pantothenic acid (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">5</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">13%</div> 0.642 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">Folate (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">9</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">45%</div> 180 μg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">3%</div> 3 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">Vitamin E</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">6%</div> 0.87 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">Vitamin K</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">55%</div> 66 μg</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><b style="margin-left:-0.65em"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">Minerals</a></b></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><b>Quantity</b> <div style="float: right;"><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_in_biology#Humans" title="Calcium in biology">Calcium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">13%</div> 168 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Human_iron_metabolism" title="Human iron metabolism">Iron</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">16%</div> 2.85 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_in_biology" title="Magnesium in biology">Magnesium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">29%</div> 121 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese#Human_health_and_nutrition" title="Manganese">Manganese</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">9%</div> 0.2 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus#Biological_role" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">3%</div> 42 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium_in_biology" title="Potassium in biology">Potassium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">3%</div> 89 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium_in_biology" title="Sodium in biology">Sodium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">10%</div> 233 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc#Biological_role" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">11%</div> 1.23 mg</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><hr /><div class="wrap" style="padding:0.3em;line-height:1.2em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168457/nutrients">Link to USDA Database entry</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below wrap" style="background:#e0e0e0;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.5em;font-weight:normal;font-size:0.9em"><sup>†</sup>Percentages estimated using <a href="/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intake#Daily_Values" title="Reference Daily Intake">US recommendations</a> for adults,<sup id="cite_ref-FDADailyValues_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FDADailyValues-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">the National Academies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalAcademiesPotassium_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalAcademiesPotassium-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Giant kelp can be harvested fairly easily because of its surface canopy and growth habit of staying in deeper water. </p><p>Kelp ash is rich in <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</a>. In great amount, kelp ash can be used in <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> production. Until the <a href="/wiki/Leblanc_process" title="Leblanc process">Leblanc process</a> was commercialized in the early 19th century, burning of kelp in Scotland was one of the principal industrial sources of soda ash (predominantly <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Clow_52_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clow_52-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 23 tons of seaweed was required to produce 1 ton of kelp ash. The kelp ash would consist of around 5% sodium carbonate.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the Leblanc Process became commercially viable in Britain during the 1820s, common salt replaced kelp ash as raw material for sodium carbonate. Though the price of kelp ash went into steep decline, seaweed remained the only commercial source of iodine. To supply the new industry in iodine synthesis, kelp ash production continued in some parts of West and North Scotland, North West Ireland and Guernsey. The species <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima" title="Saccharina latissima">Saccharina latissima</a></i> yielded the greatest amount of iodine (between 10 and 15 lbs per ton) and was most abundant in Guernsey. Iodine was extracted from kelp ash using a <a href="/wiki/Lixiviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lixiviation">lixiviation</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with sodium carbonate however, mineral sources eventually supplanted seaweed in iodine production.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alginate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alginate">Alginate</a>, a kelp-derived carbohydrate, is used to thicken products such as <a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">ice cream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jelly_(fruit_preserves)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jelly (fruit preserves)">jelly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salad_dressing" title="Salad dressing">salad dressing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toothpaste" title="Toothpaste">toothpaste</a>, as well as an ingredient in exotic <a href="/wiki/Dog_food" title="Dog food">dog food</a> and in manufactured goods.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alginate powder is also used frequently in general dentistry and orthodontics for making impressions of the upper and lower arches.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelp polysaccharides are used in skin care as gelling ingredients and because of the benefits provided by <i><a href="/wiki/Fucoidan" title="Fucoidan">fucoidan</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kombu" title="Kombu">Kombu</a> (昆布 in Japanese, and 海带 in Chinese, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_japonica" title="Saccharina japonica">Saccharina japonica</a></i> and others), several Pacific species of kelp, is a very important ingredient in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean cuisines. Kombu is used to flavor broths and stews (especially <i><a href="/wiki/Dashi" title="Dashi">dashi</a></i>), as a savory garnish (<i>tororo konbu</i>) for rice and other dishes, as a vegetable, and a primary ingredient in popular snacks (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tsukudani" title="Tsukudani">tsukudani</a></i>). Transparent sheets of kelp (<i>oboro konbu</i>) are used as an edible decorative wrapping for rice and other foods.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kombu can be used to soften beans during cooking, and to help convert indigestible sugars and thus reduce flatulence.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morskaja-kapusta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Morskaja-kapusta.jpg/220px-Morskaja-kapusta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Morskaja-kapusta.jpg/330px-Morskaja-kapusta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Morskaja-kapusta.jpg/440px-Morskaja-kapusta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima" title="Saccharina latissima">Saccharina latissima</a></i> in canned salad form</figcaption></figure> <p>In Russia, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a>, and former Soviet Union countries several types of kelp are of commercial importance: <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_latissima" title="Saccharina latissima">Saccharina latissima</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_digitata" title="Laminaria digitata">Laminaria digitata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_japonica" title="Saccharina japonica">Saccharina japonica</a></i>. Known locally as "Sea Cabbage" (Морская капуста in Russian), it comes in retail trade in dried or frozen, as well as in canned form and used as filler in different types of salads, soups and pastries.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of its high concentration of iodine, brown kelp (<i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria" title="Laminaria">Laminaria</a></i>) has been used to treat <a href="/wiki/Goiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Goiter">goiter</a>, an enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by a lack of iodine, since medieval times.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An intake of roughly 150 micrograms of iodine per day is beneficial for preventing hypothyroidism. Overconsumption can lead to kelp-induced <a href="/wiki/Thyrotoxicosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyrotoxicosis">thyrotoxicosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, researchers found that <a href="/wiki/Alginate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alginate">alginate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soluble_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble fibre">soluble fibre</a> substance in sea kelp, was better at preventing fat absorption than most over-the-counter slimming treatments in laboratory trials. As a food additive, it may be used to reduce fat absorption and thus obesity.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelp in its natural form has not yet been demonstrated to have such effects. </p><p>Kelp's rich iron content can help prevent iron deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercial_production">Commercial production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Commercial production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commercial production of kelp harvested from its natural habitat has taken place in Japan for over a century. Many countries today produce and consume laminaria products; the largest producer is China. <i><a href="/wiki/Laminaria_japonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminaria japonica">Laminaria japonica</a></i>, the important commercial seaweed, was first introduced into China in the late 1920s from Hokkaido, Japan. Yet <a href="/wiki/Mariculture" title="Mariculture">mariculture</a> of this alga on a very large commercial scale was realized in China only in the 1950s. Between the 1950s and the 1980s, kelp production in China increased from about 60 to over 250,000 dry weight metric tons annually. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_culture">In culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/200px-Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/300px-Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/400px-Scuba_diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Scuba diver in kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the earliest evidence for human use of marine resources, coming from Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa, includes the harvesting of foods such as <a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">abalone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limpet" title="Limpet">limpets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a> associated with kelp forest habitats. </p><p>In 2007, Erlandson et al. suggested that kelp forests around the Pacific Rim may have facilitated the dispersal of anatomically modern humans following a coastal route from Northeast Asia to the Americas. This "kelp highway hypothesis" suggested that highly productive kelp forests supported rich and diverse marine food webs in nearshore waters, including many types of fish, shellfish, birds, marine mammals, and seaweeds that were similar from Japan to California, Erlandson and his colleagues also argued that coastal kelp forests reduced wave energy and provided a linear dispersal corridor entirely at sea level, with few obstacles to maritime peoples. Archaeological evidence from California's Channel Islands confirms that islanders were harvesting kelp forest shellfish and fish, beginning as much as 12,000 years ago. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a>, many Scottish Highlanders were moved on to areas of estates known as <a href="/wiki/Crofting" title="Crofting">crofts</a>, and went to industries such as fishing and kelping (producing soda ash from the ashes of kelp). At least until the 1840s, when there were steep falls in the price of kelp, landlords wanted to create pools of cheap or virtually free labour, supplied by families subsisting in new crofting townships. Kelp collection and processing was a very profitable way of using this labour, and landlords petitioned successfully for legislation designed to stop emigration. The profitability of kelp harvesting meant that landlords began to subdivide their land for small tenant kelpers, who could now afford higher rent than their gentleman farmer counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the economic collapse of the kelp industry in northern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> during the 1820s led to further emigration, especially to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Natives of the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> are sometimes <a href="/wiki/Nickname" title="Nickname">nicknamed</a> "<a href="/wiki/Kelpers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelpers">Kelpers</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This designation is primarily <a href="/wiki/Exonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym">applied by outsiders rather than the natives themselves</a>. </p><p>In Chinese <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a>, "kelp" (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">海带</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">海帶</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">hǎi dài</span></i>), is used to describe an unemployed returnee.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It has negative overtones, implying the person is drifting aimlessly, and is also a homophonic expression (Chinese: <span lang="zh">海待</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">hǎidài</span></i>, literally "sea waiting"). This expression is contrasted with the employed returnee, having a dynamic ability to travel across the ocean: the "sea turtle" (simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans">海龟</span>; traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant">海龜</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">hǎi gūi</span></i>) and is also homophonic with another word (simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans">海归</span>; traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant">海歸</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">hǎi gūi</span></i>, literally "sea return"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_kelp_(Macrocystis_pyrifera)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant kelp in Monterey Bay Aquarium's Kelp Forest exhibit"><img alt="Giant kelp in Monterey Bay Aquarium's Kelp Forest exhibit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg/190px-Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg/285px-Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg/380px-Giant_kelp_%28Macrocystis_pyrifera%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">Giant kelp</a> in Monterey Bay Aquarium's <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium#Aquarium_exhibits" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium">Kelp Forest exhibit</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Blue rockfish in kelp forest"><img alt="Blue rockfish in kelp forest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg/135px-Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg/202px-Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg/270px-Blue_Rockfish_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Blue rockfish in kelp forest</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest-blue.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An underwater shot of a kelp forest"><img alt="An underwater shot of a kelp forest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kelp_forest-blue.jpg/190px-Kelp_forest-blue.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kelp_forest-blue.jpg/285px-Kelp_forest-blue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kelp_forest-blue.jpg/380px-Kelp_forest-blue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="468" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An underwater shot of a kelp forest</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A close up view of Ecklonia maxima, giant brown kelp"><img alt="A close up view of Ecklonia maxima, giant brown kelp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg/190px-CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg/285px-CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg/380px-CLOSE_UP_OF_ECKLONIA_MAXIMA_LEAF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="1363" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A close up view of <i><a href="/wiki/Ecklonia_maxima" title="Ecklonia maxima">Ecklonia maxima</a>,</i> giant brown kelp</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelpwik.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Washed-up kelp found along the coast of La Jolla Shores"><img alt="Washed-up kelp found along the coast of La Jolla Shores" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kelpwik.jpg/190px-Kelpwik.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kelpwik.jpg/285px-Kelpwik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Kelpwik.jpg/380px-Kelpwik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Washed-up kelp found along the coast of <a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_Shores" title="La Jolla Shores">La Jolla Shores</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scuba diving in a kelp forest in California"><img alt="Scuba diving in a kelp forest in California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg/190px-Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg/285px-Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg/380px-Kelp_by_Gustavo_Gerdel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a> in a kelp forest in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fucus_vesiculosus" title="Fucus vesiculosus">Bladder wrack</a> – Species of Phaeophyceae</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a> – Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durvillaea" title="Durvillaea"><i>Durvillaea</i></a>, also known as southern bull kelps – Genus of seaweeds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrack_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrack zone">Wrack zone</a> – Organic material deposited at high tide on beaches and other coastal area<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_lettuce" title="Sea lettuce">Sea lettuce</a> – Genus of seaweeds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_giant_kelp" title="Aquaculture of giant kelp">Aquaculture of giant kelp</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Miller-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Miller,_III2011" class="citation book cs1">William Miller, III (13 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FLDKUSoFmHMC&pg=PA224"><i>Trace Fossils: Concepts, Problems, Prospects: Chapter 13 "</i>Zoophycos<i> and the Role of Type Specimens in Ichnotaxonomy by Davide Olivero</i></a>. Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">224–</span>226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047535-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047535-6"><bdi>978-0-08-047535-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trace+Fossils%3A+Concepts%2C+Problems%2C+Prospects%3A+Chapter+13+%22Zoophycos+and+the+Role+of+Type+Specimens+in+Ichnotaxonomy+by+Davide+Olivero&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E224-%3C%2Fspan%3E226&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft.isbn=978-0-08-047535-6&rft.au=William+Miller%2C+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFLDKUSoFmHMC%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMigula1909" class="citation book cs1">Migula, W. (1909). <i>Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. 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(July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10152-010-0211-6">"The biogeography of kelps (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae): a global analysis with new insights from recent advances in molecular phylogenetics"</a>. <i>Helgoland Marine Research</i>. <b>64</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">263–</span>279. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010HMR....64..263B">2010HMR....64..263B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10152-010-0211-6">10.1007/s10152-010-0211-6</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Helgoland+Marine+Research&rft.atitle=The+biogeography+of+kelps+%28Laminariales%2C+Phaeophyceae%29%3A+a+global+analysis+with+new+insights+from+recent+advances+in+molecular+phylogenetics&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E279&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10152-010-0211-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010HMR....64..263B&rft.aulast=Bolton&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10152-010-0211-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BioOne-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BioOne_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilberfeldRousseaude_Reviers2014" class="citation journal cs1">Silberfeld, Thomas; Rousseau, Florence; de Reviers, Bruno (2014). 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Retrieved 1 December 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norderhaug, KM., Christie, H. 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5: 515-528. <a href="/wiki/Estuarine,_Coastal_and_Shelf_Science" title="Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science">Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science</a> 95: 135-144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritsch1945" class="citation book cs1">Fritsch, F. E. (1945). <i>Structure and Reproduction of the Algae, Volume 2</i>. 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Sky News. March 22, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Seaweed-May-Fight-Obesity-Could-Alginates-Be-The-Answer-To-A-Dieters-Prayer/Article/201003415579083">the original</a> on March 25, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Seaweed+The+Answer+To+A+Dieter%27s+Prayer%3F&rft.pub=Sky+News&rft.date=2010-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sky.com%2Fskynews%2FHome%2FUK-News%2FSeaweed-May-Fight-Obesity-Could-Alginates-Be-The-Answer-To-A-Dieters-Prayer%2FArticle%2F201003415579083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerAuerbachSchünemannTymon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Eric P.; Auerbach, Hendrik; Schünemann, Volker; Tymon, Teresa; Carrano, Carl J. (20 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC6MT00027D">"Surface binding, localization and storage of iron in the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera"</a>. <i>Metallomics</i>. <b>8</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">403–</span>411. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC6MT00027D">10.1039/C6MT00027D</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-591X">1756-591X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27009567">27009567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metallomics&rft.atitle=Surface+binding%2C+localization+and+storage+of+iron+in+the+giant+kelp+Macrocystis+pyrifera&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E403-%3C%2Fspan%3E411&rft.date=2016-04-20&rft.issn=1756-591X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27009567&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FC6MT00027D&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Eric+P.&rft.au=Auerbach%2C+Hendrik&rft.au=Sch%C3%BCnemann%2C+Volker&rft.au=Tymon%2C+Teresa&rft.au=Carrano%2C+Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1039%252FC6MT00027D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. M. Bumsted, The People's Clearance: Highland Emigration to British North America, 1770-1815, 1981</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.allwords.com/word-Kelper.html">[1]</a> allwords.com definition for "Kelper",</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kelper">[2]</a> dictionary.com definition for "Kelper"</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Druehl, L.D. 1988. Cultivated edible kelp. <i>in</i> <i>Algae and Human Affairs.</i> Lembi, C.A. and Waaland, J.R. (Editors) 1988.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B521%2B32115%2B8" title="Special:BookSources/0+521+32115+8">0 521 32115 8</a>.</li> <li>Erlandson, J.M., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.A. Estes, & R.S. Steneck. 2007. The Kelp Highway hypothesis: marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 2:161-174.</li> <li>Eger, A. M., Layton, C., McHugh, T. A, Gleason, M., and Eddy, N. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kelpforestalliance.com/TNC-KFA-Kelp-Guidebook-2022.pdf">Kelp Restoration Guidebook: Lessons Learned from Kelp Projects Around the World.</a> The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Laminariales" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Laminariales">Laminariales</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikispecies-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/14px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/20px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/27px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></a></span> Data related to <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Laminariales">Laminariales</a> at Wikispecies</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers2701" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers2701" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Laminariales</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1055316" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q1055316">Q1055316</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Laminariales" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Laminariales">Laminariales</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/AlgaeBase" title="AlgaeBase">AlgaeBase</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/detail/?taxonid=4586">4586</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NFBR">7NFBR</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/3565">3565</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1LMINO">1LMINO</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/560">560</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/68789">68789</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11666">11666</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=11211">11211</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Biodiversity_Network" title="National Biodiversity Network">NBN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://species.nbnatlas.org/species/NHMSYS0021058669">NHMSYS0021058669</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=2886">2886</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/345fd211-8828-434a-9ad5-fc1856af7aa6">345fd211-8828-434a-9ad5-fc1856af7aa6</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=878347">878347</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=306707">306707</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=845">845</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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