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id="toc-Conquest_of_Algeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Algeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Conquest of Algeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Algeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algerian_Nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algerian_Nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Algerian Nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algerian_Nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>War chronology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_chronology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War chronology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_hostilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_hostilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Beginning of hostilities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_hostilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-FLN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FLN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>FLN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-FLN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_Philippeville_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Philippeville_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>After the Philippeville massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Philippeville_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Algiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Algiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Battle of Algiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Algiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guerrilla_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrilla_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Guerrilla war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrilla_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_counter-insurgency_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_counter-insurgency_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>French counter-insurgency operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_counter-insurgency_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Fourth_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Fourth_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Fall of the Fourth Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Fourth_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De_Gaulle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_Gaulle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>De Gaulle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_Gaulle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Week_of_barricades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Week_of_barricades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Week of barricades</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Week_of_barricades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>End of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy_of_internationalisation_of_the_Algerian_War_led_by_the_FLN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy_of_internationalisation_of_the_Algerian_War_led_by_the_FLN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Strategy of internationalisation of the Algerian War led by the FLN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy_of_internationalisation_of_the_Algerian_War_led_by_the_FLN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Role of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exodus_of_the_Pieds-Noirs_and_Harkis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exodus_of_the_Pieds-Noirs_and_Harkis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Exodus of the Pieds-Noirs and Harkis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exodus_of_the_Pieds-Noirs_and_Harkis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exodus of the Pieds-Noirs and Harkis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exodus_of_the_Pieds-Noirs_and_Harkis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pieds-noirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pieds-noirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Pieds-noirs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pieds-noirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harkis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harkis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Harkis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harkis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Death toll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lasting_effects_in_Algerian_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lasting_effects_in_Algerian_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Lasting effects in Algerian politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lasting_effects_in_Algerian_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atrocities_and_war_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities_and_war_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Atrocities and war crimes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atrocities_and_war_crimes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Atrocities and war crimes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Atrocities_and_war_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_atrocities_and_use_of_torture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_atrocities_and_use_of_torture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>French atrocities and use of torture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_atrocities_and_use_of_torture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algerian_use_of_terror" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algerian_use_of_terror"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Algerian use of terror</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algerian_use_of_terror-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lack_of_commemoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_commemoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Lack of commemoration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_commemoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English-language_historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English-language_historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>English-language historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-language_historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>In film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reminders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reminders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Reminders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reminders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_controversy_in_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_controversy_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Continued controversy in France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_controversy_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socioeconomic_situation_of_French_Algerians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socioeconomic_situation_of_French_Algerians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Socioeconomic situation of French Algerians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socioeconomic_situation_of_French_Algerians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_recognition_of_historical_use_of_torture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_recognition_of_historical_use_of_torture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>French recognition of historical use of torture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_recognition_of_historical_use_of_torture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-INA_archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#INA_archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>INA archives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-INA_archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.9</span> <span>Contemporary publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10</span> <span>Other publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English-language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English-language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10.1</span> <span>English-language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10.2</span> <span>French language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Algerian War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ثورة التحرير الجزائرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثورة التحرير الجزائرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_d%27Independencia_d%27Arxelia" title="Guerra d'Independencia d'Arxelia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra d'Independencia d'Arxelia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="الجزایر ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الجزایر ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="আলজেরিয়ার স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আলজেরিয়ার স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Вайна за незалежнасць Алжыра – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вайна за незалежнасць Алжыра" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Алжирска война за независимост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алжирска война за независимост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEirski_rat_za_nezavisnost" title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_Aljeria" title="Brezel Aljeria – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel Aljeria" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_d%27Alg%C3%A8ria" title="Guerra d'Algèria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra d'Algèria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BE%C3%ADrsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Alžírská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alžírská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfel_Algeria" title="Rhyfel Algeria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfel Algeria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerienkrieg" title="Algerienkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Algerienkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEeeria_s%C3%B5da" title="Alžeeria sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Alžeeria sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Πόλεμος της Αλγερίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πόλεμος της Αλγερίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Independencia_de_Argelia" title="Guerra de Independencia de Argelia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de Independencia de Argelia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C4%9Deria_Milito_de_Sendependeco" title="Alĝeria Milito de Sendependeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alĝeria Milito de Sendependeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aljeriako_Independentzia_Gerra" title="Aljeriako Independentzia Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aljeriako Independentzia Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="جنگ الجزایر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ الجزایر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie" title="Guerre d'Algérie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre d'Algérie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_Saoirse_na_hAilg%C3%A9ire" title="Cogadh Saoirse na hAilgéire – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogadh Saoirse na hAilgéire" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Alxeria" title="Guerra de Alxeria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra de Alxeria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EC%A0%9C%EB%A6%AC_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="알제리 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알제리 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%AA%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ալժիրի անկախության պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալժիրի անկախության պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEirski_rat_za_nezavisnost" title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milito_di_Aljeria" title="Milito di Aljeria – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Milito di Aljeria" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Aljazair" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Aljazair – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Aljazair" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Als%C3%ADrstr%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Alsírstríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alsírstríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_d%27Algeria" title="Guerra d'Algeria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra d'Algeria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="מלחמת העצמאות של אלג'יריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת העצמאות של אלג'יריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_ya_Algeria" title="Vita ya Algeria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vita ya Algeria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BE%C4%ABrijas_neatkar%C4%ABbas_kar%C5%A1" title="Alžīrijas neatkarības karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Alžīrijas neatkarības karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEyro_karas" title="Alžyro karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Alžyro karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg%C3%A9riai_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Algériai háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Algériai háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Алжирска војна за независност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алжирска војна за независност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ady_tao_Aljeria" title="Ady tao Aljeria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ady tao Aljeria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="അൾജീരിയൻ യുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൾജീരിയൻ യുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Algeria" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Algeria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Algeria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerijnse_Oorlog" title="Algerijnse Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Algerijnse Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="アルジェリア戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アルジェリア戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriekrigen" title="Algeriekrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Algeriekrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriekrigen" title="Algeriekrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Algeriekrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_d%27Argeria" title="Guèrra d'Argeria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra d'Argeria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الجزائری جنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الجزائری جنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د الجزاير جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د الجزاير جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_algierska" title="Wojna algierska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna algierska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Independ%C3%AAncia_Argelina" title="Guerra de Independência Argelina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra de Independência Argelina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_din_Algeria" title="Războiul din Algeria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul din Algeria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Война за независимость Алжира – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война за независимость Алжира" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gherra_de_Algeria" title="Gherra de Algeria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Gherra de Algeria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_Algjeriane" title="Lufta Algjeriane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta Algjeriane" 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href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%95%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="شەڕی جەزائیر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی جەزائیر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Алжирски рат за независност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алжирски рат за независност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C5%BEirski_rat_za_nezavisnost" title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alžirski rat za nezavisnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_sota" title="Algerian sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Algerian sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerietrevolten" title="Algerietrevolten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Algerietrevolten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Historiography of the Algerian War</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1954–1962 war of Algerian independence from France</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Algeria" title="List of wars involving Algeria">List of wars involving Algeria</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;;width:315px"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Algerian War<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ثورة التحرير الجزائرية</span></span><br /><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Guerre d'Algérie</i></span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonisation of Africa</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg/315px-Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg" decoding="async" width="315" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg/473px-Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg/630px-Algerian_war_collage_wikipedia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="960" /></a></span><br />Collage of the French war in Algeria</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">1 November 1954</a> – 19 March 1962<br />(7 years, 4 months, 2 weeks and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Algerian victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <ul><li>Independence of Algeria from France</li> <li>End of the <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hargreaves2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargreaves2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beigbeder2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beigbeder2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">Collapse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth French Republic">Fourth French Republic</a></li> <li>Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth French Republic">Fifth French Republic</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/23px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/35px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/45px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">FLN</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/23px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/35px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/45px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_National_Movement" title="Algerian National Movement">MNA</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algerian_Communist_Party.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Communist_Party" title="Algerian Communist Party">PCA</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">French Fourth Republic</a><br /><small>(1954–58)</small></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">French Fifth Republic</a><br /><small>(1958–62)</small></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Main_Rouge" title="La Main Rouge">La Main Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_pour_la_communaut%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="fr:Mouvement pour la communauté">MPC</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algerian_National_People%27s_Army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Algerian National People's Army (page does not exist)">ANPA</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Front_Alg%C3%A9rie_Fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Front Algérie Française">FAF</a><br /><small>(1960–61)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/23px-OAS_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/35px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/46px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Organisation_arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation armée secrète">OAS</a><br /><small>(1961–62)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Mourad_Didouche" title="Mourad Didouche">Mourad Didouche</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Boudiaf" title="Mohamed Boudiaf">Mohamed Boudiaf</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Abdelhafid_Boussouf" title="Abdelhafid Boussouf">Abdelhafid Boussouf</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Mustapha_Benboula%C3%AFd" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustapha Benboulaïd">Mustapha Benboulaïd</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Krim_Belkacem" title="Krim Belkacem">Krim Belkacem</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Larbi_Ben_M%27Hidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Larbi Ben M'Hidi">Larbi Ben M'Hidi</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ali_La_Pointe" title="Ali La Pointe">Ali La Pointe</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFd_Mohammedi" title="Saïd Mohammedi">Saïd Mohammedi</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zabana" title="Ahmed Zabana">Ahmed Zabana</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Si_Azzedine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Si Azzedine (page does not exist)">Si Azzedine</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandant_Azzedine" class="extiw" title="fr:Commandant Azzedine">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Youcef_Zighoud" title="Youcef Zighoud">Youcef Zighoud</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rabah_Bitat" title="Rabah Bitat">Rabah Bitat</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Benali_Boudgh%C3%A8ne" title="Benali Boudghène">Benali Boudghène</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bachir_Chihani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bachir Chihani (page does not exist)">Bachir Chihani</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1" class="extiw" title="ar:شيحاني بشير">ar</a>; <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachir_Chihani" class="extiw" title="fr:Bachir Chihani">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ali_Mallah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ali Mallah (page does not exist)">Ali Mallah</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD" class="extiw" title="ar:علي ملاح">ar</a>]</span> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hocine_A%C3%AFt_Ahmed" title="Hocine Aït Ahmed">Hocine Aït Ahmed</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Amirouche" title="Colonel Amirouche">Colonel Amirouche</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Yacef" title="Saadi Yacef">Saadi Yacef</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Houari Boumédiène</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_(1958-1962).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/20px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/30px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg/40px-Variant_flag_of_the_GPRA_%281958-1962%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Amar_Ouamrane" title="Amar Ouamrane">Amar Ouamrane</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><b>Politicians:</b></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abane_Ramdane" title="Abane Ramdane">Abane Ramdane</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ferhat_Abbas" title="Ferhat Abbas">Ferhat Abbas</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boumedienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumedienne">Houari Boumedienne</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hocine_A%C3%AFt_Ahmed" title="Hocine Aït Ahmed">Hocine Aït Ahmed</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Krim_Belkacem" title="Krim Belkacem">Krim Belkacem</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rabah_Bitat" title="Rabah Bitat">Rabah Bitat</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Boudiaf" title="Mohamed Boudiaf">Mohamed Boudiaf</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ali_Kafi" title="Ali Kafi">Ali Kafi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Tewfik_El_Madani" title="Ahmed Tewfik El Madani">Ahmed Tewfik El Madani</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Francis" title="Ahmed Francis">Ahmed Francis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Khider" title="Mohamed Khider">Mohamed Khider</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Benyoucef_Benkhedda" title="Benyoucef Benkhedda">Benyoucef Benkhedda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abdelhamid_Mehri" title="Abdelhamid Mehri">Abdelhamid Mehri</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Lamine_Debaghine" title="Mohamed Lamine Debaghine">Mohamed Lamine Debaghine</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saad_Dahlab" title="Saad Dahlab">Saad Dahlab</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Seddik_Benyahia" title="Mohammed Seddik Benyahia">Mohammed Seddik Benyahia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Lakhdar_Ben_Tobbal" title="Lakhdar Ben Tobbal">Lakhdar Ben Tobbal</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abdelhafid_Boussouf" title="Abdelhafid Boussouf">Abdelhafid Boussouf</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFd_Mohammedi" title="Saïd Mohammedi">Saïd Mohammedi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibrahim_Mazhoudi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibrahim Mazhoudi (page does not exist)">Ibrahim Mazhoudi</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alphonse_Djamate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alphonse Djamate (page does not exist)">Alphonse Djamate</a> <br /> <small>(1955–62)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Cherri%C3%A8re&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Cherrière (page does not exist)">Paul Cherrière</a><br /> <small>(1954–55)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Lorillot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri Lorillot (page does not exist)">Henri Lorillot</a> <br /> <small>(1955–56)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mohammed_Bellounis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mohammed Bellounis (page does not exist)">Mohammed Bellounis</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <br /> <small>(1955–58)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Soustelle" title="Jacques Soustelle">Jacques Soustelle</a> <br /> <small>(1955–56)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Salan" title="Raoul Salan">Raoul Salan</a> <br /> <small>(1956–58)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herv%C3%A9_Artur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hervé Artur (page does not exist)">Hervé Artur</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <br /> <small>(1956)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lacoste" title="Robert Lacoste">Robert Lacoste</a> <br /> <small>(1956–58)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Massu" title="Jacques Massu">Jacques Massu</a> <br /> <small>(1956–60)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Sentenac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="René Sentenac (page does not exist)">René Sentenac</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a> <br /> <small>(1957)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jeanpierre" title="Pierre Jeanpierre">Pierre Jeanpierre</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /> <small>(1957–58)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Aussaresses" title="Paul Aussaresses">Paul Aussaresses</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Challe" title="Maurice Challe">Maurice Challe</a> <br /> <small>(1958–60)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> Jean Crepin <br /> <small>(1960–61)</small></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Gambiez" title="Fernand Gambiez">Fernand Gambiez</a> <br /> <small>(1961)</small></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><b>Politicians:</b></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mendes-France" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Mendes-France">Pierre Mendes-France</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Mollet" title="Guy Mollet">Guy Mollet</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bourg%C3%A8s-Maunoury" title="Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury">Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Gaillard" title="Félix Gaillard">Félix Gaillard</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pflimlin" title="Pierre Pflimlin">Pierre Pflimlin</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFd_Boualam" title="Saïd Boualam">Saïd Boualam</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/23px-OAS_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/35px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/46px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lagaillarde" title="Pierre Lagaillarde">Pierre Lagaillarde</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/23px-OAS_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/35px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/46px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Salan" title="Raoul Salan">Raoul Salan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/23px-OAS_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/35px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/46px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Jouhaud" title="Edmond Jouhaud">Edmond Jouhaud</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/23px-OAS_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/35px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/OAS_Flag.svg/46px-OAS_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Susini" title="Jean-Jacques Susini">Jean-Jacques Susini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 300,000 identified<br />40,000 civilian support</td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>470,000 troops (maximum reached and maintained by the French military from 1956 to 1962)<sup id="cite_ref-Windrow_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windrow-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 700,000 men<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (it is unclear whether the latter estimate includes the Harkis or not)<hr />90,000<sup id="cite_ref-Stora_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stora-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 180,000 <a href="/wiki/Harkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Harkis">Harkis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Major_Gregory_D_p.33_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Major_Gregory_D_p.33-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (pro-French Algerian auxiliaries)<hr />1.5 million men mobilized<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> 3,000 (OAS)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <ul><li>140,000<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 152,863<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FLN soldiers killed (including 12,000 internal purges<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 4,300 Algerians from the FLN and MNA killed in metropolitan France)</li> <li>Unknown wounded</li> <li>198 executed<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <li>17,456<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 538">: 538 </span></sup> to 30,000<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French soldiers killed</li> <li>65,000 wounded<sup id="cite_ref-google_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>50,000 Harkis killed or missing<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>6,000 European civilian deaths</li></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <li>100 dead</li> <li>2,000 jailed</li> <li>4 executed</li></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>250,000–300,000 (including 55,000<sup id="cite_ref-civilians_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-civilians-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 250,000<sup id="cite_ref-democide_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democide-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-democide2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democide2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> civilians) Algerian casualties (French estimate) <br /></li></ul> <p>~1,500,000 total Algerian deaths (Algerian historians' estimate)<sup id="cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> ~1,000,000 total Algerian deaths (Horne's estimate)<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> ~400,000 total deaths (French historians' estimate)<sup id="cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <hr /> <ul><li>1 million Europeans fled<sup id="cite_ref-google4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google4-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>200,000 Jews fled<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Neither does the much longer French version support it at www.cairn.info/revue-archives-juives1-2009-2-page-67.htm#re10no10 (July 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>8,000 villages destroyed</li> <li>Over 2 million Algerians resettled or displaced<sup id="cite_ref-Fabien_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabien-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Algerian_War_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Algerian War of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Algerian_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>1950s</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Rouge" title="Toussaint Rouge">Toussaint Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Douar_Souadek" title="Battle of Douar Souadek">Boukerker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_V%C3%A9ronique" title="Operation Véronique">Véronique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Djorf" title="First Battle of El Djorf">El Djorf I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippeville" title="Battle of Philippeville">Philippeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blue_Bird" title="Operation Blue Bird">Blue Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestro_ambush" title="Palestro ambush">Palestro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Algiers_(1956%E2%80%931957)" title="Battle of Algiers (1956–1957)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fellaoucene" title="Battle of Fellaoucene">Fellaoucene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_of_Oued_Zeggar" title="Ambush of Oued Zeggar">Oued Zeggar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sidi_Semiane" title="Battle of Sidi Semiane">Sidi Semiane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agounennda" title="Battle of Agounennda">Agounennda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouzegza" title="Battle of Bouzegza">Bouzegza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_El_Menaouer_(1957)" title="Battle of El Menaouer (1957)">El Menaouer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Essien_(1957)" title="Battle of Essien (1957)">Essien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Timimoun" title="Battle of Timimoun">Timimoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bab_El_Bekkouche" title="Battle of Bab El Bekkouche">Bab El Bekkouche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_borders_(Algerian_War)" title="Battle of the borders (Algerian War)">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">May 1958 crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ouled_Bouachra" title="Battle of Ouled Bouachra">1st Ouled Bouachra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ath_Yahia_Moussa" title="Battle of Ath Yahia Moussa">Ath Yahia Moussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jumelles" title="Operation Jumelles">Jumelles</a></li> <li>[<a class="external text" href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_Challe">Plan Challe</a>] (1959-1961)</li></ul> <p><b>1960s</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">Algiers putsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bab_El_Oued" title="Battle of Bab El Oued">Bab El Oued</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oran_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Oran massacre">Oran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Boutaleb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Boutaleb (page does not exist)">Boutaleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djebel_Bouk%27hil_(1961)" title="Battle of Djebel Bouk'hil (1961)">Bouk'hil</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Nasinsa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Nasinsa (page does not exist)">Nasinsa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ouled_Rashache&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ouled Rashache (page does not exist)">Ouled Rashache</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Flawcen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Flawcen (page does not exist)">Flawcen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Battle_of_Ouled_Bouachra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second Battle of Ouled Bouachra (page does not exist)">2nd Ouled Bouachra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Kef_Lakhdar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Kef Lakhdar (page does not exist)">Kef Lakhdar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ouled_Sinan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Ouled Sinan (page does not exist)">Ouled Sinan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Guergour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Guergour (page does not exist)">Guergour</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Kef_Afoul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Kef Afoul (page does not exist)">Kef Afoul</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Algeria" title="Category:History of Algeria">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">History of <span class="fn org label">Algeria</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_(Alg%C3%A9rie)_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg/200px-Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg/300px-Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg/400px-Carte_de_la_R%C3%A9gence_d%27Alger_en_1650_%28Alg%C3%A9rie%29_et_du_Royaume_de_F%C3%A8s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3203" data-file-height="2160" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Central_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric Central North Africa">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian Culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80,000 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusian Culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20,000 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsian culture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10,000 BC)</span></li> <li>Rock art in <a href="/wiki/Rock_art_of_south_Oran_(Algeria)" title="Rock art of south Oran (Algeria)">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rock_art_of_the_Djelfa_region" title="Rock art of the Djelfa region">Djelfa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tassili_n%27Ajjer" title="Tassili n'Ajjer">Tassili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roknia" title="Roknia">Roknia</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div> <ul><li>Related: <a href="/wiki/Archeology_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology of Algeria">Archeology of Algeria</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">Antiquity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madghacen" title="Madghacen">Madghacen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jedars" title="Jedars">Jedars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_settlement_of_North_Africa" title="Phoenician settlement of North Africa">Phoenician settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(202–46 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(264–146 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(111–106 BC)</span></li> <li>Roman <a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(146 BC–590 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(435–534 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Mauro-Roman Kingdom</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(477–578 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(484–703 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(578–708 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Prefecture of Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(534–585 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(585–698 AD)</span></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_African_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early African Church">Early African Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Partenia">Partenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossatum_Africae" title="Fossatum Africae">Fossatum Africae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemellae" title="Gemellae">Gemellae</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Muslim_Algeria" title="Medieval Muslim Algeria">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">Arab conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(647–709 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(703–744 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifranid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifranid dynasty">Ifranids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(742–1066 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhallabids" title="Muhallabids">Muhallabids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(771–793 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustamid_dynasty" title="Rustamid dynasty">Rustamids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(776–909 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(789–828 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(800–909 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(909–1171 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrawa" title="Maghrawa">Maghrawas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(970–1068 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zirid_dynasty" title="Zirid dynasty">Zirids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(973–1152 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammadids" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammadids">Hammadids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1014–1152 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1040–1147 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1121–1269 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinid_dynasty" title="Marinid dynasty">Marinids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1215–1465 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1229–1574 AD)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyyanid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziyyanid dynasty">Ziyyanids</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1235–1556 AD)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Modern times</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers" title="Regency of Algiers">Regency of Algiers</a> (16th–19th centuries)</b> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_and_rulers_of_the_Regency_of_Algiers" title="List of governors and rulers of the Regency of Algiers">Ottoman governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Beni_Abbas" title="Kingdom of Beni Abbas">Kingdom of Beni Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kuku" title="Kingdom of Kuku">Kingdom of Kuku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Oran" title="Spanish Oran">Spanish Oran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> (19th–20th centuries)</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_governors_of_Algeria" title="List of French governors of Algeria">French governors</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_popular_resistance_against_French_invasion" title="Algerian popular resistance against French invasion">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Abdelkader" title="Emirate of Abdelkader">Emirate of Abdelkader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalla_Fatma_N%27Soumer" title="Lalla Fatma N'Soumer">Fatma N'Soumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Bouamama" title="Cheikh Bouamama">Cheikh Bouamama</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a></li></ul> <p><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a> (1954–1962)</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Committee_of_Unity_and_Action" title="Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action">RCUA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">FLN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Algerian_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic">GPRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1958 crisis">1958 crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">1961 putsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_Algerian_independence_referendum" title="1962 Algerian independence referendum">Independence referendum</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pieds-noirs" title="Pieds-noirs">Pieds-noirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harkis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oujda_Group" title="Oujda Group">Oujda Group</a></li></ul> </div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">Contemporary era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>1960s–80s</b> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Forces_Front_rebellion_in_Algeria" title="Socialist Forces Front rebellion in Algeria">FFS rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Algerian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1965 Algerian coup d'état">1965 coup d'état</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Spring" title="Berber Spring">Berber Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_October_Riots" title="1988 October Riots">1988 riots</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>1990s–<a href="/wiki/2000s_in_Algeria" title="2000s in Algeria">2000s</a></b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Algerian_Civil_War" title="Timeline of the Algerian Civil War">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Algerian_Civil_War" title="List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War">Massacres</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Salvation_Front" title="Islamic Salvation Front">FIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Islamic_Group_of_Algeria" title="Armed Islamic Group of Algeria">GIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Council_of_State_(Algeria)" title="High Council of State (Algeria)">High Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_Concord_referendum,_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999">Civil Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Spring_(Algeria)" title="Black Spring (Algeria)">Black Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_for_Peace_and_National_Reconciliation" title="Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation">Peace Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_Maghreb_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)">Insurgency in the Maghreb</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>2010s to present</b> </p> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Algerian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2010–2011 Algerian protests">Arab Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirak_(Algeria)" title="Hirak (Algeria)">Hirak Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Algeria" title="Outline of Algeria">Outline of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Algeria" title="Military history of Algeria">Military history of Algeria</a><br />(<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Algeria" title="List of wars involving Algeria">List of wars involving Algeria</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Algeria" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Algeria">Postal history of Algeria</a><br />(<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_on_stamps_of_Algeria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of people on stamps of Algeria (page does not exist)">List of people on stamps of Algeria</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">History of North Africa</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Algeria" title="Template:History of Algeria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Algeria" title="Template talk:History of Algeria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Algeria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Algeria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> <p>The <b>Algerian War</b> (also known as the <b>Algerian Revolution</b> or the <b>Algerian War of Independence</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a major armed conflict between <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and the Algerian <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front</a> (FLN) from 1954 to 1962, which led to <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> winning its independence from France.<sup id="cite_ref-vic_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vic-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization war">decolonization war</a>, it was a complex conflict characterized by <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> and war crimes. The conflict also became a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> between the different communities and within the communities.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war took place mainly on the territory of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, with repercussions in <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>. </p><p>Effectively started by members of the FLN on 1 November 1954, during the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Rouge" title="Toussaint Rouge">Toussaint Rouge</a></i></span> ("Red <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Day" title="All Saints' Day">All Saints' Day</a>"), the conflict led to serious political crises in France, causing the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth French Republic">Fourth Republic</a> (1946–58), to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth French Republic">Fifth Republic</a> with a strengthened presidency. The brutality of the methods employed by the French forces failed to <a href="/wiki/Win_hearts_and_minds" class="mw-redirect" title="Win hearts and minds">win hearts and minds</a> in Algeria, alienated support in metropolitan France, and discredited French prestige abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-toto.lib.unca.edu_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toto.lib.unca.edu-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.fr_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.fr-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the war dragged on, the French public slowly turned against it<sup id="cite_ref-Stora2004_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stora2004-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many of France's key allies, including the United States, switched from supporting France to abstaining in the UN debate on Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Bulow2016_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bulow2016-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After major demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> and several other cities in favor of independence (1960)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google5_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a United Nations resolution recognizing the right to independence,<sup id="cite_ref-un_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/President_of_France" title="President of France">president</a> of the Fifth Republic, decided to open a series of negotiations with the FLN. These concluded with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a> in March 1962. A <a href="/wiki/1962_French_%C3%89vian_Accords_referendum" title="1962 French Évian Accords referendum">referendum</a> took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords. The final result was 91% in favor of the ratification of this agreement<sup id="cite_ref-france-politique_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-france-politique-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on 1 July, the Accords were subject to a <a href="/wiki/1962_Algerian_%C3%89vian_Accords_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1962 Algerian Évian Accords referendum">second referendum</a> in Algeria, where 99.72% voted for independence and just 0.28% against.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis. This included various <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a> attempts on de Gaulle as well as some attempts at <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">military coups</a>. Most of the former were carried out by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation armée secrète">Organisation armée secrète</a></i></span> (OAS), an underground organization formed mainly from French military personnel supporting a French Algeria, which committed a large number of bombings and murders both in Algeria and in the homeland to stop the planned independence. </p><p>The war caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 1.5 million Algerians,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-democide_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democide-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 25,600 French soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 538">: 538 </span></sup> and 6,000 Europeans. <a href="#Atrocities_and_war_crimes">War crimes</a> committed during the war included massacres of civilians, rape, and <a href="/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" title="Torture during the Algerian War">torture</a>; the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to <a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France#Algerian_War" title="Internment camps in France">concentration camps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_Shillington_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_Shillington-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aoudjit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon independence in 1962, 900,000 European-Algerians (<i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Pieds-noirs" title="Pieds-noirs">Pieds-noirs</a></i></span></i>) fled to France within a few months for fear of the FLN's revenge. The French government was unprepared to receive such a vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. The majority of Algerian Muslims who had worked for the French were disarmed and left behind, as the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">agreement</a> between French and Algerian authorities declared that no actions could be taken against them.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harkis</a> in particular, having served as auxiliaries with the French army, were regarded as traitors and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harki_massacres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harki massacres (page does not exist)">many were murdered</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacres_de_harkis" class="extiw" title="fr:Massacres de harkis">fr</a>]</span> by the FLN or by lynch mobs, often after being abducted and tortured.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 537">: 537 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 20,000 Harki families (around 90,000 people) managed to flee to France, some with help from their French officers acting against orders, and today they and their descendants form a significant part of the population of <a href="/wiki/Algerians_in_France" title="Algerians in France">Algerians in France</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Algeria">Conquest of Algeria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/220px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/330px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg/440px-Vernet-Combat_de_Somah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Somah in 1836</figcaption></figure> <p>The decision to capture Algiers was made by <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> and his ministers in January 1830. An invasion had already been discussed in 1827 in part in reaction to <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> activities and their ransoming of Christian captives and slaves, and the refusal of Marseilles merchants to pay their debts to the <a href="/wiki/Dey" title="Dey">Dey</a> of Algiers. By early 1830 however, the real motive was to distract and assuage with a foreign conquest French opinion hostile to the increasingly authoritarian king.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_(1830)" title="Invasion of Algiers (1830)">French attacked and captured Algiers</a> in June 1830. In following years the conquest spread to the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Directed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Bugeaud" title="Thomas Robert Bugeaud">Marshall Bugeaud</a>, who became the first <a href="/wiki/Colonial_heads_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial heads of Algeria">Governor-General of Algeria</a>, the conquest was violent and marked by a "<a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a>" policy designed to reduce the power of the native rulers, the <a href="/wiki/Dey" title="Dey">Dey</a>, including massacres, mass rapes and other atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-Grandmaison_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grandmaison-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 500,000 and 1,000,000, from approximately 3 million Algerians, were killed in the first three decades of the conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2007_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">killed in action</a> and 92,329 dying in hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1834, Algeria became a French military colony. It was declared by the <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848" title="French Constitution of 1848">Constitution of 1848</a> to be an integral part of France and was divided into three <a href="/wiki/French_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="French departments">departments</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alger_(department)" title="Alger (department)">Alger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran_(department)" title="Oran (department)">Oran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_(departement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine (departement)">Constantine</a>. Many French and other Europeans (Spanish, Italians, Maltese and others) later settled in Algeria. </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a> (1852–1871), the <i><a href="/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" title="Indigénat">Code de l'indigénat</a></i> (Indigenous Code) was implemented by the <i><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9natus-consulte" title="Sénatus-consulte">sénatus-consulte</a></i> of 14 July 1865. It allowed Muslims to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by <i><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a></i> law in personal matters and was widely considered to be <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>. Its first article stipulated: </p> <blockquote><p> The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in the army (armée de terre) and the navy (armée de mer). He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen; in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/220px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/330px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg/440px-Arrival_of_Marshal_Randon_in_Algier-Ernest-Francis_Vacherot_mg_5120.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1713" data-file-height="1343" /></a><figcaption>Arrival of Marshal <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Louis_Randon" title="Jacques Louis Randon">Randon</a> in Algiers in 1857</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians.<sup id="cite_ref-Indigenous_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indigenous-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 <a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A9mieux_Decree" title="Crémieux Decree">Crémieux Decree</a>, which granted <a href="/wiki/French_nationality" class="mw-redirect" title="French nationality">French nationality</a> to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the <i>Code de l'Indigénat</i> made the discrimination official by creating specific penalties for <i>indigènes</i> and organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Indigenous_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indigenous-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, equality of rights was proclaimed by the <i>ordonnance</i> of 7 March 1944 and later confirmed by the <i>loi Lamine Guèye</i> of 7 May 1946, which granted French citizenship to all subjects of France's territories and overseas departments, and by the 1946 Constitution. The Law of 20 September 1947 granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, who were not required to renounce their Muslim personal status.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2017)">dubious</span></a> – [[Talk:Algerian War#Muslim Algerians did not have full rights, and their voting was both diluted and interfered with. See <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Assembly_election,_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Assembly election, 1948">Algerian Assembly election, 1948</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1951_(Algeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="French legislative election, 1951 (Algeria)">French legislative election, 1951 (Algeria)</a> |discuss]]</i>]</sup> </p><p>Algeria was unique to France because unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, Algeria was considered and legally classified to be an integral part of France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algerian_Nationalism">Algerian Nationalism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1920_Algerian_Political_Rights_Petition" title="1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition">1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/220px--Algier1954.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="80" data-mwtitle="Algier1954.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Algier1954.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/Algier1954.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Algier1954.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/Algier1954.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/Algier1954.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/Algier1954.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Algier1954.ogv/Algier1954.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AAlgier1954.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AAlgier1954.ogv&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>1954 film about French Algeria</figcaption></figure> <p>Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War II and fought for France. Algerian Muslims served as <i><a href="/wiki/Tirailleur#Colonial_period" title="Tirailleur">tirailleurs</a></i> (such regiments were created as early as 1842<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and <a href="/wiki/Spahi" title="Spahi">spahis</a>; and French settlers as <a href="/wiki/Zouaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Zouaves">Zouaves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chasseurs_d%27Afrique" title="Chasseurs d'Afrique">Chasseurs d'Afrique</a>. US President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s 1918 <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> had the fifth read: "A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined." Some Algerian intellectuals, dubbed <i><a href="/wiki/Oul%C3%A9mas" class="mw-redirect" title="Oulémas">oulémas</a></i>, began to nurture the desire for independence or, at the very least, autonomy and <a href="/wiki/Self-rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-rule">self-rule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within that context, <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Hashim" title="Khalid ibn Hashim">Khalid ibn Hashim</a>, a grandson of <a href="/wiki/Emir_Abdelkader" title="Emir Abdelkader">Abd el-Kadir</a>, spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and was a member of the directing committee of the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a>. In 1926, he founded the <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89toile_Nord-Africaine" title="Étoile Nord-Africaine">Étoile Nord-Africaine</a></i> ("North African Star"), to which <a href="/wiki/Messali_Hadj" title="Messali Hadj">Messali Hadj</a>, also a member of the Communist Party and of its affiliated trade union, the <a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_du_travail_unitaire" title="Confédération générale du travail unitaire">Confédération générale du travail unitaire</a> (CGTU), joined the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The North African Star broke from the Communist Party in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Paris's demand. Amid growing discontent from the Algerian population, the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> (1871–1940) acknowledged some demands, and the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> initiated the <a href="/wiki/Blum-Viollette_proposal" class="mw-redirect" title="Blum-Viollette proposal">Blum-Viollette proposal</a> in 1936, which was supposed to enlighten the Indigenous Code by giving French citizenship to a small number of Muslims. The <i><a href="/wiki/Pieds-noirs" title="Pieds-noirs">pieds-noirs</a></i> (Algerians of European origin) violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party also opposed it, leading to its abandonment. The pro-independence party was dissolved in 1937, and its leaders were charged with the illegal reconstitution of a dissolved league, leading to Messali Hadj's 1937 founding of the <i><a href="/wiki/Algerian_People%27s_Party" title="Algerian People's Party">Parti du peuple algérien</a></i> (Algerian People's Party, PPA), which, no longer espoused full independence but only extensive autonomy. This new party was dissolved in 1939. Under <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>, the French State attempted to abrogate the Crémieux Decree to suppress the Jews' French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On the other hand, the nationalist leader <a href="/wiki/Ferhat_Abbas" title="Ferhat Abbas">Ferhat Abbas</a> founded the Algerian Popular Union (<i>Union populaire algérienne</i>) in 1938. In 1943, Abbas wrote the Algerian People's Manifesto (<i>Manifeste du peuple algérien</i>). Arrested after the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a> of May 8, 1945, when the French Army and pieds-noirs mobs killed between 6,000 and 30,000 Algerians,<sup id="cite_ref-setif_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-setif-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> Abbas founded the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_of_the_Algerian_Manifesto" title="Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto">Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto</a> (UDMA) in 1946 and was elected as a deputy. Founded in 1954, the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front</a> (FLN) created an armed wing, the <i><a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_Lib%C3%A9ration_Nationale" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée de Libération Nationale">Armée de Libération Nationale</a></i> (National Liberation Army) to engage in an <a href="/wiki/Armed_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed struggle">armed struggle</a> against French authority. Many Algerian soldiers who served for the French Army in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> had strong sympathy for the Vietnamese fighting against France and took up their experience to support the ALN.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France, which had just lost <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>, was determined not to lose the next colonial war, particularly in its oldest and nearest major colony, which was regarded as a part of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> (rather than a colony), by French law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_chronology">War chronology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_hostilities">Beginning of hostilities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">Declaration of 1 November 1954</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg/220px-Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg/330px-Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg/440px-Moudjahiddines_alg%C3%A9riens_%C3%A0_la_montagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption>Algerian rebel fighters in the mountains</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early morning hours of 1 November 1954, FLN <i>maquisards</i> (guerrillas) attacked military and civilian targets throughout Algeria in what became known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Rouge" title="Toussaint Rouge">Toussaint Rouge</a></i> (Red <a href="/wiki/All-Saints%27_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="All-Saints' Day">All-Saints' Day</a>). From <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, the FLN broadcast the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">declaration of 1 November 1954</a> written by the journalist <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_A%C3%AFchaoui" title="Mohamed Aïchaoui">Mohamed Aïchaoui</a> calling on Muslims in Algeria to join in a national struggle for the "restoration of the Algerian state – sovereign, democratic and social – within the framework of the principles of Islam." It was the reaction of Premier <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">Pierre Mendès France</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican,_Radical_and_Radical-Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party">Radical-Socialist Party</a>), who only a few months before had completed the liquidation of France's tete empire in <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina</a>, which set the tone of French policy for five years. He declared in the National Assembly, "One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic. They have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French. ... Between them and metropolitan France there can be no conceivable secession." At first, and despite the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sétif massacre">Sétif massacre</a> of 8 May 1945, and the pro-Independence struggle before World War II, most Algerians were in favor of a relative status-quo. While Messali Hadj had radicalized by forming the FLN, Ferhat Abbas maintained a more moderate, electoral strategy. Fewer than 500 <i><a href="/wiki/Fellaghas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellaghas">fellaghas</a></i> (pro-Independence fighters) could be counted at the beginning of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-Boisset_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boisset-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Algerian population radicalized itself in particular because of the terrorist acts of French-sponsored <i><a href="/wiki/Main_Rouge" class="mw-redirect" title="Main Rouge">Main Rouge</a></i> (Red Hand) group, which targeted anti-colonialists in all of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> region (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria), killing, for example, Tunisian activist <a href="/wiki/Farhat_Hached" title="Farhat Hached">Farhat Hached</a> in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-Boisset_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boisset-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="FLN">FLN</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Algerian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Algerian War">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_(7).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg/220px-National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg/330px-National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg/440px-National_Liberation_Army_Soldiers_%287%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5172" data-file-height="3841" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Army_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Army (Algeria)">National Liberation Army</a> soldiers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg/220px-Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg/330px-Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg/440px-Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne_-_War_of_Independence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2888" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boumedi%C3%A8ne" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumediène">Houari Boumediène</a> (right), the leader of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Army_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Army (Algeria)">National Liberation Army</a> and future <a href="/wiki/President_of_Algeria" title="President of Algeria">President of Algeria</a>, during the war</figcaption></figure> <p>The FLN uprising presented nationalist groups with the question of whether to adopt armed revolt as the main course of action. During the first year of the war, <a href="/wiki/Ferhat_Abbas" title="Ferhat Abbas">Ferhat Abbas</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_of_the_Algerian_Manifesto" title="Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto">Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto</a> (UDMA), the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulema</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Communist_Party" title="Algerian Communist Party">Algerian Communist Party</a> (PCA) maintained a friendly neutrality toward the FLN. The <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a>, who had made no move to cooperate in the uprising at the start, later tried to infiltrate the FLN, but FLN leaders publicly repudiated the support of the party. In April 1956, Abbas flew to <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, where he formally joined the FLN. This action brought in many <i>évolués</i> who had supported the UDMA in the past. The <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Algerian_Muslim_Ulema" title="Association of Algerian Muslim Ulema">AUMA</a> also threw the full weight of its prestige behind the FLN. Bendjelloul and the pro-integrationist moderates had already abandoned their efforts to mediate between the French and the rebels. </p><p>After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Triumph_of_Democratic_Liberties" title="Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties">MTLD</a>, the veteran nationalist <a href="/wiki/Messali_Hadj" title="Messali Hadj">Messali Hadj</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Leftist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leftist">leftist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mouvement_National_Alg%C3%A9rien" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement National Algérien">Mouvement National Algérien</a> (MNA), which advocated a policy of violent revolution and total independence similar to that of the FLN, but aimed to compete with that organisation. The <i><a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_Lib%C3%A9ration_Nationale" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée de Libération Nationale">Armée de Libération Nationale</a></i> (ALN), the military wing of the FLN, subsequently wiped out the MNA <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla</a> operation in Algeria, and Messali Hadj's movement lost what weak influence it had had there. However, the MNA retained the support of many Algerian workers in France through the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_Syndicale_des_Travailleurs_Alg%C3%A9riens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens (page does not exist)">Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens</a></i> (the <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Union</a> of Algerian Workers). The FLN also established a strong organization in France to oppose the MNA. The "<a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Café wars">Café wars</a>", resulting in nearly 5,000 deaths, were waged in France between the two rebel groups throughout the years of the War of Independence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg/200px-Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg/300px-Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg/400px-Six_chefs_FLN_-_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>The six historical Leaders of the FLN: <a href="/wiki/Rabah_Bitat" title="Rabah Bitat">Rabah Bitat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mustapha_Benboula%C3%AFd" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustapha Benboulaïd">Mostefa Ben Boulaïd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mourad_Didouche" title="Mourad Didouche">Mourad Didouche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Boudiaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Boudiaf">Mohammed Boudiaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krim_Belkacem" title="Krim Belkacem">Krim Belkacem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larbi_Ben_M%27Hidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Larbi Ben M'Hidi">Larbi Ben M'Hidi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On the political front, the FLN worked to persuade—and to coerce—the Algerian masses to support the aims of the independence movement through contributions. FLN-influenced labor unions, professional associations, and students' and women's organizations were created to lead opinion in diverse segments of the population, but here too, violent coercion was widely used. <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a>, a psychiatrist from <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> who became the FLN's leading political theorist, provided a sophisticated intellectual justification for the use of violence in achieving national liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> From <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a> ordered the liquidation of potential <i>interlocuteurs valables</i>, those independent representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> community acceptable to the French through whom a compromise or reforms within the system might be achieved. </p><p>As the FLN campaign of influence spread through the countryside, many European farmers in the interior (called <i><a href="/wiki/Pied-noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-noir">Pieds-Noirs</a></i>), many of whom lived on lands taken from Muslim communities during the nineteenth century,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sold their holdings and sought refuge in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> and other Algerian cities. After a series of bloody, random massacres and bombings by Muslim Algerians in several towns and cities, the French <i>Pieds-Noirs</i> and urban French population began to demand that the French government engage in sterner countermeasures, including the proclamation of a <a href="/wiki/States_of_emergency_in_France" title="States of emergency in France">state of emergency</a>, capital punishment for political crimes, denunciation of all separatists, and most ominously, a call for 'tit-for-tat' reprisal operations by police, military, and para-military forces. <i><a href="/wiki/Colon_(Algeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (Algeria)">Colon</a></i> vigilante units, whose unauthorized activities were conducted with the passive cooperation of police authorities, carried out <i>ratonnades</i> (literally, <i>rat-hunts</i>, <i>raton</i> being a racist term for denigrating Muslim Algerians) against suspected FLN members of the Muslim community. </p><p>By 1955, effective political action groups within the Algerian colonial community succeeded in convincing many of the Governors General sent by Paris that the military was not the way to resolve the conflict. A major success was the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Soustelle" title="Jacques Soustelle">Jacques Soustelle</a>, who went to Algeria as governor general in January 1955 determined to restore peace. Soustelle, a one-time leftist and by 1955 an ardent Gaullist, began an ambitious reform program (the <a href="/wiki/Soustelle_Plan" title="Soustelle Plan">Soustelle Plan</a>) aimed at improving economic conditions among the Muslim population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_Philippeville_massacre">After the Philippeville massacre</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Algerian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Algerian War">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/220px--1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="81" data-mwtitle="1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv/1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1955-08-25_Rebellion_Spreads_in_North_Africa.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>Universal <a href="/wiki/Newsreel" title="Newsreel">Newsreels</a> <i>Rebellion Spreads in North Africa</i>, 1955</figcaption></figure> <p>The FLN adopted tactics similar to those of nationalist groups in Asia, and the French did not realize the seriousness of the challenge they faced until 1955, when the FLN moved into urbanized areas. An important watershed in the War of Independence was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippeville" title="Battle of Philippeville">the massacre of Pieds-Noirs civilians</a> by the FLN near the town of <a href="/wiki/Philippeville,_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippeville, Algeria">Philippeville</a> (now known as <a href="/wiki/Skikda" title="Skikda">Skikda</a>) in August 1955. Before this operation, FLN policy was to attack only military and government-related targets. The commander of the <a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> <i>wilaya</i>/region, however, decided a drastic escalation was needed. The killing by the FLN and its supporters of 123 people, including 71 French,<sup id="cite_ref-Gers_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gers-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including old women and babies, shocked <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Soustelle" title="Jacques Soustelle">Jacques Soustelle</a> into calling for more repressive measures against the rebels. The French authorities stated that 1,273 guerrillas died in what Soustelle admitted were "severe" reprisals. The FLN subsequently claimed that 12,000 Muslims were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup> Soustelle's repression was an early cause of the Algerian population's rallying to the FLN.<sup id="cite_ref-Gers_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gers-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Philippeville, Soustelle declared sterner measures and an all-out war began. In 1956, demonstrations by French Algerians caused the French government to not make reforms. </p><p>Soustelle's successor, Governor General <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lacoste" title="Robert Lacoste">Robert Lacoste</a>, a socialist, abolished the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Algerian_Assembly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Algerian Assembly (page does not exist)">Algerian Assembly</a>. Lacoste saw the assembly, which was dominated by <i>pieds-noirs</i>, as hindering the work of his administration, and he undertook the rule of Algeria by decree. He favored stepping up French military operations and granted the army exceptional police powers—a concession of dubious legality under French law—to deal with the mounting political violence. At the same time, Lacoste proposed a new administrative structure to give Algeria some autonomy and a decentralized government. Whilst remaining an integral part of France, Algeria was to be divided into five districts, each of which would have a territorial assembly elected from a single slate of candidates. Until 1958, deputies representing Algerian districts were able to delay the passage of the measure by the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of France">National Assembly of France</a>. </p><p>In August and September 1956, the leadership of the FLN guerrillas operating within Algeria (popularly known as "internals") met to organize a formal policy-making body to synchronize the movement's political and military activities. The highest authority of the FLN was vested in the thirty-four member <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Council_of_the_Algerian_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Council of the Algerian Revolution (page does not exist)">National Council of the Algerian Revolution</a> (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne, CNRA), within which the five-man Committee of Coordination and Enforcement (<i>Comité de Coordination et d'Exécution</i>, CCE) formed the executive. The leadership of the regular FLN forces based in Tunisia and Morocco ("externals"), including Ben Bella, knew the conference was taking place but by chance or design on the part of the "internals" were unable to attend. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Arrest_of_the_leaders_of_the_Algerian_independence_movement"></span>In October 1956, the <a href="/wiki/French_hijacking_of_the_FLN_plane" title="French hijacking of the FLN plane">French Air Force intercepted a Moroccan DC-3 plane</a> bound for <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, carrying <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Boudiaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Boudiaf">Mohammed Boudiaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Khider" title="Mohamed Khider">Mohamed Khider</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hocine_A%C3%AFt_Ahmed" title="Hocine Aït Ahmed">Hocine Aït Ahmed</a>, and forced it to land in Algiers. Lacoste had the FLN external political leaders arrested and imprisoned for the duration of the war. This action caused the remaining rebel leaders to harden their stance. </p><p>France opposed <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> President <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>'s material and political assistance to the FLN, which some French analysts believed was the revolution's main sustenance. This attitude was a factor in persuading France to participate in the November 1956 attempt to seize the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>. </p><p>During 1957, support for the FLN weakened as the breach between the internals and externals widened. To halt the drift, the FLN expanded its executive committee to include Abbas, as well as imprisoned political leaders such as Ben Bella. It also convinced communist and Arab members of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) to put diplomatic pressure on the French government to negotiate a cease-fire. In 1957, it became common knowledge in France that the French Army was routinely using torture to extract information from suspected FLN members.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Beuve-M%C3%A9ry" title="Hubert Beuve-Méry">Hubert Beuve-Méry</a>, the editor of <i>Le Monde</i>, declared in an edition on 13 March 1957: "From now on, Frenchman must know that they don't have the right to condemn in the same terms as ten years ago the <a href="/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane_massacre" title="Oradour-sur-Glane massacre">destruction of Oradour</a> and the torture by the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another case that attracted much media attention was the murder of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Audin" title="Maurice Audin">Maurice Audin</a>, a member of the outlawed Algerian Communist party,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mathematics professor at the University of Algiers and a suspected FLN member whom the French Army arrested in June 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 224">: 224 </span></sup> Audin was tortured and killed and his body was never found.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Audin was French rather than Algerian, his "disappearance" while in the custody of the French Army led to the case becoming a <i>cause célèbre</i> as his widow aided by the historian <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Vidal-Naquet" title="Pierre Vidal-Naquet">Pierre Vidal-Naquet</a> determinedly sought to have the men responsible for her husband's death prosecuted.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Existentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialist">Existentialist</a> writer, philosopher and playwright <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>, native of Algiers, tried unsuccessfully to persuade both sides to at least leave civilians alone, writing editorials against the use of torture in <i><a href="/wiki/Combat_(newspaper)" title="Combat (newspaper)">Combat</a></i> newspaper. The FLN considered him a fool, and some <i>Pieds-Noirs</i> considered him a traitor. Nevertheless, in his speech when he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>, Camus said that when faced with a radical choice he would eventually support his community. This statement made him lose his status among left-wing intellectuals; when he died in 1960 in a car crash, the official thesis of an ordinary accident (a quick open-and-shut case) left more than a few observers doubtful. His widow claimed that Camus, though discreet, was in fact an ardent supporter of French Algeria in the last years of his life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Algiers">Battle of Algiers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Algiers_(1956%E2%80%9357)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Algiers (1956–57)">Battle of Algiers (1956–57)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg/220px-Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg/330px-Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg/440px-Bataille_d%27Alger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Algiers: Muslim quarters (green), European quarters (orange), terrorist attacks</figcaption></figure> <p>To increase international and domestic French attention to their struggle, the FLN decided to bring the conflict to the cities and to call a nationwide <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</a> and also to plant bombs in public places. The most notable instance was the Battle of Algiers, which began on September 30, 1956, when three women, including <a href="/wiki/Djamila_Bouhired" title="Djamila Bouhired">Djamila Bouhired</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zohra_Drif" title="Zohra Drif">Zohra Drif</a>, simultaneously placed bombs at three sites including the downtown office of <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a>. The FLN carried out shootings and bombings in the spring of 1957, resulting in civilian casualties and a crushing response from the authorities. </p><p>General <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Massu" title="Jacques Massu">Jacques Massu</a> was instructed to use whatever methods deemed necessary to restore order in the city and to find and eliminate terrorists. Using paratroopers, he broke the strike and, in the succeeding months, destroyed the FLN infrastructure in Algiers. But the FLN had succeeded in showing its ability to strike at the heart of French Algeria and to assemble a mass response to its demands among urban Muslims. The publicity given to the brutal methods used by the army to win the Battle of Algiers, including the use of torture, strong movement control and curfew called <i>quadrillage</i> and where all authority was under the military, created doubt in France about its role in Algeria. What was originally "<a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">pacification</a>" or a "public order operation" had turned into a <a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">colonial war</a> accompanied by torture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guerrilla_war">Guerrilla war</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/220px--1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="75" data-mwtitle="1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/72/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv/1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1956-05-21_France_Digs_in_For_Total_War_in_Algeria.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>1956 newsreel about the war</figcaption></figure> <p>During 1956 and 1957, the FLN successfully applied <a href="/wiki/Hit-and-run_tactics" title="Hit-and-run tactics">hit-and-run tactics</a> in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> theory. Whilst some of this was aimed at military targets, a significant amount was invested in a terror campaign against those in any way deemed to support or encourage French authority. This resulted in acts of sadistic torture and brutal violence against all, including women and children. Specializing in ambushes and night raids and avoiding direct contact with superior French firepower, the internal forces targeted army patrols, military encampments, police posts, and colonial farms, mines, and factories, as well as transportation and communications facilities. Once an engagement was broken off, the guerrillas merged with the population in the countryside, in accordance with Mao's theories. </p><p>Although successfully provoking fear and uncertainty within both communities in Algeria, the revolutionaries' coercive tactics suggested that they had not yet inspired the bulk of the Muslim people to revolt against French colonial rule. Gradually, however, the FLN gained control in certain sectors of the <a href="/wiki/Aur%C3%A8s" title="Aurès">Aurès</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kabylie" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabylie">Kabylie</a>, and other mountainous areas around Constantine and south of Algiers and <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>. In these places, the FLN established a simple but effective—although frequently temporary—military administration that was able to collect taxes and food and to recruit manpower.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it was never able to hold large, fixed positions. </p><p>The loss of competent field commanders both on the battlefield and through defections and political purges created difficulties for the FLN. Moreover, power struggles in the early years of the war split leadership in the wilayat, particularly in the Aurès. Some officers created their own fiefdoms, using units under their command to settle old scores and engage in private wars against military rivals within the FLN. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_counter-insurgency_operations">French counter-insurgency operations</h3></div> <p>Despite complaints from the military command in Algiers, the French government was reluctant for many months to admit that the Algerian situation was out of control and that what was viewed officially as a pacification operation had developed into a war. By 1956, there were more than 400,000 French troops in Algeria. Although the elite airborne infantry units of the <a href="/wiki/Troupes_coloniales" title="Troupes coloniales">Troupes coloniales</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">Foreign Legion</a> bore the brunt of offensive counterinsurgency combat operations, approximately 170,000 Muslim Algerians also served in the regular French army, most of them volunteers. France also sent air force and naval units to the Algerian theater, including helicopters. In addition to service as a flying ambulance and cargo carrier, French forces utilized the <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a> for the first time in a ground attack role in order to pursue and destroy fleeing FLN guerrilla units. The American military later used the same helicopter combat methods in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. The French also used <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StoraSiri_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StoraSiri-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French army resumed an important role in local Algerian administration through the Special Administration Section (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_Administrative_Sp%C3%A9cialis%C3%A9e&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section Administrative Spécialisée (page does not exist)">Section Administrative Spécialisée</a></i>, SAS), created in 1955. The SAS's mission was to establish contact with the Muslim population and weaken nationalist influence in the rural areas by asserting the "French presence" there. SAS officers—called <i>képis bleus</i> (blue caps)—also recruited and trained bands of loyal Muslim irregulars, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">harkis</a></i>. Armed with shotguns and using guerrilla tactics similar to those of the FLN, the <i>harkis</i>, who eventually numbered about 180,000 volunteers, more than the FLN activists,<sup id="cite_ref-Major_Gregory_D_p.33_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Major_Gregory_D_p.33-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were an ideal instrument of counterinsurgency warfare. </p><p><i>Harkis</i> were mostly used in conventional formations, either in all-Algerian units commanded by French officers or in mixed units. Other uses included <a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">platoon</a> or smaller size units, attached to French battalions, in a similar way as the <a href="/wiki/Kit_Carson_Scouts" title="Kit Carson Scouts">Kit Carson Scouts</a> by the U.S. in Vietnam. A third use was an <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_gathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence gathering">intelligence gathering</a> role, with some reported minor <a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">pseudo-operations</a> in support of their intelligence collection.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. military expert <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_E._Cline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lawrence E. Cline (page does not exist)">Lawrence E. Cline</a> stated, "The extent of these pseudo-operations appears to have been very limited both in time and scope. ... The most widespread use of pseudo type operations was during the 'Battle of Algiers' in 1957. The principal French employer of <a href="/wiki/Covert_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Covert agents">covert agents</a> in Algiers was the Fifth Bureau, the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a> branch. "The Fifth Bureau" made extensive use of 'turned' FLN members, one such network being run by Captain Paul-Alain Leger of the 10th Paras. "<a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuaded</a>" to work for the French forces included by the use of torture and threats against their family; these agents "mingled with FLN cadres. They planted incriminating forged documents, spread false rumors of treachery and fomented distrust. ... As a frenzy of throat-cutting and disemboweling broke out among confused and suspicious FLN cadres, nationalist slaughtered nationalist from April to September 1957 and did France's work for her."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But this type of operation involved individual operatives rather than organized covert units. </p><p>One organized pseudo-guerrilla unit, however, was created in December 1956 by the French <a href="/wiki/Direction_de_la_surveillance_du_territoire" title="Direction de la surveillance du territoire">DST</a> domestic intelligence agency. The <i>Organization of the French Algerian Resistance</i> (ORAF), a group of counter-terrorists had as its mission to carry out <a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">false flag</a> terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it seemed that, as in Indochina, "the French focused on developing native guerrilla groups that would fight against the FLN", one of whom fought in the Southern <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a>, equipped by the French Army.<sup id="cite_ref-Cline_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cline-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The FLN also used pseudo-guerrilla strategies against the French Army on one occasion, with Force K, a group of 1,000 Algerians who volunteered to serve in Force K as guerrillas for the French. But most of these members were either already FLN members or were turned by the FLN once enlisted. Corpses of purported FLN members displayed by the unit were in fact those of dissidents and members of other Algerian groups killed by the FLN. The French Army finally discovered the war ruse and tried to hunt down Force K members. However, some 600 managed to escape and join the FLN with weapons and equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Cline_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cline-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 255–7">: 255–7 </span></sup> </p><p>Late in 1957, General <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Salan" title="Raoul Salan">Raoul Salan</a>, commanding the French Army in Algeria, instituted a system of <i>quadrillage</i> (surveillance using a grid pattern), dividing the country into sectors, each permanently garrisoned by troops responsible for suppressing rebel operations in their assigned territory. Salan's methods sharply reduced the instances of FLN terrorism but tied down a large number of troops in static defense. Salan also constructed a heavily patrolled system of barriers to limit infiltration from Tunisia and Morocco. The best known of these was the <a href="/wiki/Morice_Line" title="Morice Line">Morice Line</a> (named for the French defense minister, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Morice" title="André Morice">André Morice</a>), which consisted of an electrified fence, barbed wire, and mines over a 320-kilometer stretch of the Tunisian border. Despite ruthless clashes during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_borders_(Algerian_war)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the borders (Algerian war)">Battle of the borders</a>, the ALN failed to penetrate these defence lines.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg/220px-Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg/330px-Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg/440px-Le_barrage_%C3%A9lectrifi%C3%A9_sur_les_fronti%C3%A8res_Est_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1395" data-file-height="1123" /></a><figcaption>Electrified barriers along the entire length of Algeria's eastern and western borders</figcaption></figure> <p>The French military command ruthlessly applied the principle of collective responsibility to villages suspected of sheltering, supplying, or in any way cooperating with the guerrillas. Villages that could not be reached by mobile units were subject to aerial bombardment. FLN guerrillas that fled to caves or other remote hiding places were tracked and hunted down. In one episode, FLN guerrillas who refused to surrender and withdraw from a cave complex were dealt with by French Foreign Legion Pioneer troops, who, lacking flamethrowers or explosives, simply bricked up each cave, leaving the residents to die of suffocation.<sup id="cite_ref-Leulliette_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leulliette-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finding it impossible to control all of Algeria's remote farms and villages, the French government also initiated a program of concentrating large segments of the rural population, including whole villages, in camps under military supervision to prevent them from aiding the rebels. In the three years (1957–60) during which the <i>regroupement</i> program was followed, more than 2 million Algerians<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were removed from their villages, mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Bouzegza_Mountain" title="Bouzegza Mountain">mountainous areas</a>, and resettled in the plains, where it was difficult to reestablish their previous economic and social systems. Living conditions in the fortified villages were poor. In hundreds of villages, orchards and croplands not already burned by French troops went to seed for lack of care. These <a href="/wiki/Population_transfers" class="mw-redirect" title="Population transfers">population transfers</a> effectively denied the use of remote villages to FLN guerrillas, who had used them as a source of rations and manpower, but also caused significant resentment on the part of the displaced villagers. Relocation's social and economic disruption continued to be felt a generation later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the same time, the French tried to gain support from the civilian population by providing money, jobs and housing to farmers<sup id="cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aoudjit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French Army shifted its tactics at the end of 1958 from dependence on <i>quadrillage</i> to the use of mobile forces deployed on massive <a href="/wiki/Search-and-destroy" class="mw-redirect" title="Search-and-destroy">search-and-destroy</a> missions against FLN strongholds. In 1959, Salan's successor, General <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Challe" title="Maurice Challe">Maurice Challe</a>, appeared to have suppressed major rebel resistance, but political developments had already overtaken the French Army's successes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Fourth_Republic">Fall of the Fourth Republic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">May 1958 crisis in France</a></div> <p>Recurrent cabinet crises focused attention on the inherent instability of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth French Republic">Fourth Republic</a> and increased the misgivings of the army and of the pieds-noirs that the security of Algeria was being undermined by party politics. Army commanders chafed at what they took to be inadequate and incompetent political initiatives by the government in support of military efforts to end the rebellion. The feeling was widespread that another debacle like that of Indochina in 1954 was in the offing and that the government would order another precipitate pullout and sacrifice French honor to political expediency. Many saw in de Gaulle, who had not held office since 1946, the only public figure capable of rallying the nation and giving direction to the French government. </p><p>After his time as governor general, Soustelle returned to France to organize support for de Gaulle's return to power, while retaining close ties to the army and the <i>pieds-noirs</i>. By early 1958, he had organized a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>, bringing together dissident army officers and <i>pieds-noirs</i> with sympathetic Gaullists. An army junta under General Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of May 13, thereafter known as the <a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1958 crisis">May 1958 crisis</a>. General Salan assumed leadership of a Committee of Public Safety formed to replace the civil authority and pressed the junta's demands that de Gaulle be named by French president <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Coty" title="René Coty">René Coty</a> to head a government of national unity invested with extraordinary powers to prevent the "abandonment of Algeria". </p><p>On May 24, French paratroopers from the Algerian corps landed on <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Corsica" title="Operation Corsica">taking the French island</a> in a bloodless action. Subsequently, preparations were made in Algeria for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Resurrection" title="Operation Resurrection">Operation Resurrection</a>, which had as its objectives the seizure of Paris and the removal of the French government. Resurrection was to be implemented in the event of one of three following scenarios: Were de Gaulle not approved as leader of France by the parliament; were de Gaulle to ask for military assistance to take power; or if it seemed that communist forces were making any move to take power in France. De Gaulle was approved by the French parliament on May 29, by 329 votes against 224, 15 hours before the projected launch of Operation Resurrection. This indicated that the Fourth Republic by 1958 no longer had any support from the French Army in Algeria and was at its mercy even in civilian political matters. This decisive shift in the balance of power in civil-military relations in France in 1958, and the threat of force, was the primary factor in the return of de Gaulle to power in France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De_Gaulle">De Gaulle</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Presidency of Charles de Gaulle">Presidency of Charles de Gaulle</a></div> <p>Many people, regardless of citizenship, greeted de Gaulle's return to power as the breakthrough needed to end the hostilities. On his trip to Algeria on 4 June 1958, de Gaulle calculatedly made an ambiguous and broad emotional appeal to all the inhabitants, declaring, "Je vous ai compris" ("I have understood you"). De Gaulle raised the hopes of the <i>pied-noir</i> and the professional military, disaffected by the indecisiveness of previous governments, with his exclamation of "<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vive_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie_fran%C3%A7aise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vive l'Algérie française (page does not exist)">Vive l'Algérie française</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vive_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie_fran%C3%A7aise_!" class="extiw" title="fr:Vive l'Algérie française !">fr</a>]</span></i>" ("Long live French Algeria") to cheering crowds in Mostaganem. At the same time, he proposed economic, social, and political reforms to improve the situation of the Muslims. Nonetheless, de Gaulle later admitted to having harbored deep pessimism about the outcome of the Algerian situation even then. Meanwhile, he looked for a "third force" among the population of Algeria, uncontaminated by the FLN or the "ultras" (<i>colon</i> extremists), through whom a solution might be found. </p><p>De Gaulle immediately appointed a committee to draft a new constitution for France's Fifth Republic, which would be declared early the next year, with which Algeria would be associated but of which it would not form an integral part. All Muslims, including women, were registered for the first time on electoral rolls to participate in a referendum to be held on the new constitution in September 1958. </p><p>De Gaulle's initiative threatened the FLN with decreased support among Muslims. In reaction, the FLN set up the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Algerian_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic">Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic</a> (Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne, GPRA), a government-in-exile headed by <a href="/wiki/Ferhat_Abbas" title="Ferhat Abbas">Abbas</a> and based in Tunis. Before the referendum, Abbas lobbied for international support for the GPRA, which was quickly recognized by <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, China, and several other African, Arab, and Asian countries, but not by the Soviet Union. </p><p>In February 1959, de Gaulle was elected president of the new Fifth Republic. He visited Constantine in October to announce a program to end the war and create an Algeria closely linked to France. De Gaulle's call on the rebel leaders to end hostilities and to participate in elections was met with adamant refusal. "The problem of a cease-fire in Algeria is not simply a military problem", said the GPRA's Abbas. "It is essentially political, and negotiation must cover the whole question of Algeria." Secret discussions that had been underway were broken off. </p><p>From 1958 to 1959, the French army won military control in Algeria and was the closest it would be to victory. In late July 1959, during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Jumelles" title="Operation Jumelles">Operation Jumelles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Bigeard" title="Marcel Bigeard">Colonel Bigeard</a>, whose elite paratrooper unit fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Dien Bien Phu</a> in 1954, told journalist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lart%C3%A9guy" title="Jean Lartéguy">Jean Lartéguy</a>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=alg%E9rie+r%E9trospective&num_notice=1&total_notices=28">source</a>) </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We are not making war for ourselves, not making a colonialist war, Bigeard wears no shirt (he shows his opened uniform) as do my officers. We are fighting right here right now for them, for the evolution, to see the evolution of these people and this war is for them. We are defending their freedom as we are, in my opinion, defending the West's freedom. We are here ambassadors, Crusaders, who are hanging on in order to still be able to talk and to be able to speak for.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Col. Bigeard (July 1959)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>During this period in France, however, popular opposition to the conflict was growing, notably in the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a>, then one of the country's strongest political forces, which supported the Algerian Revolution. Thousands of relatives of conscripts and reserve soldiers suffered loss and pain; revelations of torture and the indiscriminate brutality of the army against the Muslim population prompted widespread revulsion, and a significant constituency supported the principle of national liberation. By 1959, it was clear that the status quo was untenable and France could either grant Algeria independence or allow real equality with the Muslims. De Gaulle told an advisor: "If we integrate them, if all the Arabs and the Berbers of Algeria were considered French, how could they be prevented from settling in France, where the living standard is so much higher? My village would no longer be called Colombey-les-Deux-Églises but Colombey-les-Deux-Mosquées".<sup id="cite_ref-Shatz_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shatz-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>International pressure was also building on France to grant Algeria independence. Since 1955, the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> annually considered the Algerian question, and the FLN position was gaining support. France's seeming intransigence in settling a colonial war that tied down half the manpower of its armed forces was also a source of concern to its <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> allies. In a 16 September 1959, statement, de Gaulle dramatically reversed his stand and uttered the words "self-determination" as the third and preferred solution, which he envisioned as leading to majority rule in an Algeria formally associated with France. In Tunis, Abbas acknowledged that de Gaulle's statement might be accepted as a basis for settlement, but the French government refused to recognize the GPRA as the representative of Algeria's Muslim community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Week_of_barricades">Week of barricades</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg/220px-Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg/330px-Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg/440px-Semaine_des_barricades_Alger_1960_Haute_Qualit%C3%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5585" data-file-height="3780" /></a><figcaption>Barricades in Algiers, January 1960. The banner reads: "Long live Massu" (<i>Vive Massu</i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Convinced that de Gaulle had betrayed them, some units of European volunteers (<i>Unités Territoriales</i>) in Algiers led by student leaders <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lagaillarde" title="Pierre Lagaillarde">Pierre Lagaillarde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Susini" title="Jean-Jacques Susini">Jean-Jacques Susini</a>, café owner Joseph Ortiz, and lawyer <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biaggi" title="Jean-Baptiste Biaggi">Jean-Baptiste Biaggi</a> staged an insurrection in the Algerian capital starting on 24 January 1960, and known in France as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Week_of_barricades&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Week of barricades (page does not exist)"><i>La semaine des barricades</i></a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaine_des_barricades" class="extiw" title="fr:Semaine des barricades">fr</a>]</span> ("the week of barricades"). The <i>ultras</i> incorrectly believed that they would be supported by General Massu. The insurrection order was given by Colonel Jean Garde of the Fifth Bureau. As the army, police, and supporters stood by, civilian <i>pieds-noirs</i> threw up barricades in the streets and seized government buildings. General Maurice Challe, responsible for the army in Algeria, declared Algiers under <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a>, but forbade the troops to fire on the insurgents. Nevertheless, six rioters were killed during shooting on <a href="/wiki/Boulevard_Mohamed-Khemisti" title="Boulevard Mohamed-Khemisti">Boulevard Laferrière</a>. </p><p>In Paris on 29 January 1960, de Gaulle called on his ineffective army to remain loyal and rallied popular support for his Algerian policy in a televised address: </p> <blockquote><p>I took, in the name of France, the following decision—the Algerians will have the free choice of their destiny. When, in one way or another – by ceasefire or by complete crushing of the rebels – we will have put an end to the fighting, when, after a prolonged period of appeasement, the population will have become conscious of the stakes and, thanks to us, realised the necessary progress in political, economic, social, educational, and other domains. Then it will be the Algerians who will tell us what they want to be.... Your French of Algeria, how can you listen to the liars and the conspirators who tell you that, if you grant free choice to the Algerians, France and de Gaulle want to abandon you, retreat from Algeria, and deliver you to the rebellion?.... I say to all of our soldiers: your mission comprises neither equivocation nor interpretation. You have to liquidate the rebellious forces, which want to oust France from Algeria and impose on this country its dictatorship of misery and sterility.... Finally, I address myself to France. Well, well, my dear and old country, here we face together, once again, a serious ordeal. In virtue of the mandate that the people have given me and of the national legitimacy, which I have embodied for 20 years, I ask everyone to support me whatever happens.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Most of the Army heeded his call, and the siege of Algiers ended on 1 February with Lagaillarde surrendering to General Challe's command of the French Army in Algeria. The loss of many <i>ultra</i> leaders who were imprisoned or transferred to other areas did not deter the French Algeria militants. Sent to prison in Paris and then paroled, Lagaillarde fled to Spain. There, with another French army officer, <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Salan" title="Raoul Salan">Raoul Salan</a>, who had entered <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">clandestinely</a>, and with Jean-Jacques Susini, he created the <i><a href="/wiki/Organisation_arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation armée secrète">Organisation armée secrète</a></i> (Secret Army Organization, OAS) on December 3, 1960, with the purpose of continuing the fight for French Algeria. Highly organized and well-armed, the OAS stepped up its terrorist activities, which were directed against both Algerians and pro-government French citizens, as the move toward negotiated settlement of the war and self-determination gained momentum. To the FLN rebellion against France were added civil wars between extremists in the two communities and between the <i>ultras</i> and the French government in Algeria. </p><p>Beside Pierre Lagaillarde, Jean-Baptiste Biaggi was also imprisoned, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alain_de_S%C3%A9rigny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alain de Sérigny (page does not exist)">Alain de Sérigny</a> was arrested, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Ortiz_(activist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Ortiz (activist) (page does not exist)">Joseph Ortiz</a>'s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Front_national_fran%C3%A7ais&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Front national français (page does not exist)">FNF</a> dissolved, as well as General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lionel_Chassin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lionel Chassin (page does not exist)">Lionel Chassin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mouvement_populaire_du_13-Mai" title="Mouvement populaire du 13-Mai">MP-13</a>. De Gaulle also modified the government, excluding <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Soustelle" title="Jacques Soustelle">Jacques Soustelle</a>, believed to be too pro-French Algeria, and granting the Minister of Information to <a href="/wiki/Louis_Terrenoire" title="Louis Terrenoire">Louis Terrenoire</a>, who quit <a href="/wiki/Radiodiffusion-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française">RTF</a> (French broadcasting TV). <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Messmer" title="Pierre Messmer">Pierre Messmer</a>, who had been a member of the <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">Foreign Legion</a>, was named Minister of Defense, and dissolved the Fifth Bureau, the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a> branch, which had ordered the rebellion. These units had theorized the principles of a <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolutionary war">counter-revolutionary war</a>, including the use of torture. During the <a href="/wiki/Indochina_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina War">Indochina War</a> (1947–54), officers such as <a href="/wiki/Roger_Trinquier" title="Roger Trinquier">Roger Trinquier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lionel-Max_Chassin" title="Lionel-Max Chassin">Lionel-Max Chassin</a> were inspired by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s strategic doctrine and acquired knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">convince the population</a> to support the fight. The officers were initially trained in the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_d%27instruction_et_de_pr%C3%A9paration_%C3%A0_la_contre-gu%C3%A9rilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre d'instruction et de préparation à la contre-guérilla (page does not exist)">Centre d'instruction et de préparation à la contre-guérilla</a></i> (Arzew). <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chaban-Delmas" title="Jacques Chaban-Delmas">Jacques Chaban-Delmas</a> added to that the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Centre_d%27entra%C3%AEnement_%C3%A0_la_guerre_subversive_Jeanne-d%27Arc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Centre d'entraînement à la guerre subversive Jeanne-d'Arc (page does not exist)">Centre d'entraînement à la guerre subversive Jeanne-d'Arc</a></i> (Center of Training to Subversive War Joan of Arc) in <a href="/wiki/Skikda" title="Skikda">Philippeville</a>, Algeria, directed by Colonel Marcel Bigeard. The French army officers' uprising was due to a perceived second betrayal by the government, the first having been <a href="/wiki/Indochina_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina War">Indochina</a> (1947–1954). In some aspects the Dien Bien Phu garrison was sacrificed with no metropolitan support, order was given to commanding officer <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Castries" title="Christian de Castries">General de Castries</a> to "let the affair die of its own, in serenity" ("<i>laissez mourir l'affaire d'elle même en sérénité</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-ena_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ena-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>The opposition of the <a href="/wiki/Union_Nationale_des_%C3%89tudiants_de_France" title="Union Nationale des Étudiants de France">UNEF</a> student trade-union to the participation of conscripts in the war led to a secession in May 1960, with the creation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Nationalist_Students" title="Federation of Nationalist Students">Fédération des étudiants nationalistes</a></i> (FEN, Federation of Nationalist Students) around <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Venner" title="Dominique Venner">Dominique Venner</a>, a former member of <a href="/wiki/Jeune_Nation" title="Jeune Nation">Jeune Nation</a> and of <a href="/w/index.php?title=MP-13&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MP-13 (page does not exist)">MP13</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27Orcival" title="François d'Orcival">François d'Orcival</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Alain de Benoist</a>, who would theorize in the 1980s the "<a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a>" movement. The FEN then published the <i>Manifeste de la classe 60</i>. </p><p>A <a href="/w/index.php?title=Front_national_pour_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie_fran%C3%A7aise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Front national pour l'Algérie française (page does not exist)">Front national pour l'Algérie française</a> (FNAF, National Front for French Algeria) was created in June 1960 in Paris, gathering around de Gaulle's former Secretary Jacques Soustelle, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Dumont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claude Dumont (page does not exist)">Claude Dumont</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Sauge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georges Sauge (page does not exist)">Georges Sauge</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yvon_Chautard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yvon Chautard (page does not exist)">Yvon Chautard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Tixier-Vignancour" title="Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour">Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour</a> (who later competed in the <a href="/wiki/1965_French_presidential_election" title="1965 French presidential election">1965 presidential election</a>), <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Isorni" title="Jacques Isorni">Jacques Isorni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Victor Barthélemy">Victor Barthélemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Brigneau" title="François Brigneau">François Brigneau</a> and Jean-Marie Le Pen. Another <i>ultra</i> rebellion occurred in December 1960, which led de Gaulle to dissolve the FNAF. </p><p>After the publication of the <i><a href="/wiki/Manifeste_des_121" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifeste des 121">Manifeste des 121</a></i> against the use of torture and the war,<sup id="cite_ref-marxists_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marxists-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the opponents to the war created the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rassemblement_de_la_gauche_d%C3%A9mocratique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rassemblement de la gauche démocratique (page does not exist)">Rassemblement de la gauche démocratique</a> (Assembly of the Democratic Left), which included the <a href="/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International" title="French Section of the Workers' International">French Section of the Workers' International</a> (SFIO) socialist party, the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Party_(France)" title="Radical Party (France)">Radical-Socialist Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Force_ouvri%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Force ouvrière">Force ouvrière</a> (FO) trade union, <a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_Travailleurs_Chr%C3%A9tiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens">Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens</a> trade-union, UNEF trade-union, etc., which supported de Gaulle against the <i>ultras</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_war">End of the war</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">Algiers putsch of 1961</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barbouzes" title="Barbouzes">Barbouzes</a></div> <p>De Gaulle convoked the first <a href="/wiki/French_referendum_on_Algerian_self-determination,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="French referendum on Algerian self-determination, 1961">referendum on the self-determination of Algeria</a> on 8 January 1961, which 75% of the voters (both in France and Algeria) approved and de Gaulle's government began secret peace negotiations with the FLN. In the Algerian <i>départements</i> 69.51% voted in favor of self-determination.<sup id="cite_ref-voteresults_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-voteresults-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The talks that began in March 1961 broke down when de Gaulle insisted on including the much smaller <i>Mouvement national algérien</i> (MNA), which the FLN objected to.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the FLN was the by far stronger movement with the MNA almost wiped out by this time, the French were finally forced to exclude the MNA from the talks after the FLN walked out for a time.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 88">: 88 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Generals%27_putsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Generals' putsch">generals' putsch</a> in April 1961, aimed at canceling the government's negotiations with the FLN, marked the turning point in the official attitude toward the Algerian war. Leading the coup attempt to depose de Gaulle were <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Salan" title="Raoul Salan">General Raoul Salan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Zeller" title="André Zeller">General André Zeller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Challe" title="Maurice Challe">General Maurice Challe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Jouhaud" title="Edmond Jouhaud">General Edmond Jouhaud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87–97">: 87–97 </span></sup> Only the paratroop divisions and the Foreign Legion joined the coup, while the Air Force, Navy and most of the Army stayed loyal to General de Gaulle, but at one moment de Gaulle went on French television to ask for public support with the normally lofty de Gaulle saying "Frenchmen, Frenchwomen, help me!"<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89">: 89 </span></sup> De Gaulle was now prepared to abandon the <i>Pied-Noirs</i>, which no previous French government was willing to do. The army had been discredited by the putsch and kept a low profile politically throughout the rest of France's involvement with Algeria. The OAS was to be the main standard bearer for the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> for the rest of the war. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/220px--1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="54" data-mwtitle="1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv/1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1962-03-22_Algeria_tense_cease_fire.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Universal_Newsreel" title="Universal Newsreel">Universal Newsreel</a> about the 1962 cease fire</figcaption></figure> <p>Talks with the FLN reopened at <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian-les-Bains" title="Évian-les-Bains">Évian</a> in May 1961; after several false starts, the French government decreed that a ceasefire would take effect on March 18, 1962. A major difficulty at the talks was de Gaulle's decision to grant independence only to the coastal regions of Algeria, where the bulk of the population lived, while hanging onto the Sahara, which happened to be rich in oil and gas, while the FLN claimed all of Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the talks, the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> and Muslim communities engaged in a low level civil war with bombings, shootings, throat-cutting and assassinations being the preferred methods.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup> The Canadian historian John Cairns wrote at times it seemed like both communities were "going berserk" as everyday "murder was indiscriminate".<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup> </p><p>On 29 June 1961, de Gaulle announced on TV that fighting was "virtually finished" and afterwards there were no major battles between the French Army and the FLN. During the summer of 1961 the OAS and the FLN engaged in a civil war, in which the greater numbers of the Muslims predominated.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup> To pressure de Gaulle to give up claims to the Sahara, the FLN organized demonstrations by Algerians living in France during the fall of 1961, which the French police crushed.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup> At a demonstration on 17 October 1961, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a> ordered an attack that became a massacre of Algerians. On 10 January 1962, the FLN started a "general offensive" to pressure the OAS in Algeria, staging a series of attacks on the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup> On 7 February 1962, the OAS attempted to assassinate Culture Minister <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux" title="André Malraux">André Malraux</a> with a bomb in his apartment building; it failed to kill him, but left a four-year girl in the adjoining apartment blinded by shrapnel.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incident did much to turn French opinion against the OAS. </p><p>On 20 February 1962, a peace accord was reached granting independence to all of Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> In their final form, the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a> allowed the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> equal legal protection with Algerians over a three-year period. These rights included respect for property, participation in public affairs, and a full range of civil and cultural rights. At the end of that period, however, all Algerian residents would be obliged to become Algerian citizens or be classified as aliens with the attendant loss of rights. The agreement also allowed France to establish military bases in Algeria even after independence (including the nuclear test site of Regghane, the naval base of Mers-el-Kebir and the air base of Bou Sfer) and to have privileges vis-à-vis Algerian oil. </p><p>The OAS started a campaign of spectacular terrorist attacks to sabotage the Évian Accords, hoping that if enough Muslims were killed, a general pogrom against the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> would break out, leading the French Army to turn its guns against the government.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> Despite ample provocation with OAS lobbing mortar shells into the <i>casbah</i> of Algiers, the FLN gave orders for no retaliatory attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> In the spring of 1962, the OAS turned to bank robbery to finance its war against both the FLN and the French state, and bombed special units sent by Paris to hunt them down.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 93">: 93 </span></sup> Only eighty deputies voted against the Évian Accords in the National Assembly. Cairns wrote that the fulminations of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen" title="Jean-Marie Le Pen">Jean-Marie Le Pen</a> against de Gaulle were only "...the traditional verbal excesses of third-rate firebrands without a substantial following and without a constructive idea".<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the cease fire, tensions developed between the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> community and their former protectors in the French Army. An OAS ambush of French troops on 20 March was followed by 20,000 gendarmes and soldiers being ordered to occupy the predominantly-<i>Pied-Noir</i> district of <a href="/wiki/Bab_El_Oued" title="Bab El Oued">Bab El Oued</a> in Algiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 524">: 524 </span></sup> A week later, French soldiers from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=4th_Tirailleur_Regiment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4th Tirailleur Regiment (page does not exist)">4th Tirailleur Regiment</a> (an 80% Muslim unit with French officers)<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> opened fire on a crowd of <i>Pied-Noir</i> demonstrators in Algiers, <a href="/wiki/1962_Isly_massacre" title="1962 Isly massacre">killing between 50 and 80 civilians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Total casualties in these three incidents were 326 killed and wounded amongst the <i>Pied-Noirs</i> and 110 French military personnel dead or injured.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 524–5">: 524–5 </span></sup> A journalist who saw the massacre on 26 March 1962, Henry Tanner, described the scene: "When the shooting stopped, the street was littered with bodies, of women, as well as men, dead, wounded or dying. The black pavement looked grey, as if bleached by fire. Crumpled French flags were lying in pools of blood. Shattered glass and spent cartridges were everywhere".<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 94">: 94 </span></sup> A number of shocked <i>Pied-Noir</i> screamed that they were not French anymore.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 95">: 95 </span></sup> One woman screamed "Stop firing! My God, we're French..." before she was shot down.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 95">: 95 </span></sup> The massacre served to greatly embitter the <i>Pied-Noir</i> community and led to a massive surge of support for the OAS.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 95">: 95 </span></sup> </p><p>In the second <a href="/wiki/1962_French_%C3%89vian_Accords_referendum" title="1962 French Évian Accords referendum">referendum on the independence of Algeria</a>, held in April 1962, 91 percent of the French electorate approved the Evian Accords. On 1 July 1962, some 6 million of a total Algerian electorate of 6.5 million cast their ballots. The vote was nearly unanimous, with 5,992,115 votes for independence, 16,534 against, with most <i>Pied-Noirs</i> and Harkis either having fled or abstaining.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De Gaulle pronounced Algeria an independent country on 3 July. The Provisional Executive, however, proclaimed 5 July, the 132nd anniversary of the French entry into Algeria, as the day of national independence. </p><p>During the three months between the cease-fire and the French referendum on Algeria, the OAS unleashed a new campaign. The OAS sought to provoke a major breach in the ceasefire by the FLN, but the attacks now were aimed also against the French army and police enforcing the accords as well as against Muslims. It was the most wanton carnage that Algeria had witnessed in eight years of savage warfare. OAS operatives set off an average of 120 bombs per day in March, with targets including hospitals and schools. On June 7, 1962 the University of Algiers Library was burned by the OAS. This cultural devastation was commemorated by Muslim countries issuing postage stamps commemorating the tragic event. These included Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Yemen.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the summer of 1962, a rush of <i>Pied-Noirs</i> fled to France. Within a year, 1.4 million refugees, including almost the entire <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> community, had joined the exodus. Despite the declaration of independence on 5 July 1962, the last French forces did not leave the naval base of <a href="/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mers El Kébir</a> until 1967. (The Evian Accords had permitted France to maintain its military presence for fifteen years, so the withdrawal in 1967 was significantly ahead of schedule.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Cairns writing from Paris in 1962 declared: "In some ways the last year has been the worse. Tension has never been higher. Disenchantment in France at least has never been greater. The mindless cruelty of it all has never been more absurd and savage. This last year, stretching from the hopeful spring of 1961 to the ceasefire of 18 March 1962 spanned a season of shadow boxing, false threats, capitulation and murderous hysteria. French Algeria died badly. Its agony was marked by panic and brutality as ugly as the record of European imperialism could show. In the spring of 1962 the unhappy corpse of empire still shuddered and lashed out and stained itself in fratricide. The whole episode of its death, measured at least seven and half years, constituted perhaps the most pathetic and sordid event in the entire history of colonialism. It is hard to see how anybody of importance in the tangled web of the conflict came out looking well. Nobody won the conflict, nobody dominated it."<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns_80-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy_of_internationalisation_of_the_Algerian_War_led_by_the_FLN">Strategy of internationalisation of the Algerian War led by the FLN</h2></div> <p>At the beginning of the war, on the Algerian side, it was necessary to compensate for military weakness with political and diplomatic struggle. In the asymmetric conflict between <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">FLN</a> at this time, victory seemed extremely difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Algerian revolution began with the insurrection of November 1, when the FLN organized a series of attacks against the French army and military infrastructure, and published a statement calling on Algerians to get involved in the revolution. This initial campaign had limited impact: the events remained largely unreported, especially by the French press (only two newspaper columns in <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i> and one in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Express" title="L'Express">l'Express</a></i>), and the insurrection all but subsided. Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a>, the French Minister of the Interior, sent 600 soldiers to Algeria. </p><p>Furthermore, the FLN was weak militarily at the beginning of the war. It was created in 1954 and had few members, and its ally the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Army_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Army (Algeria)">ALN</a> was also underdeveloped, having only 3,000 men badly equipped and trained, unable to compete with the French army. The nationalist forces also suffered from internal divisions. </p><p>As proclaimed in the statement of 1954, the FLN developed a strategy to avoid large-scale warfare and internationalize the conflict, appealing politically and diplomatically to influence French and world opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Frank_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This political aspect would reinforce the legitimacy of the FLN in Algeria, which was all the more necessary since Algeria, unlike other colonies, had been formally incorporated as a part of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>. The French counter-strategy aimed to keep the conflict internal and strictly French to maintain its image abroad. The FLN succeeded, and the conflict rapidly became international, embroiled with the tensions of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Third-Worldism" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-Worldism">Third World</a>. </p><p>Firstly, the FLN exploited the tensions between the American-led <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> and the Soviet-led <a href="/wiki/East_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="East Bloc">Communist bloc</a>. FLN sought material support from the Communists, goading the Americans to support Algerian independence to keep the country on the western side. Furthermore, the FLN used the tensions within each bloc, including between France and the US and between the USSR and Mao's China. The US, which generally opposed <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonisation</a>, had every interest in pushing France to give Algeria its independence.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secondly, the FLN could count on Third World support. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many new states were created in the wave of <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>: in 1945 there were 51 states in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>, but by 1965 there were 117. This upturned the balance of power in the UN, with the recently decolonized countries now a majority with great influence. Most of the new states were part of the Third-World movement, proclaiming a third, non-aligned path in a bipolar world, and opposing colonialism in favor of national renewal and modernization.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They felt concerned in the Algerian conflict and supported the FLN on the international stage. For example, a few days after the first insurrection in 1954, Radio <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (Third-Worldist) begun to vocally support the struggle of Algeria;<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung conference</a> internationally recognized the FLN as representing Algeria;<sup id="cite_ref-:1_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Third-World countries brought up the Algerian conflict at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">UN general assembly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French government grew more and more isolated. </p><p>After the Battle of Algiers greatly weakened the FLN, it was forced to accept more direct support from abroad. Financial and military support from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> helped to rebuild the ALN to 20 000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> competed with China, and <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Khrushchev</a> intensified moral support for the Algerian rebellion, which in turn pushed the USA to react.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Algerian_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic">Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic</a> (PGAR) was created, naming official representatives to negotiate with France.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tense negotiations lasted three years, eventually turning to Algeria's advantage. The PGAR was supported by the Third World and the communist bloc, while France had few allies. Under pressure from the UN, the USA, and a war-weary public, France eventually conceded in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Evian agreements</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Connelly" title="Matthew Connelly">Matthew Connelly</a>, this strategy of internationalization became a model for other revolutionary groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Algerian_War" title="Women in the Algerian War">Women in the Algerian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg/220px-Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg/330px-Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg/440px-Les_poseuses_de_bombes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3310" data-file-height="2457" /></a><figcaption>FLN female bombers</figcaption></figure> <p>Women participated in a variety of roles during the Algerian War. The majority of Muslim women who became active participants did so on the side of the National Liberation Front (FLN). The French included some women, both Muslim and French, in their war effort, but they were not as fully integrated, nor were they charged with the same breadth of tasks as the women on the Algerian side. The total number of women involved in the conflict, as determined by post-war veteran registration, is numbered at 11,000, but it is possible that this number was significantly higher due to underreporting.<sup id="cite_ref-DeGroot_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGroot-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban and rural women's experiences in the revolution differed greatly. Urban women, who constituted about twenty percent of the overall force, had received some kind of education and usually chose to enter on the side of the FLN of their own accord.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazreg,_Marnia_p._120_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazreg,_Marnia_p._120-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Largely illiterate rural women, on the other hand, the remaining eighty percent, due to their geographic location in respect to the operations of FLN often became involved in the conflict as a result of proximity paired with force.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazreg,_Marnia_p._120_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazreg,_Marnia_p._120-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women operated in a number of different areas during the course of the rebellion. "Women participated actively as combatants, spies, fundraisers, as well as nurses, launderers, and cooks",<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "women assisted the male fighting forces in areas like transportation, communication and administration"<sup id="cite_ref-DeGroot_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGroot-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 223">: 223 </span></sup> the range of involvement by a woman could include both combatant and non-combatant roles. <a href="/wiki/Eveline_Safir_Lavalette" title="Eveline Safir Lavalette">Eveline Safir Lavalette</a> was a notable contributor to the Revolution as a distributor of pamphlets for the FLN's underground newspaper. While most women's tasks were non-combatant, their less frequent, violent acts were more noticed. The reality was that "rural women in maquis <a href="/wiki/Rural_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural areas">rural areas</a> support networks"<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contained the overwhelming majority of those who participated; female combatants were in the minority. </p><p>Perhaps the most famous incident involving Algerian women revolutionaries was the Milk Bar Café bombing of 1956, when <a href="/wiki/Zohra_Drif" title="Zohra Drif">Zohra Drif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Yacef" title="Saadi Yacef">Yacef Saâdi</a> planted three bombs: one in the <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a> office in the Mauritania building in Algiers,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which did not explode, one in a cafeteria on the Rue Michelet, and another at the Milk Bar Café, which killed 3 young women and injured multiple adults and children.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Communist_Party" title="Algerian Communist Party">Algerian Communist Party</a>-member <a href="/wiki/Raymonde_Peschard" title="Raymonde Peschard">Raymonde Peschard</a> was initially accused of being an accomplice to the bombing and was forced to flee from the colonial authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1957, though, Drif and Saâdi were arrested and sentenced to twenty years hard labor in the <a href="/wiki/Serkadji_Prison" title="Serkadji Prison">Barbarossa prison</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drif was pardoned by <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> on the anniversary of <a href="/wiki/Algerian_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian independence">Algerian independence</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exodus_of_the_Pieds-Noirs_and_Harkis">Exodus of the Pieds-Noirs and Harkis</h2></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Pied-noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-noir">Pieds-Noirs</a></i> (including indigenous <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrachi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Harkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Harkis">Harkis</a></i> accounted for 13% of the total population of Algeria in 1962. For the sake of clarity, each group's exodus is described separately here, although their fate shared many common elements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pieds-noirs">Pieds-noirs</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg/220px-Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg/330px-Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg/440px-Commando_de_chasse_V66_du_4me_Zouaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="832" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Commandos_de_Chasse" title="Commandos de Chasse">Commandos de Chasse</a> of the 4th <a href="/wiki/Zouave" title="Zouave">Zouave</a> regiment. Zouave regiments were mostly composed of European settlers.</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Pied-noir</i> (literally "black foot") is a term used to name the European-descended population (mostly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a>), who had resided in Algeria for generations; it is sometimes used to include the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghrebi Jewish">Maghrebi Jewish</a> population as well, which likewise emigrated after 1962. Europeans arrived in Algeria as immigrants from all over the western Mediterranean (particularly France, Spain, Italy and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>), starting in 1830. The Jews arrived in several waves, some coming as early as 600 BC and during the Roman period, known as the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi Jews</a> or Berber Jews. The Maghrebi Jewish population was outnumbered by the Sephardic Jews, who were driven out of Spain in 1492, and was further strengthened by Marrano refugees from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> through the 16th century. Algerian Jews largely embraced French citizenship after the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9cret_Cr%C3%A9mieux" class="mw-redirect" title="Décret Crémieux">décret Crémieux</a> in 1871. </p><p>In 1959, the <i>pieds-noirs</i> numbered 1,025,000 (85% of European Christian descent, and 15% were made up of the indigenous Algerian population of <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghrebi Jewish">Maghrebi</a> and Sephardi Jewish descent), and accounted for 10.4% of the total population of Algeria. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 of them fled, the first third prior to the referendum, in the largest relocation of population to Europe since the Second World War. A motto used in the FLN message to the pieds-noirs was "a suitcase or a coffin" ("<i>La valise ou le cercueil</i>"), repurposing a slogan first coined years earlier by <i>pied-noir</i> "ultras" when rallying the European community to their hardcore line. </p><p>The French government claimed not to have anticipated such a massive exodus; it estimated that a maximum of 250–300,000 might enter metropolitan France temporarily. Nothing was planned for their move to France, and many had to sleep in the streets or abandoned farms on their arrival. A minority of departing <i>pieds-noirs</i>, including soldiers, destroyed their property before departure, to protest and as a desperate symbolic attempt to leave no trace of over a century of European presence, but the vast majority of their goods and houses were left intact and abandoned. A large number of panicked people camped for weeks on the docks of Algerian harbors, waiting for a space on a boat to France. About 100,000 <i>pieds-noirs</i> chose to remain, but most of those gradually left in the 1960s and 1970s, primarily due to residual hostility against them, including machine-gunning of public places in <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ina_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ina-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harkis">Harkis</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harki-j.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Harki-j.jpg/130px-Harki-j.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Harki-j.jpg/195px-Harki-j.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Harki-j.jpg/260px-Harki-j.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Young <a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harki</a> in uniform, summer 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>The so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harkis</a></i>, from the Algerian-Arabic dialect word <i>harki</i> (soldier), were indigenous Muslim Algerians (as opposed to European-descended Catholics or indigenous Algerian <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi Jews</a>) who fought as auxiliaries on the French side. Some of these were veterans of the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a> who participated in the liberation of France during World War II or in the <a href="/wiki/Indochina_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina War">Indochina War</a>. The term also came to include civilian indigenous Algerians who supported a French Algeria. According to French government figures, there were 236,000 Algerian Muslims serving in the French Army in 1962 (four times more than in the FLN), either in regular units (<a href="/wiki/Spahis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahis">Spahis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirailleurs">Tirailleurs</a>) or as irregulars (harkis and moghaznis). Some estimates suggest that, with their families, the indigenous Muslim loyalists may have numbered as many as 1 million.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1962, around 90,000 <i>Harkis</i> took refuge in France, despite French government policy against this. Pierre Messmer, Minister of the Armies, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Joxe" title="Louis Joxe">Louis Joxe</a>, Minister for Algerian Affairs, gave orders to this effect.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Harkis</i> were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. <a href="/wiki/French_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="French historians">French historians</a> estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 <i>Harkis</i> and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 537">: 537 </span></sup> The abandonment of the "Harkis" both the lack of recognition of those who died defending French Algeria and the neglect of those who escaped to France, remains an issue that France has not fully resolved—although the government of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> made efforts to recognize the suffering of these former allies.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg/220px-Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg/330px-Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg/440px-Ex_voto_mg_6329.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>Ex-voto in <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_la_Garde" title="Notre-Dame de la Garde">Notre-Dame de la Garde</a> thanking for the safe return of a son from Algeria, August 1958</figcaption></figure> <p>Death toll estimates vary. Algerian historians and the FLN estimated that nearly eight years of revolution caused 1.5 million Algerian deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other French and Algerian sources later put the figure at approximately 960,000 dead, while French officials and historians estimated it at around 350,000,<sup id="cite_ref-Pervillé_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pervillé-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this was regarded by many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2022)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> as an underestimate. French military authorities listed their losses at nearly 17,456 dead (5,966 from accidents) and 65,000 wounded. European-descended civilian casualties exceeded 10,000 (including 3,000 dead) in 42,000 recorded violent incidents. According to French official figures during the war, the army, security forces and militias killed 141,000 presumed rebel combatants.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 538">: 538 </span></sup> But it is still unclear whether this includes some civilians. </p><p>More than 12,000 Algerians died in internal FLN purges during the war. In France, an additional 5,000 died in the "café wars" between the FLN and rival Algerian groups. French sources also estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 538">: 538 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> citing Gilert Meyinier implies at least 55,000 to up to 60,000 non-Harki Algerian civilians were killed during the conflict without specifying which side killed them.<sup id="cite_ref-civilians_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-civilians-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rudolph Rummel</a> attributes at least 100,000<sup id="cite_ref-democide_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democide-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> deaths in what he calls <a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">democide</a> to French repression; and estimates an additional to 50,000 to 150,000 democides committed by Algerian independence fighters.<sup id="cite_ref-democide2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democide2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 6,000 to 20,000 Algerians were killed<sup id="cite_ref-setif_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-setif-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 1945 <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a> which is considered by some historians to have been a cause of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 1 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Alistair_Horne_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alistair_Horne-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-David_P._Forsythe_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_P._Forsythe-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uncounted thousands of Muslim civilians died in French Army ratissages, bombing raids, or vigilante reprisals. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians, who were forced to relocate in French camps or to flee into the Algerian hinterland, where many thousands died of starvation, disease, and exposure. One source estimates 300,000 Algerians civilians perished of starvation, depredation, and disease inside and outside the camps.<sup id="cite_ref-clayton_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clayton-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, large numbers of Harkis were murdered when the FLN settled accounts after independence,<sup id="cite_ref-Windrow_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windrow-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> with 30,000 to 150,000 killed in Algeria in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harki_massacres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harki massacres (page does not exist)">post-war reprisals</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacres_de_harkis" class="extiw" title="fr:Massacres de harkis">fr</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 538">: 538 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lasting_effects_in_Algerian_politics">Lasting effects in Algerian politics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">History of Algeria (1962–1999)</a></div> <p>After Algeria's independence was recognised, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a> quickly became more popular and thereby more powerful. In June 1962, he challenged the leadership of Premier <a href="/wiki/Benyoucef_Ben_Khedda" class="mw-redirect" title="Benyoucef Ben Khedda">Benyoucef Ben Khedda</a>; this led to several disputes among his rivals in the FLN, which were quickly suppressed by Ben Bella's rapidly growing support, most notably within the armed forces. By September, Bella was in <i>de facto</i> control of Algeria and was elected premier in a one-sided election on September 20, and was recognised by the U.S. on September 29. Algeria was admitted as the 109th member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> on October 8, 1962. Afterward, Ben Bella declared that Algeria would follow a neutral course in world politics; within a week he met with <a href="/wiki/U.S._President" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. President">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, requesting more aid for Algeria with <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> and expressed approval of Castro's demands for the abandonment of <a href="/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay,_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Guantánamo Bay, Cuba">Guantanamo Bay</a>. Bella returned to Algeria and requested that France withdraw from its bases there. In November, his government banned political parties, providing that the FLN would be the only party allowed to function overtly. Shortly thereafter, in 1965, Bella was deposed and placed under house arrest (and later exiled) by <a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8nne" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumédiènne">Houari Boumédiènne</a>, who served as president until his death in 1978. Algeria remained stable, though in a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a>, until a violent <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">civil war</a> broke out in the 1990s. </p><p>For Algerians of many political factions, the legacy of their War of Independence was a legitimization or even sanctification of the unrestricted use of force in achieving a goal deemed to be justified. Once invoked against foreign colonialists, the same principle could also be turned with relative ease against fellow Algerians.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FLN's struggle to overthrow colonial rule and the ruthlessness exhibited by both sides in that struggle were mirrored 30 years later by the passion, determination, and brutality of the conflict between the FLN government and the Islamist opposition. The American journalist Adam Shatz wrote that much of the same methods employed by the FLN against the French such as "the militarization of politics, the use of Islam as a rallying cry, the exaltation of jihad" to create an essentially secular state in 1962, were used by Islamic fundamentalists in their efforts to overthrow the FLN regime in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Shatz_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shatz-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atrocities_and_war_crimes">Atrocities and war crimes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" title="Torture during the Algerian War">Torture during the Algerian War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_atrocities_and_use_of_torture">French atrocities and use of torture</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torture_during_the_Algerian_War,_Teleghma_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg/220px-Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg/330px-Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg/440px-Torture_during_the_Algerian_War%2C_Teleghma_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Algerian submerged in water and tortured by the French army using electricity, while two tires serve as containers (1961)</figcaption></figure> <p>Massacres and torture were frequent from the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">colonization of Algeria</a>, which started in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2007_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atrocities committed against Algerians by the French army during the war included indiscriminate shootings into civilian crowds (such as during the <a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a>), execution of civilians when rebel attacks occurred,<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bombings of villages suspected of helping the FLN,<sup id="cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aoudjit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">rape</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hanssen_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanssen-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Disembowelment" title="Disembowelment">disembowelment</a> of pregnant women,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> imprisonment <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">without food</a> in small cells (some of which were small enough to impede lying down),<sup id="cite_ref-VIDAL-NAQUET2014_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIDAL-NAQUET2014-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">throwing detainees from helicopters</a> and into the sea with concrete on their feet, and <a href="/wiki/Premature_burial" title="Premature burial">burying people alive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huma00_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huma00-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Torture methods included beatings, mutilations, burning, hanging by the feet or hands, torture by electroshock, <a href="/wiki/Waterboarding" title="Waterboarding">waterboarding</a>, sleep deprivation and sexual assaults.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanssen_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanssen-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huma00_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huma00-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rey_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rey-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war, the French military relocated entire villages to <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">centres de regroupements</i></span> (regrouping centres), which were built for forcibly displaced civilian populations, in order to separate them from FLN guerrilla combatants. Over 8,000 villages were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_Shillington_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_Shillington-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aoudjit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill_2009_p._60_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_2009_p._60-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 2 million Algerians were resettled in regrouping internment camps, with some being <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">forced into labour</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fabien_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabien-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A notable instance of rape was that of <a href="/wiki/Djamila_Boupacha" title="Djamila Boupacha">Djamila Boupacha</a>, a 23-years old Algerian woman who was arrested in 1960, accused of attempting to bomb a cafe in Algiers. Her confession was obtained through torture and rape. Her subsequent trial affected French public opinion about the French army's methods in Algeria after publicity of the case by <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gis%C3%A8le_Halimi" title="Gisèle Halimi">Gisèle Halimi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Torture was also used by both sides during the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> (1946–54).<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bourdet" title="Claude Bourdet">Claude Bourdet</a> denounced acts of torture in Algeria on 6 December 1951, in the magazine <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%27Observateur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L'Observateur (page does not exist)">L'Observateur</a></i>, rhetorically asking, "Is there a <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> in Algeria?". D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General <a href="/wiki/Paul_Aussaresses" title="Paul Aussaresses">Paul Aussaresses</a> admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified them. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer <a href="/wiki/Ali_Boumendjel" title="Ali Boumendjel">Ali Boumendjel</a> and the head of the FLN in Algiers, <a href="/wiki/Larbi_Ben_M%27Hidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Larbi Ben M'Hidi">Larbi Ben M'Hidi</a>, which had been disguised as suicides.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bigeard" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigeard">Marcel Bigeard</a>, who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the contrary, General <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Massu" title="Jacques Massu">Jacques Massu</a> denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bigeard's justification of torture has been criticized by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Dor%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Doré (page does not exist)">Joseph Doré</a>, archbishop of Strasbourg, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marc_Lienhard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marc Lienhard (page does not exist)">Marc Lienhard</a>, president of the Lutheran Church of Augsbourg Confession in Alsace-Lorraine, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Ferruch" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidi Ferruch">Sidi Ferruch</a>, a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified <a href="/wiki/Louisette_Ighilahriz" title="Louisette Ighilahriz">Louisette Ighilahriz</a>'s revelations, published in the <i>Le Monde</i> newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies". An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide. </p><p>In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Algerian woman sexually abused by the French Army"><img alt="Algerian woman sexually abused by the French Army" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg/120px-Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg/180px-Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg/240px-Algerian_woman_sexually_abused_by_the_French_army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="810" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Algerian woman sexually abused by the French Army</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Camp de Thol, one of the French concentration camps for Algerians used during the war[142]"><img alt="Camp de Thol, one of the French concentration camps for Algerians used during the war[142]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg/120px-Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg/180px-Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg/240px-Photo_de_l%27infirmerie_et_des_locaux_disiplinaire_du_camp_de_Thol.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Camp de Thol, one of the French concentration camps for Algerians used during the war<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marcel Bigeard's troops were accused of practicing "death flights", whose victims were called crevettes Bigeard (fr), "Bigeard shrimp".[143]"><img alt="Marcel Bigeard's troops were accused of practicing "death flights", whose victims were called crevettes Bigeard (fr), "Bigeard shrimp".[143]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg/94px-General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg/141px-General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/General_Marcel_Bigeard_young.jpg 2x" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="231" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Bigeard" title="Marcel Bigeard">Marcel Bigeard</a>'s troops were accused of practicing "<a href="/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">death flights</a>", whose victims were called <i>crevettes Bigeard</i> (<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crevettes_Bigeard" class="extiw" title="fr:Crevettes Bigeard">fr</a>), "Bigeard shrimp".<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title=""Gégène", a device used by the French forces to generate electricity; electrodes would then be attached to the victim's body parts for electric torture."><img alt=""Gégène", a device used by the French forces to generate electricity; electrodes would then be attached to the victim's body parts for electric torture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG/120px-G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG/180px-G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG/240px-G%C3%A9g%C3%A8ne_-_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ratrice_pour_torture_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Gégène", a device used by the French forces to generate electricity; electrodes would then be attached to the victim's body parts for electric torture.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algerian_use_of_terror">Algerian use of terror</h3></div> <p>Specializing in ambushes and night raids to avoid direct contact with superior French firepower, the internal forces targeted army patrols, military encampments, police posts, and colonial farms, mines, and factories, as well as transportation and communications facilities. At first, the FLN targeted only Muslim officials of the colonial regime; later, they coerced, maimed, or killed village elders, government employees, and even simple peasants who refused to support them. Throat slitting and decapitation were commonly used by the FLN as mechanisms of terror.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 134–5">: 134–5 </span></sup> Some other atrocities were committed by the more militant sections of the FLN as collective reprisals against the pieds-noirs population in response to French repression. The more extreme cases occurred in places like the town of Al-Halia, where some European residents were raped and <a href="/wiki/Disembowelment" title="Disembowelment">disemboweled</a>, while children had been murdered by slitting their throats or banging their heads against walls.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the first two and a half years of the conflict, the guerrillas killed an estimated 6,352 Muslim and 1,035 non-Muslim civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-Horne_15-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 135">: 135 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg/170px-French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg/255px-French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg/340px-French_North_African_Operations_medal_law_of_11_January_1958.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="2624" /></a><figcaption>French North African Operations medal, 11 January 1958</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the opening of the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs after a 30-year lock-up enabled some new <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historical research</a> on the war, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Charles_Jauffret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Charles Jauffret (page does not exist)">Jean-Charles Jauffret</a>'s book, <i>La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents</i> (The Algerian War According to the Documents), many remain inaccessible.<sup id="cite_ref-DiploApril_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiploApril-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recognition in 1999 by the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a> permitted the Algerian War to enter the syllabi of French schools. In France, the war was known as "<i>la guerre sans nom</i>" ("the war without a name") while it was being fought. The government variously described the war as the "Algerian events", the "Algerian problem" and the "Algerian dispute"; the mission of the French Army was "ensuring security", "maintaining order" and "pacification" but was never described as fighting a war. The FLN were referred to as "criminals", "bandits", "outlaws", "terrorists" and "<i>fellagha</i>" (a derogatory Arabic word meaning "road-cutters" but often mistranslated as "throat-cutters" in reference to the FLN's frequent method of execution, which made people wear the "Kabylian smile" by cutting their throats, pulling their tongues out, and leaving them to bleed to death).<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After reports of the widespread use of torture by French forces started to reach France in 1956–57, the war become commonly known as <i>la sale guerre</i> ("the dirty war"), a term that is still used today and reflects the very negative memory of the war in France.<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 145">: 145 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lack_of_commemoration">Lack of commemoration</h3></div> <p>As the war was officially a "<a href="/wiki/Police_action" title="Police action">police action</a>", no monuments were built for decades to honour the about 25,000 French soldiers killed in the war, and the Defense Ministry refused to classify veterans as veterans until the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 219">: 219 </span></sup> When a monument to the Unknown Soldier of the Algerian War was erected in 1977, French President <a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Valéry Giscard d'Estaing</a>, in his dedication speech, refused to use the words war or Algeria but instead used the phrase "the unknown soldier of North Africa".<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 219">: 219 </span></sup> A national monument to the French war dead was not built until 1996 and, even then spoke only of those killed fighting in <i>Afrique du nord</i> and was located in a decrepit area of Paris rarely visited by tourists, as if to hide the monument.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 226">: 226 </span></sup> Further adding to the silence were the vested interests of French politicians. François Mitterrand, the French president 1981 to 1995, had been the Interior Minister from 1954 to 1955 and the Justice Minister from 1955 to 1957, when he had been deeply involved in the repression of the FLN, and it was only after Mitterrand's death in 1996, that his <a href="/wiki/French_Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="French Socialist Party">French Socialist Party</a> started to become willing to talk about the war and, even then, remained very guarded about his role.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232">: 232 </span></sup> Likewise, de Gaulle had promised in the Évian Agreements that the <i>pieds-noirs</i> could remain in Algeria, but after independence, the FLN freely violated the accords and led to the entire <i>pied-noir</i> population fleeing to France, usually with only the clothes they were wearing, as they had lost everything they had in Algeria, a circumstance further embarrassing the defeated nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232">: 232 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English-language_historiography">English-language historiography</h3></div> <p>One of the first books about the war in English, <i>A Scattering of Dust</i> by the American journalist Herb Greer in 1962, depicted very favorably the Algerian struggle for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most work in English in the 1960s and 1970s were the work of left-wing scholars, who were focused on explaining the FLN as a part of a generational change in Algerian nationalism and depicted the war as a reaction to intolerable oppression and/or an attempt by the peasants, impoverished by French policies, to improve their lot.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 222–5">: 222–5 </span></sup> One of the few military histories of the war was <i>The Algerian Insurrection</i>, by the retired British Army officer <a href="/wiki/Edgar_O%27Ballance" title="Edgar O'Ballance">Edgar O'Ballance</a>, who wrote with unabashed admiration for French high command during the war and saw the FLN as a terrorist group. O'Ballance concluded that the tactics which won the war militarily for the French lost the war for them politically.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 225–6">: 225–6 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1977, the British journalist <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Horne" title="Alistair Horne">Alistair Horne</a> published <i>A Savage War of Peace</i>, regarded by some authors as the leading book written on the subject in English, though written from a French, rather than Algerian perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 226">: 226 </span></sup> Fifteen years after the end of the war, Horne was accused of not being concerned about "right or wrong" but rather about "cause and effect".<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 217–35">: 217–35 </span></sup> Living in Paris at the time of the war, Horne had condemned French intervention during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> and the French bombing of the Tunisian village of Sakiet Sidi Youssef in 1958. He'd argued that the "inflexibility" of the FLN had won Algeria independence, creating a sense of Algerian national identity, and leading the Front to rule over authoritarian but "progressive" FLN regime.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 217–35">: 217–35 </span></sup> </p><p>In a 1977 column published in <i>The Times Literary Supplement</i> reviewing the book <i>A Savage War of Peace</i>, Iraqi-born British historian <a href="/wiki/Elie_Kedourie" title="Elie Kedourie">Elie Kedourie</a> attacked Horne as an "apologist for terrorism" and accused him of engaging in the "cosy pieties" of <i>bien-pensants</i>. Kedorie condemned the Western intellectuals who excuse terrorism when committed by Third World revolutionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 217–35">: 217–35 </span></sup> Kedourie claimed that far from a mass movement, the FLN were a "small gang" of "murderous intellectuals" who used brutal, terrorist tactics against the French citizens and military, and against any Muslim loyal to the French. He further claimed that the Front had been beaten by 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 217–235">: 217–235 </span></sup> Kedourie charged that de Gaulle had cynically sacrificed the <i>colons</i> and the <i>harkis</i>, as he had chosen to disregard his constitutional oath as president to protect all Frenchmen and ensure that "the French withdrew and handed over power to the only organized body of armed men who were on the scene – a civilized government, thus, acting for all the world like the votary of some Mao or Ho, in the barbarous belief that legitimacy comes from the power of the gun".<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 227">: 227 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1992, American historian John Ruedy, the focus of whose research was the history of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and French colonialism in Algeria, published <i>Modern Algeria: Origins and Development of a Nation</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232–3">: 232–3 </span></sup> Ruedy wrote that under French rule the traditional social structure had been so completely destroyed that when the FLN launched its independence struggle in 1954, the only way of asserting one's interests was through "the law of the gun", which explains why the FLN was so violent not only in regards to its enemies but also within the movement. The FLN, thus, according to Ruedy, formed the basis of an "alternative political culture", based on "brute force" that has persisted ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-Brett_148-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_film">In film</h3></div> <p>Before the war, Algeria was a popular setting for French films; the British professor Leslie Hill having written: "In the late 1920s and 1930s, for instance, North Africa provided film-makers in France with a ready fund of familiar images of the exotics, mingling, for instance, the languid eroticism of Arabian nights with the infinite and hazy vistas of the Sahara to create a powerful confection of tragic heroism and passionate love."<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 147">: 147 </span></sup> During the war itself, French censors banned the entire subject of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 147–8">: 147–8 </span></sup> Since 1962, when film censorship relating to the war eased, French films dealing with the conflict have consistently portrayed the war as a set of conflicting memories and rival narratives (which ones being correct are left unclear), with most films dealing with the war taking a disjointed chronological structure in which scenes before, during and after the war are juxtaposed out of sequence with one film critic referring to the cinematic Algeria as "an ambiguous world marked by the displacements and repetitions of dreams".<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142–58">: 142–58 </span></sup> The consistent message of French films dealing with the war is that something horrible happened, but what happened, who was involved and why are left unexplained.<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142–158">: 142–158 </span></sup> Atrocities, especially torture by French forces are acknowledged, the French soldiers who fought in Algeria were and are always portrayed in French cinema as the "lost soldiers" and tragic victims of the war who are more deserving of sympathy than the FLN people they tortured, which are almost invariably portrayed as vicious, psychopathic terrorists, an approach to the war that has raised anger in Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Dine_147-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 151–6">: 151–6 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reminders">Reminders</h3></div> <p>From time to time, the memory of the Algerian War surfaced in France. In 1987, when SS-<i>Hauptsturmführer</i> <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Barbie" title="Klaus Barbie">Klaus Barbie</a>, the "Butcher of Lyon", was brought to trial for crimes against humanity, graffiti appeared on the walls of the <i>banlieues</i>, the slum districts in which most Algerian immigrants in France live, reading: "Barbie in France! When will Massu be in Algeria!".<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 230">: 230 </span></sup> Barbie's lawyer, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Verg%C3%A8s" title="Jacques Vergès">Jacques Vergès</a>, adopted a <i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">tu quoque</a></i> defence that asked the judges "is a crime against humanity is to be defined as only one of Nazis against the Jews or if it applies to more seriously crimes... the crimes of imperialists against people struggling for their independence?". He went on to say that nothing that his client had done against the French Resistance that was not done by "certain French officers in Algeria" who, Vergès noted, could not be prosecuted because of de Gaulle's amnesty of 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 230">: 230 </span></sup> In 1997, when <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, a career French civil servant was brought to trial for crimes against humanity for sending 1600 Jews from Bordeaux to be killed at Auschwitz in 1942, it emerged over the course of the trial that on 17 October 1961, Papon had organized a <a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">massacre of between 100 and 200 Algerians</a> in central Paris, which was the first time that most French had ever heard of the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> The revelation that hundreds of people had been killed by the Paris <i>Sûreté</i> was a great shock in France and led to uncomfortable questions being raised about what had happened during the Algerian War.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> The American historian William Cohen wrote that the Papon trial "sharpened the focus" on the Algerian War but not provide "clarity", as Papon's role as a civil servant under Vichy led to misleading conclusions in France that it was former collaborators who were responsible for the terror in Algeria, but most of the men responsible, like Guy Mollet, General Marcel Bigeard, Robert Lacoste, General Jacques Massu and Jacques Soustelle, had actually all been <i>résistants</i> in World War II, which many French historians found to be very unpalatable.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> </p><p>On 15 June 2000, <i>Le Monde</i> published an interview with Louisette Ighilahriz, a former FLN member who described in graphic detail her torture at the hands of the French Army and made the sensational claim that the war heroes General Jacques Massu and General Marcel Bigeard had personally been present when she was being tortured for information.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup> What made the interview very touching for many French people was that Ighilahriz was not demanding vengeance but wished to express thanks to Dr. François Richaud, the army doctor who extended her much kindness and who, she believed, saved her life by treating her every time she was tortured. She asked if it were possible for her to see Dr. Richaud one last time to thank him personally, but it later turned out that Dr. Richaud had died in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup> As Ighilahriz had been an attractive woman in her youth, university-educated, secular, fluent in French and fond of quoting <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, and her duties in the FLN had been as an information courier, she made for a most sympathetic victim since she was a woman who did not come across as Algerian.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 234">: 234 </span></sup> William Cohen commented that had she been an uneducated man who had been involved in killings and was not coming forward to express thanks for a Frenchman, her story might not had resonated the same way.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 234">: 234 </span></sup> The Ighiahriz case led to a public letter signed by 12 people who been involved in the war to President <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> to ask October 31 be made a public day of remembrance for victims of torture in Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 234">: 234 </span></sup> </p><p>In response to the Ighilahriz case, General Paul Aussaresses gave an interview on 23 November 2000 in which he candidly admitted to ordering torture and extrajudicial executions and stated he had personally executed 24 <i>fellagha</i>. He argued that they were justified, as torture and extrajudicial executions were the only way to defeat the FLN.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> In May 2001, Aussaresses published his memoirs, <i>Services spéciaux Algérie 1955–1957</i>, in which presented a detailed account of torture and extrajudicial killings in the name of the republic, which he wrote were all done under orders from Paris; that confirmed what had been long suspected.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 239">: 239 </span></sup> As a result of the interviews and Aussaresses's book, the Algerian War was finally extensively discussed by the French media, which had ignored the subject as much as possible for decades, but no consensus emerged about how to best remember the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> Adding to the interest was the decision by one war veteran, Georges Fogel, to come forward to confirm that he had seen Ighiahriz and many others tortured in 1957, and the politician and war veteran Jean Marie Faure decided in February 2001 to release extracts from the diary that he had kept and showed "acts of sadism and horror" that he had witnessed.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> The French historian <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Vidal-Naquet" title="Pierre Vidal-Naquet">Pierre Vidal-Naquet</a> called that a moment of "catharsis" that was "explainable only in near-French terms: it is the return of the repressed".<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_66-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235–6">: 235–6 </span></sup> </p><p>In 2002, <i>Une Vie Debout: Mémoires Politiques</i> by Mohammed Harbi, a former advisor to Ben Bella, was published in which Harbi wrote: "Because they [the FLN leaders] weren't supported at the moment of their arrival on the scene by a real and dynamic popular movement, they took power of the movement by force and they maintained it by force. Convinced that they had to act with resolution in order to protect themselves against their enemies, they deliberately chose an authoritarian path."<sup id="cite_ref-Shatz_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shatz-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continued_controversy_in_France">Continued controversy in France</h3></div> <p>The Algerian War remains a contentious event. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a>, one of the leading historians on the war, memories concerning the war remain fragmented, with no common ground to speak of: </p> <blockquote><p>There is no such thing as a history of the Algerian War; there is just a multitude of histories and personal paths through it. Everyone involved considers that they lived through it in their own way, and any attempt to understand the Algerian War globally is immediately rejected by protagonists.<sup id="cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MemoryStora-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Even though Stora has counted 3,000 publications in French on the war, there still is no work produced by French and Algerian authors co-operating with each other. Although according to Stora, there can "no longer be talk about a 'war without a name', a number of problems remain, especially the absence of sites in France to commemorate" the war. Furthermore, conflicts have arisen on an exact commemoration date to end the war. Although many sources as well as the French state place it on 19 March 1962, the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Agreements</a>, others point out that massacres of harkis and the kidnapping of <i>pieds-noirs</i> took place later. Stora further points out, "The phase of memorial reconciliation between the two sides of the sea is still a long way off."<sup id="cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MemoryStora-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That was evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a>'s creation of the <a href="/wiki/French_law_on_colonialism" title="French law on colonialism">law on colonialism</a> on 23 February 2005 that asserted that colonialism had overall been "positive". </p><p>Alongside a heated debate in France, the February 23, 2005, law had the effect of jeopardising the treaty of friendship that President Chirac was supposed to sign with President <a href="/wiki/Abdelaziz_Bouteflika" title="Abdelaziz Bouteflika">Abdelaziz Bouteflika</a>, which was no longer on the agenda. Following that controversial law, Bouteflika has talked about a cultural <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, particularly referring to the 1945 <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sétif massacre">Sétif massacre</a>. Chirac finally had the law repealed by a complex institutional mechanism. </p><p>Another matter concerns the teaching of the war as well as of colonialism and decolonization, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">French secondary schools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, there is only one reference to <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> in a French textbook, one published by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Br%C3%A9al&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bréal (page does not exist)">Bréal</a> publishers for <i>terminales</i> students, those passing their <a href="/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at" title="Baccalauréat">baccalauréat</a>. Thus, many are not surprised that the first to speak about the <a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a> were music bands, including hip-hop bands such as the famous <a href="/wiki/Supr%C3%AAme_NTM" title="Suprême NTM">Suprême NTM</a> (<i>les Arabes dans la Seine</i>) or politically-engaged <a href="/wiki/La_Rumeur" title="La Rumeur">La Rumeur</a>. Indeed, the Algerian War is not even the subject of a specific chapter in the textbook for <i>terminales</i><sup id="cite_ref-DiploApril_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiploApril-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henceforth, Benjamin Stora stated: </p> <blockquote><p>As Algerians do not appear in an "indigenous" condition, and their sub-citizens status, as the history of nationalist movement, is never evoked as their being one of great figures of the resistance, such as Messali Hadj and Ferhat Abbas. They neither emerge nor are being given attention. No one is explaining to students what colonization has been. We have prevented students from understanding why the decolonization took place.<sup id="cite_ref-DiploApril_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiploApril-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomic_situation_of_French_Algerians">Socioeconomic situation of French Algerians</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> in 1963, 43% of French Algerians lived in <i><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">bidonvilles</a></i> (shanty towns).<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Azouz_Begag" title="Azouz Begag">Azouz Begag</a>, the delegate Minister for Equal Opportunities, wrote an autobiographic novel, <i>Le Gone du Chaâba</i>, about his experiences while living in a <i>bidonville</i> in the outskirts of Lyon. It is impossible to understand the third-generation of Algerian immigrants to France without recalling the <a href="/wiki/Biculturalism" title="Biculturalism">bicultural</a> experience. An official parliamentary report on the "prevention of criminality", commanded by Interior Minister <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philippe_de_Villepin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philippe de Villepin (page does not exist)">Philippe de Villepin</a> and made by the deputy <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Alain_B%C3%A9nisti" title="Jacques-Alain Bénisti">Jacques-Alain Bénisti</a>, claimed, "<a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">Bilingualism</a> (<i>bilinguisme</i>) was a factor of criminality" (sic<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Following outcries, the definitive version of the report finally made bilingualism an asset, rather than a fault.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_recognition_of_historical_use_of_torture">French recognition of historical use of torture</h3></div> <p>After having denied or downplayed its use for 40 years, France has finally recognized its history of torture, but there was never an official proclamation about it. General <a href="/wiki/Paul_Aussaresses" title="Paul Aussaresses">Paul Aussaresses</a> was sentenced following his justification of the use of torture for "apology of war crimes". As they occurred during <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wartime</a>, France claimed torture to be isolated acts, instead of admitting its responsibility for the frequent use of torture to break the insurgents' morale, not, as Aussaresses had claimed, to "save lives" by gaining short-term information which would stop "terrorists".<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state now claims that torture was a regrettable aberration because of the context of the exceptionally-savage war. However, academic research has proved both theses to be false. "Torture in Algeria was engraved in the colonial act; it is a 'normal' illustration of an abnormal system", wrote Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, who discussed the phenomena of "<a href="/wiki/Human_zoo" title="Human zoo">human zoos</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Bancel&al_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bancel&al-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the <i>enfumades</i> (slaughter by smoke inhalation) of the Darha caves in 1844 by <a href="/wiki/Aimable_P%C3%A9lissier" title="Aimable Pélissier">Aimable Pélissier</a> to the 1945 riots in Sétif, <a href="/wiki/Guelma" title="Guelma">Guelma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kherrata" title="Kherrata">Kherrata</a>, the repression in Algeria used the same methods. Following the Sétif massacres, other riots against the European presence occurred in Guelma, Batna, Biskra, and Kherrata that resulted in 103 deaths among the <i>pieds-noirs</i>. The suppression of the riots officially saw 1,500 other deaths, but N. Bancel, P. Blanchard and S. Lemaire estimate the number to be between 6,000 and 8,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Bancel&al_2_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bancel&al_2-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="INA_archives">INA archives</h3></div> <p><i>Note: concerning the audio and film archives from the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27audiovisuel" title="Institut national de l'audiovisuel">Institut national de l'audiovisuel</a> (INA), <u>see Benjamin Stora's comments on their politically-oriented creation</u>.<sup id="cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MemoryStora-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=pied+noir&num_notice=4&total_notices=113">Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rushes Interview Pied-Noir, ORTF, July 1, 1962</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=alg%E9rie+r%E9trospective&num_notice=1&total_notices=28">Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rétrospective Algérie, ORTF, June 9, 1963</a> (concerning these <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27audiovisuel" title="Institut national de l'audiovisuel">INA</a> archives, see also Benjamin Stora's warning about the conditions of creation of these images).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_publications">Contemporary publications</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Trinquier" title="Roger Trinquier">Trinquier, Roger</a>. <i>Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency</i>, 1961.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Leulliette&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Leulliette (page does not exist)">Leulliette, Pierre</a>, <i>St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper</i>, Houghton Mifflin, 1964.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Galula" title="David Galula">Galula, David</a>, <i>Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice</i>, 1964.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Jouhaud" title="Edmond Jouhaud">Jouhaud, Edmond</a>. <i>O Mon Pays Perdu: De Bou-Sfer a Tulle.</i> Paris: Librarie Artheme Fayard, 1969.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etienne_Maignen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Etienne Maignen (page does not exist)">Maignen, Etienne</a> <i>Treillis au djebel – Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne</i> Yellow Concept, 2004.</li> <li>Derradji, Abder-Rahmane, The Algerian Guerrilla Campaign Strategy & Tactics, The Edwin Mellen Press, New York, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouloud_Feraoun" title="Mouloud Feraoun">Feraoun, Mouloud</a>, Journal 1955–1962, University of Nebraska Press, 2000.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pe%C4%8Dar,_Zdravko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pečar, Zdravko (page does not exist)">Pečar, Zdravko</a>, <i>Alžir do nezavisnosti.</i> Beograd: Prosveta; Beograd: Institut za izučavanje radničkog pokreta, 1967.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_publications">Other publications</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English-language">English-language</h4></div> <ul><li>Aussaresses, General Paul. <i>The Battle of the Casbah</i>, New York: Enigma Books, 2010, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-30-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-30-8">978-1-929631-30-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne,_Alistair1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Horne" title="Alistair Horne">Horne, Alistair</a> (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn"><i>A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962</i></a></span>. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1"><bdi>978-0-670-61964-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace%3A+Algeria+1954%E2%80%931962&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-670-61964-1&rft.au=Horne%2C+Alistair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsavagewarofpeace00horn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rita_Maran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rita Maran (page does not exist)">Maran, Rita</a> (1989). <i><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a>: The Role of <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a> in the French-Algerian War</i>, New York: Prager Publishers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Windrow" title="Martin Windrow">Windrow, Martin</a>. <i>The Algerian War 1954–62.</i> London: Osprey Publishing, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-658-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-658-2">1-85532-658-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arslan_Humbaraci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arslan Humbaraci (page does not exist)">Arslan Humbaraci</a>. <i>Algeria: a revolution that failed. </i> London: Pall mall Press Ltd, 1966.</li> <li>Samia Henni: <i>Architecture of Counterrevolution. The French Army in Northern Algeria</i>, gta Verlag, Zürich 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85676-376-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-85676-376-3">978-3-85676-376-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pe%C4%8Dar,_Zdravko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pečar, Zdravko (page does not exist)">Pečar, Zdravko</a>, <i>Algeria to Independence.</i> Currently being translated into English by Dubravka Juraga at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyofalgeria.wordpress.com/">Zdravko Pečar: Alžir do nezavisnosti</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_language">French language</h4></div> <p><i>Translations may be available for some of these works. See specific cases.</i> </p> <ul><li>Benot, Yves (1994). <i>Massacres coloniaux</i>, La Découverte, coll. "Textes à l'appui", Paris.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Charles_Jauffret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Charles Jauffret (page does not exist)">Jauffret, Jean-Charles</a>. <i>La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents</i> (first tome, 1990; second tome, 1998; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://remmm.revues.org/document2375.html">account here</a>).</li> <li>Rey-Goldzeiguer, Annie (2001). <i>Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie</i>, La Découverte, Paris.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Monique_Robin" title="Marie-Monique Robin">Robin, Marie-Monique</a>. <i>Escadrons de la mort, l'école française</i>,453 pages. La Découverte (15 September 2004). Collection: Cahiers libres. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7071-4163-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-7071-4163-1">2-7071-4163-1</a>) (Spanish transl.: <i>Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron</i>), 539 pages. Sudamericana; Édition: Translatio (October 2005) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/950-07-2684-X" title="Special:BookSources/950-07-2684-X">950-07-2684-X</a>).</li> <li>Mekhaled, Boucif (1995). <i>Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 mai 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata</i>, <a href="/wiki/Syros" title="Syros">Syros</a>, Paris, 1995.</li> <li>Slama, Alain-Gérard (1996). <i>La Guerre d'Algérie. Histoire d'une déchirure</i>, Gallimard, coll. "<a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9couvertes_Gallimard" title="Découvertes Gallimard">Découvertes Gallimard</a>" (n° 301), Paris.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Vidal-Naquet" title="Pierre Vidal-Naquet">Vidal-Naquet, Pierre</a>. <i>La Torture sous la République</i> (1970) and many others, more recent (see entry).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Roy" title="Jules Roy">Roy, Jules</a> (1960). "La guerre d'Algérie" ("The War in Algeria", 1961, Grove Press).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etienne_Maignen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Etienne Maignen (page does not exist)">Etienne Maignen</a>. <i>Treillis au djebel- Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne </i> Yellow Concept 2004.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilbert_Meynier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilbert Meynier (page does not exist)">Gilbert Meynier</a>. <i>Histoire intérieure du FLN 1954–1962 </i> Fayard 2004.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Films">Films</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Algerian_War" title="List of films about the Algerian War">List of films about the Algerian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saadi_Yacef_1966.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Saadi_Yacef_1966.jpg/170px-Saadi_Yacef_1966.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Saadi_Yacef_1966.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Former <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">FLN</a> member <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Yacef" title="Saadi Yacef">Saadi Yacef</a> starred and co-produced <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Algiers" title="The Battle of Algiers">The Battle of Algiers</a></i> (1966) by Italian filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Gillo_Pontecorvo" title="Gillo Pontecorvo">Gillo Pontecorvo</a>, which was critically acclaimed for its sense of historical authenticity and cast who had lived through the real war.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jamila,_the_Algerian" title="Jamila, the Algerian">Jamila, the Algerian</a></i> (1958). Egyptian film by <a href="/wiki/Youssef_Chahine" title="Youssef Chahine">Youssef Chahine</a>; about <a href="/wiki/Djamila_Bouhired" title="Djamila Bouhired">Djamila Bouhired</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Soldat" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Petit Soldat">Le Petit Soldat</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard" title="Jean-Luc Godard">Jean-Luc Godard</a> (1960). <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_France" title="Censorship in France">Banned until 1963</a> because some scenes contained <a href="/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" title="Torture during the Algerian War">torture</a>. The title translates to "The Little Soldier".</li> <li><i>Octobre à Paris</i> by Jacques Panijel (1961). The title translates to "October in Paris".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muriel_(film)" title="Muriel (film)">Muriel (film)</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Alain_Resnais" title="Alain Resnais">Alain Resnais</a> (1962). "Muriel" is a character's name.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commando_(1962_film)" title="Commando (1962 film)">Commando (1962 film)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lost_Command" title="Lost Command">Lost Command</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Robson_(film_director)" title="Mark Robson (film director)">Mark Robson (film director)</a> (1966). The French title, <i>Les Centurions</i>, translates to "The Centurions".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Algiers_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Battle of Algiers (film)">The Battle of Algiers</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Gillo_Pontecorvo" title="Gillo Pontecorvo">Gillo Pontecorvo</a> (1966). It was banned in France for five years.</li> <li><i>Elise ou la vraie vie</i> by Michel Drach (1970).</li> <li><i>Avoir 20 ans dans les Aurès</i> by René Vautier (1972).</li> <li><i>La Guerre d'Algérie</i>, a documentary film by <a href="/wiki/Yves_Courri%C3%A8re" title="Yves Courrière">Yves Courrière</a> (1972). The title translates to "The Algerian War".</li> <li><i>R.A.S</i> by <a href="/wiki/Yves_Boisset" title="Yves Boisset">Yves Boisset</a> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Reeds" title="Wild Reeds">Wild Reeds</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_T%C3%A9chin%C3%A9" title="André Téchiné">André Téchiné</a> (1994)</li> <li>"Deserter" by Martin Huberty (2002)</li> <li><i>La Trahison</i> by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Faucon" title="Philippe Faucon">Philippe Faucon</a> (2005). Adapted from a novel by Claude Sales on the presence of Muslim soldiers in the French Army. The title translates to, "The Treason".</li> <li><i>Nuit noire</i> by Alain Tasma (2005). On the <a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a>. The title translates to "Black Night".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cach%C3%A9_(film)" title="Caché (film)">Caché</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Haneke" title="Michael Haneke">Michael Haneke</a> (2005) On the <a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a>. The movie is often known in English by its French name's translation, "Hidden".</li> <li><i>Harkis</i> by Alain Tasma (2006). The title refers to <a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">ethnically Algerian French</a> <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (military)">military auxiliaries</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mon_colonel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon colonel">Mon colonel</a></i> by Laurent Herbier (2007). The title translates to "My <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">Colonel</a>".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/L%27Ennemi_Intime" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Ennemi Intime">L'Ennemi Intime</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Florent_Emilio_Siri" class="mw-redirect" title="Florent Emilio Siri">Florent Emilio Siri</a> (2007). Scenario by Patrick Rotman which depicts the use of <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">Napalm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StoraSiri_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StoraSiri-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cartouches_Gauloises" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartouches Gauloises">Cartouches Gauloises</a></i> by Mehdi Charef (2007)</li> <li><i>Balcon sur la mer</i> by Nicole Garcia (2010). About the adult lives of two children who survive the siege of Oran. The title translates to, "Balcony on the Ocean".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Outside_the_Law_(2010_film)" title="Outside the Law (2010 film)">Outside the Law</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Rachid_Bouchareb" title="Rachid Bouchareb">Rachid Bouchareb</a> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Valise_ou_le_Cercueil" title="La Valise ou le Cercueil">La Valise ou le Cercueil</a></i> (2011). French documentary film.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ce_que_le_jour_doit_%C3%A0_la_nuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Ce que le jour doit à la nuit">Ce que le jour doit à la nuit</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Arcady" title="Alexandre Arcady">Alexandre Arcady</a> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Far_from_Men" title="Far from Men">Far from Men</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/David_Oelhoffen" title="David Oelhoffen">David Oelhoffen</a> (2014). Based on the short story <a href="/wiki/The_Guest_(short_story)" title="The Guest (short story)">The Guest</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" 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class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:1950s" title="Portal:1950s">1950s portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/32px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/48px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/64px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="361" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:1960s" title="Portal:1960s">1960s portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Kaminsky" title="Adolfo Kaminsky">Adolfo Kaminsky</a>, forger who worked for the FLN to make false IDs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon_War" title="Cameroon War">Cameroon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France and weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_in_the_colonies_(1939%E2%80%931962)" title="History of the Armée de l'Air in the colonies (1939–1962)">History of the Armée de l'Air in the colonies (1939–1962)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Algeria)" title="Independence Day (Algeria)">Independence Day (Algeria)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_121" title="Manifesto of the 121">Manifesto of the 121</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_governors_of_Algeria" title="List of French governors of Algeria">List of French governors of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الثورة الجزائرية</span> <i><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Thawra al-Jaza'iriyah</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Guerre d'Algérie</i></i> (and sometimes in Algeria as the <i>War of 1 November</i>)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hargreaves2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hargreaves2005_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlec_G._Hargreaves2005" class="citation book cs1">Alec G. Hargreaves (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UX8aeX_Lbi4C&pg=PA1"><i>Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0821-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0821-5"><bdi>978-0-7391-0821-5</bdi></a>. <q>The death knell of the French empire was sounded by the bitterly fought Algerian war of independence, which ended in 1962.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memory%2C+Empire%2C+and+Postcolonialism%3A+Legacies+of+French+Colonialism&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-0821-5&rft.au=Alec+G.+Hargreaves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUX8aeX_Lbi4C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The French defeat in the war effectively signaled the end of the French Empire". Jo McCormack (2010). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DbnhuiJ8pEgC&pg=PA1">Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War (1954–1962)</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_AllatsonJo_McCormack2008" class="citation book cs1">Paul Allatson; Jo McCormack (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DaLkNE_20a0C&pg=PA117"><i>Exile Cultures, Misplaced Identities</i></a>. Rodopi. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2406-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2406-9"><bdi>978-90-420-2406-9</bdi></a>. <q>The Algerian War came to an end in 1962, and with it closed some 130 years of French colonial presence in Algeria (and North Africa). With this outcome, the French Empire, celebrated in pomp in Paris in the Exposition coloniale of 1931 ... received its decisive death blow.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exile+Cultures%2C+Misplaced+Identities&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-420-2406-9&rft.au=Paul+Allatson&rft.au=Jo+McCormack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDaLkNE_20a0C%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beigbeder2006-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beigbeder2006_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYves_Beigbeder2006" class="citation book cs1">Yves Beigbeder (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtaU8_z2SngC&pg=PA35"><i>Judging War Crimes And Torture: French Justice And International Criminal Tribunals And Commissions (1940–2005)</i></a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5"><bdi>978-90-04-15329-5</bdi></a>. <q>The independence of Algeria in 1962, after a long and bitter war, marked the end of the French Empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+War+Crimes+And+Torture%3A+French+Justice+And+International+Criminal+Tribunals+And+Commissions+%281940%E2%80%932005%29&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15329-5&rft.au=Yves+Beigbeder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZtaU8_z2SngC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hm-uBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT111"><i>France's Colonial Legacies: Memory, Identity and Narrative</i></a>. University of Wales Press. 15 October 2013. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78316-585-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78316-585-8"><bdi>978-1-78316-585-8</bdi></a>. <q>The difficult relationship which France has with the period of history dominated by the Algerian war has been well documented. The reluctance, which ended only in 1999, to acknowledge 'les évenements' as a war, the shame over the fate of the <i>harki</i> detachments, the amnesty covering many of the deeds committed during the war and the humiliation of a colonial defeat which marked the end of the French empire are just some of the reasons why France has preferred to look towards a Eurocentric future, rather than confront the painful aspects of its colonial past.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%27s+Colonial+Legacies%3A+Memory%2C+Identity+and+Narrative&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2013-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-78316-585-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHm-uBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Windrow-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Windrow_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Windrow_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindrowChappell1997" class="citation book cs1">Windrow, Martin; Chappell, Mike (1997). <i>The Algerian War 1954–62</i>. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781855326583" title="Special:BookSources/9781855326583"><bdi>9781855326583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Algerian+War+1954%E2%80%9362&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781855326583&rft.aulast=Windrow&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Chappell%2C+Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOttawayOttaway2022" class="citation book cs1">Ottaway, David; Ottaway, Marina (25 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq1hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31"><i>Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution</i></a>. Univ of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-35711-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-35711-2"><bdi>978-0-520-35711-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq1hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algeria%3A+The+Politics+of+a+Socialist+Revolution&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2022-03-25&rft.isbn=978-0-520-35711-2&rft.aulast=Ottaway&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ottaway%2C+Marina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDq1hEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stora-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stora_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStora2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Stora, Benjamin</a> (2004). <i>Algeria 1830-2000: A Short History</i>. Cornell University Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8916-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8916-4"><bdi>0-8014-8916-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algeria+1830-2000%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8014-8916-4&rft.aulast=Stora&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General Faivre, <i>Les combatants musulmans de la guerre d'Algérie</i>, L'Harmattan, 1995, p.125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Major_Gregory_D_p.33-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Major_Gregory_D_p.33_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Major_Gregory_D_p.33_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Major Gregory D. Peterson, <i>The French Experience in Algeria, 1954–62: Blueprint for U.S. Operations in Iraq</i>, p.33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2012/03/19/10001-20120319ARTFIG00743-algerie-une-guerre-d-appeles.php">"Algérie : Une guerre d'appelés"</a>. <i>Le Figaro</i>. 19 March 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000441/http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2012/03/19/10001-20120319ARTFIG00743-algerie-une-guerre-d-appeles.php">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Figaro&rft.atitle=Alg%C3%A9rie+%3A+Une+guerre+d%27appel%C3%A9s&rft.date=2012-03-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lefigaro.fr%2Fmon-figaro%2F2012%2F03%2F19%2F10001-20120319ARTFIG00743-algerie-une-guerre-d-appeles.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTravis2013" class="citation book cs1">Travis, Hannibal (2013). <i>Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945</i>. Routledge. p. 137.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%2C+Ethnonationalism%2C+and+the+United+Nations%3A+Exploring+the+Causes+of+Mass+Killing+Since+1945&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Travis&rft.aufirst=Hannibal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_S._AlexanderMartin_EvansJ._F._V._Keiger2002" class="citation book cs1">Martin S. Alexander; Martin Evans; J. F. V. Keiger (2002). "The 'War without a Name', the French Army and the Algerians: Recovering Experiences, Images and Testimonies". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.macmillanihe.com/resources/sample-chapters/9780333774564_sample.pdf"><i>Algerian War and the French Army, 1954-62: Experiences, Images, Testimonies</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333774564" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333774564"><bdi>978-0333774564</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210408065822/https://www.macmillanihe.com/resources/sample-chapters/9780333774564_sample.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2020</span>. <q>The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans gives the figure of 152,863 FLN killed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%27War+without+a+Name%27%2C+the+French+Army+and+the+Algerians%3A+Recovering+Experiences%2C+Images+and+Testimonies&rft.btitle=Algerian+War+and+the+French+Army%2C+1954-62%3A+Experiences%2C+Images%2C+Testimonies&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0333774564&rft.au=Martin+S.+Alexander&rft.au=Martin+Evans&rft.au=J.+F.+V.+Keiger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillanihe.com%2Fresources%2Fsample-chapters%2F9780333774564_sample.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatherine_Draper2013" class="citation journal cs1">Katherine Draper (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161107072951/http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/48/num3/Draper575.pdf">"Why a War Without a Name May Need One: Policy-Based Application of International Humanitarian Law in the Algerian War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Texas International Law Journal</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 576. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/48/num3/Draper575.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 November 2016. <q>The Algerian Ministry of War Veterans calculates 152,863 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) deaths (French sources), and although the death toll among Algerian civilians may never be accurately known estimate of 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 were killed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+International+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Why+a+War+Without+a+Name+May+Need+One%3A+Policy-Based+Application+of+International+Humanitarian+Law+in+the+Algerian+War&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=576&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Katherine+Draper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tilj.org%2Fcontent%2Fjournal%2F48%2Fnum3%2FDraper575.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horne-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horne_15-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne1978" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Alistair (1978). <i>A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962</i>. New York Review of Books. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590172186" title="Special:BookSources/9781590172186"><bdi>9781590172186</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace%3A+Algeria+1954%E2%80%931962&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9781590172186&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeigbeder2006" class="citation book cs1">Beigbeder, Yves (1 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JEywCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99"><i>Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940-2005)</i></a>. BRILL. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-1070-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-1070-6"><bdi>978-90-474-1070-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521145648/https://books.google.com/books?id=JEywCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+War+Crimes+and+Torture%3A+French+Justice+and+International+Criminal+Tribunals+and+Commissions+%281940-2005%29&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2006-09-01&rft.isbn=978-90-474-1070-6&rft.aulast=Beigbeder&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJEywCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/284485-emmanuel-macron-60eme-anniversaire-accords-devian-guerre-dalgerie">"Déclaration de M. Emmanuel Macron, président de la République, sur le 60ème anniversaire des accords d'Évian et la guerre d'Algérie, à Paris le 19 mars 2022"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221201034558/https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/284485-emmanuel-macron-60eme-anniversaire-accords-devian-guerre-dalgerie">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=D%C3%A9claration+de+M.+Emmanuel+Macron%2C+pr%C3%A9sident+de+la+R%C3%A9publique%2C+sur+le+60%C3%A8me+anniversaire+des+accords+d%27%C3%89vian+et+la+guerre+d%27Alg%C3%A9rie%2C+%C3%A0+Paris+le+19+mars+2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vie-publique.fr%2Fdiscours%2F284485-emmanuel-macron-60eme-anniversaire-accords-devian-guerre-dalgerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapleton,_T.J.2013" class="citation book cs1">Stapleton, T.J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtDAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA272"><i>A Military History of Africa</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313395703" title="Special:BookSources/9780313395703"><bdi>9780313395703</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521145651/https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtDAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA272">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=1-272&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780313395703&rft.au=Stapleton%2C+T.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXvtDAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict: Po – Z</i>, index. 3, Academic Press, 1999 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780122270109" title="Special:BookSources/9780122270109">9780122270109</a>, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crandall, R., <i>America's Dirty Wars: Irregular Warfare from 1776 to the War on Terror</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2014 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139915823" title="Special:BookSources/9781139915823">9781139915823</a>, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-civilians-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-civilians_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-civilians_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">From <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/algeria-war-of-independence/#Fatalities">"Algeria: War of independence"</a>. <i>Mass Atrocity Endings</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514194611/https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/algeria-war-of-independence/#Fatalities">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mass+Atrocity+Endings&rft.atitle=Algeria%3A+War+of+independence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.tufts.edu%2Fatrocityendings%2F2015%2F08%2F07%2Falgeria-war-of-independence%2F%23Fatalities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span>: <blockquote><p>He also argues that the least controversial of all the numbers put forward by various groups are those concerning the French soldiers, where government numbers are largely accepted as sound. Most controversial are the numbers of civilians killed. On this subject, he turns to the work of Meynier, who, citing French army documents (not the official number) posits the range of 55,000–60,000 deaths. Meynier further argues that the best number to capture the harkis deaths is 30,000. If we add to this, the number of European civilians, which government figures posit as 2,788.</p></blockquote> <p>Meynier's work cited was: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeynier2024" class="citation journal cs1">Meynier, Gilbert (15 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2003-4-page-205.htm">"Histoire intérieure du FLN. 1954–1962"</a>. <i>Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine</i>. <b>50–4</b> (4): 205–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhmc.504.0205">10.3917/rhmc.504.0205</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160813025419/https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2003-4-page-205.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27Histoire+Moderne+%26+Contemporaine&rft.atitle=Histoire+int%C3%A9rieure+du+FLN.+1954%E2%80%931962&rft.volume=50-4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=205-206&rft.date=2024-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Frhmc.504.0205&rft.aulast=Meynier&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2003-4-page-205.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span> </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-democide-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-democide_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-democide_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-democide_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="democide" class="citation web cs1">Rummel, Rudolph J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1B.GIF">"STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources"</a>. <i>Table 14.1 B; row 664</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210217203225/https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1B.GIF">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Table+14.1+B%3B+row+664&rft.atitle=STATISTICS+OF+DEMOCIDE+Chapter+14+THE+HORDE+OF+CENTI-KILO+MURDERERS+Estimates%2C+Calculations%2C+And+Sources&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawaii.edu%2Fpowerkills%2FSOD.TAB14.1B.GIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-democide2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-democide2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-democide2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="democide" class="citation web cs1">Rummel, Rudolph J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1B.GIF">"STATISTICS OF DEMOCIDE Chapter 14 THE HORDE OF CENTI-KILO MURDERERS Estimates, Calculations, And Sources"</a>. <i>Table 14.1 B; row 694</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210217203225/https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1B.GIF">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Table+14.1+B%3B+row+694&rft.atitle=STATISTICS+OF+DEMOCIDE+Chapter+14+THE+HORDE+OF+CENTI-KILO+MURDERERS+Estimates%2C+Calculations%2C+And+Sources&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawaii.edu%2Fpowerkills%2FSOD.TAB14.1B.GIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-France_NICOLAS_SARKOZY_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/20120316-commemorations-mark-end-algerian-war-independence-france-evian-accords">"France remembers the Algerian War, 50 years on"</a>. 16 March 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207034209/http://www.france24.com/en/20120316-commemorations-mark-end-algerian-war-independence-france-evian-accords">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=France+remembers+the+Algerian+War%2C+50+years+on&rft.date=2012-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20120316-commemorations-mark-end-algerian-war-independence-france-evian-accords&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google4-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google4_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutts,_M.Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees2000" class="citation book cs1">Cutts, M.; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=54Oe1WTfBfAC&pg=PA38"><i>The State of the World's Refugees, 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199241040" title="Special:BookSources/9780199241040"><bdi>9780199241040</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521145730/https://books.google.com/books?id=54Oe1WTfBfAC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+of+the+World%27s+Refugees%2C+2000%3A+Fifty+Years+of+Humanitarian+Action&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780199241040&rft.au=Cutts%2C+M.&rft.au=Office+of+the+United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D54Oe1WTfBfAC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span> Referring to Evans, Martin. 2012. <i>Algeria: France's Undeclared War</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Hobson, Faure L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_AJ_422_0067--the-migration-of-jews-from-algeria-to.htm">"The Migration of Jews from Algeria to France: An Opportunity for French Jews to Recover Their Independence in the Face of American Judaism in Postwar France?"</a>. <i>Archives Juives</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 67–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Faj.422.0067">10.3917/aj.422.0067</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221013024314/https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_AJ_422_0067--the-migration-of-jews-from-algeria-to.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+Juives&rft.atitle=The+Migration+of+Jews+from+Algeria+to+France%3A+An+Opportunity+for+French+Jews+to+Recover+Their+Independence+in+the+Face+of+American+Judaism+in+Postwar+France%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-81&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Faj.422.0067&rft.aulast=Hobson&rft.aufirst=Faure+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn-int.info%2Farticle-E_AJ_422_0067--the-migration-of-jews-from-algeria-to.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fabien-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fabien_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fabien_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">SACRISTE Fabien, « Les « regroupements » de la guerre d'Algérie, des « villages stratégiques » ? », Critique internationale, 2018/2 (N° 79), p. 25-43. DOI : 10.3917/crii.079.0025. URL : <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2018-2-page-25.htm">https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2018-2-page-25.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220516092842/https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2018-2-page-25.htm">Archived</a> 16 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/algeria/55.htm">"Algeria – The Revolution and Social Change"</a>. countrystudies.us. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012751/http://countrystudies.us/algeria/55.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algeria+%E2%80%93+The+Revolution+and+Social+Change&rft.pub=countrystudies.us&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Falgeria%2F55.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vic-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vic_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_James_Connelly2002" class="citation book cs1">Matthew James Connelly (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I9ffptE_r4YC&pg=PA263"><i>A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-cold War Era</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 263–277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514513-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514513-7"><bdi>978-0-19-514513-7</bdi></a>. <q>The Algerians' victory enabled the French to become free--free from their colonial charges, and free from the United States....... Although France was obviously eager to get out, it had to accept the terms of its defeat.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Diplomatic+Revolution%3A+Algeria%27s+Fight+for+Independence+and+the+Origins+of+the+Post-cold+War+Era&rft.pages=263-277&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514513-7&rft.au=Matthew+James+Connelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI9ffptE_r4YC%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span><br /><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Malley1996" class="citation book cs1">Robert Malley (20 November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DYUD5v52CNUC&pg=PA81"><i>The Call From Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91702-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91702-6"><bdi>978-0-520-91702-6</bdi></a>. <q>Then, in 1962, came the FLN's victory in Algeria, a defining moment in the history of the Third Worldism, for the battle had lasted so long, had been so violent, and had been won by a movement so acutely aware of its international dimension.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Call+From+Algeria%3A+Third+Worldism%2C+Revolution%2C+and+the+Turn+to+Islam&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996-11-20&rft.isbn=978-0-520-91702-6&rft.au=Robert+Malley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDYUD5v52CNUC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span><br /><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuud_van_DijkWilliam_Glenn_GraySvetlana_Savranskaya2013" class="citation book cs1">Ruud van Dijk; William Glenn Gray; Svetlana Savranskaya (13 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QgX0bQ3Enj4C&pg=PA16"><i>Encyclopedia of the Cold War</i></a>. Routledge. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92311-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92311-2"><bdi>978-1-135-92311-2</bdi></a>. <q>During this war of independence, Algeria was at the center of world politics. The FLN's victory made the country one of the most prominent in the Third World during the 1960s and 1970s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft.isbn=978-1-135-92311-2&rft.au=Ruud+van+Dijk&rft.au=William+Glenn+Gray&rft.au=Svetlana+Savranskaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQgX0bQ3Enj4C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Pervill%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="fr:Guy Pervillé">Guy Pervillé</a>, <i>Pour une histoire de la guerre d´Algérie</i>, chap. "Une double guerre civile", Picard, 2002, pp.132–139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-toto.lib.unca.edu-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-toto.lib.unca.edu_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_Brannum" class="citation web cs1">Keith Brannum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141026154518/http://toto.lib.unca.edu/sr_papers/history_sr/srhistory_2012/brannum_keith.pdf">"The Victory Without Laurels: The French Military Tragedy in Algeria (1954–1962)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Asheville" class="mw-redirect" title="University of North Carolina Asheville">University of North Carolina Asheville</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toto.lib.unca.edu/sr_papers/history_sr/srhistory_2012/brannum_keith.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Victory+Without+Laurels%3A+The+French+Military+Tragedy+in+Algeria+%281954%E2%80%931962%29&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Asheville&rft.au=Keith+Brannum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftoto.lib.unca.edu%2Fsr_papers%2Fhistory_sr%2Fsrhistory_2012%2Fbrannum_keith.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.fr-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.fr_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin_M._Wall2001" class="citation book cs1">Irwin M. Wall (20 July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4pCqdooCE14C"><i>France, the United States, and the Algerian War</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 68–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520925687" title="Special:BookSources/9780520925687"><bdi>9780520925687</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+the+Algerian+War&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001-07-20&rft.isbn=9780520925687&rft.au=Irwin+M.+Wall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4pCqdooCE14C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stora2004-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stora2004_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin_Stora2004" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin Stora (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_-5XTVKW08C&pg=PA87"><i>Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8916-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8916-4"><bdi>0-8014-8916-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algeria%2C+1830-2000%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8014-8916-4&rft.au=Benjamin+Stora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx_-5XTVKW08C%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bulow2016-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bulow2016_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathilde_Von_Bulow2016" class="citation book cs1">Mathilde Von Bulow (22 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cezNDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170"><i>West Germany, Cold War Europe and the Algerian War</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08859-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08859-7"><bdi>978-1-107-08859-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=West+Germany%2C+Cold+War+Europe+and+the+Algerian+War&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-08-22&rft.isbn=978-1-107-08859-7&rft.au=Mathilde+Von+Bulow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcezNDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStora2004" class="citation book cs1">Stora, Benjamin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_-5XTVKW08C&q=79"><i>Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801489167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801489167"><bdi>978-0801489167</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algeria%2C+1830-2000%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0801489167&rft.aulast=Stora&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx_-5XTVKW08C%26q%3D79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google5-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google5_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPervillé,_G.2012" class="citation book cs1">Pervillé, G. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NfURJK60geEC&pg=PP73"><i>Les accords d'Evian (1962): Succès ou échec de la réconciliation franco-algérienne (1954–2012)</i></a>. Armand Colin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782200281977" title="Special:BookSources/9782200281977"><bdi>9782200281977</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+accords+d%27Evian+%281962%29%3A+Succ%C3%A8s+ou+%C3%A9chec+de+la+r%C3%A9conciliation+franco-alg%C3%A9rienne+%281954%E2%80%932012%29&rft.pub=Armand+Colin&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9782200281977&rft.au=Pervill%C3%A9%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNfURJK60geEC%26pg%3DPP73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-un_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/french/documents/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1573%28XV%29&Lang=F">"Document officiel des Nations Unies"</a>. un.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200627101936/https://www.un.org/french/documents/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1573(XV)&Lang=F">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Document+officiel+des+Nations+Unies&rft.pub=un.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Ffrench%2Fdocuments%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F1573%2528XV%2529%26Lang%3DF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-france-politique-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-france-politique_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.france-politique.fr/referendum-1962-algerie.htm">"référendum 1962 Algérie"</a>. france-politique.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170704092900/http://www.france-politique.fr/referendum-1962-algerie.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rendum+1962+Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.pub=france-politique.fr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france-politique.fr%2Freferendum-1962-algerie.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/001/FP3.pdf">"Proclamation des résultats du référendum d'autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal Officiel de l'État Algérien</i>. 6 July 1962. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181231010605/http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/001/FP3.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Officiel+de+l%27%C3%89tat+Alg%C3%A9rien&rft.atitle=Proclamation+des+r%C3%A9sultats+du+r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rendum+d%27autod%C3%A9termination+du+1er+juillet+1962&rft.date=1962-07-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.joradp.dz%2FJO6283%2F1962%2F001%2FFP3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1982/11/BALTA/37021">"Ombres et lumières de la révolution algérienne"</a>. <i>Le Monde diplomatique</i> (in French). 1 November 1982. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929091404/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1982/11/BALTA/37021">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde+diplomatique&rft.atitle=Ombres+et+lumi%C3%A8res+de+la+r%C3%A9volution+alg%C3%A9rienne&rft.date=1982-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monde-diplomatique.fr%2F1982%2F11%2FBALTA%2F37021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kevin_Shillington-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kevin_Shillington_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kevin_Shillington_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Shillington2013" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Shillington (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60"><i>Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set</i></a>. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2"><bdi>978-1-135-45670-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2022</span>. <q>The Algerian war for independence had lasted eight years. More than 8,000 villages had been destroyed in the fighting. Some three million people were displaced, and more than one million Algerians and some 10,000 colons lost their lives.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History+3-Volume+Set&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45670-2&rft.au=Kevin+Shillington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumyHqvAErOAC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aoudjit-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aoudjit_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdelkader_Aoudjit2010" class="citation book cs1">Abdelkader Aoudjit (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179"><i>The Algerian Novel and Colonial Discourse: Witnessing to a Différend</i></a>. Peter Lang. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781433110740" title="Special:BookSources/9781433110740"><bdi>9781433110740</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161116/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>. <q>From 1957 to 1960 more than two million Algerians were thus relocated, leaving behind their houses. crops, and livestock, and over 800 villages were destroyed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Algerian+Novel+and+Colonial+Discourse%3A+Witnessing+to+a+Diff%C3%A9rend&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781433110740&rft.au=Abdelkader+Aoudjit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ztnVsIiefwC%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Évian accords, Chapitre II, partie A, article 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html">http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024034/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html">Archived</a> 7 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and Pierre Daum's "The Last Taboo: Harkis Who Stayed in Algeria After 1962". November 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Mansel, <i>Paris Between Empires - Monarchy and Revolutions 1814–1852</i>, St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003 (2001), pp. 231–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grandmaison-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grandmaison_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier_Le_Cour_Grandmaison2001" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Le_Cour_Grandmaison" title="Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison">Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison</a> (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/2001/06/11torture2">"Torture in Algeria: Past Acts That Haunt France – Liberty, Equality and Colony"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200602124929/https://mondediplo.com/2001/06/11torture2">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde+diplomatique&rft.atitle=Torture+in+Algeria%3A+Past+Acts+That+Haunt+France+%E2%80%93+Liberty%2C+Equality+and+Colony&rft.date=2001-06&rft.au=Olivier+Le+Cour+Grandmaison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmondediplo.com%2F2001%2F06%2F11torture2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span> (quoting <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, <i>Travail sur l'Algérie</i> in <i>Œuvres complètes</i>, Paris, Gallimard, <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_de_la_Pl%C3%A9iade" title="Bibliothèque de la Pléiade">Bibliothèque de la Pléiade</a>, 1991, pp 704 and 705.<span class="languageicon">(in English and French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaller2010" class="citation book cs1">Schaller, Dominik J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEcTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA356">"Genocide and Mass Violence in the 'Heart of Darkness': Africa in the Colonial Period"</a>. In Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 356. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923211-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923211-6"><bdi>978-0-19-923211-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+Mass+Violence+in+the+%27Heart+of+Darkness%27%3A+Africa+in+the+Colonial+Period&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Genocide+Studies&rft.pages=356&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923211-6&rft.aulast=Schaller&rft.aufirst=Dominik+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbEcTDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJalata2016" class="citation book cs1">Jalata, Asafa (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92"><i>Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 92–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-55234-1"><bdi>978-1-137-55234-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160439/https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2017</span>. <q>Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phases+of+Terrorism+in+the+Age+of+Globalization%3A+From+Christopher+Columbus+to+Osama+bin+Laden&rft.pages=92-3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-55234-1&rft.aulast=Jalata&rft.aufirst=Asafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSCjxCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiernan2007-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2007_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2007_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326"><i>Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364">364</a>–ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10098-3"><bdi>978-0-300-10098-3</bdi></a>. <q>In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=364-ff&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10098-3&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbloodan_kie_2007_00_0326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennoune2002" class="citation book cs1">Bennoune, Mahfoud (22 August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42"><i>The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521524322" title="Special:BookSources/9780521524322"><bdi>9780521524322</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160440/https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Contemporary+Algeria%2C+1830-1987&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-08-22&rft.isbn=9780521524322&rft.aulast=Bennoune&rft.aufirst=Mahfoud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nXl7h8i5scC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"L'indigène musulman est français; néanmoins il continuera à être régi par la loi musulmane. Il peut être admis à servir dans les armées de terre et de mer. Il peut être appelé à des fonctions et emplois civils en Algérie. Il peut, sur sa demande, être admis à jouir des droits de citoyen français; dans ce cas, il est régi par les lois civiles et politiques de la France" (article 1 of the 1865 <a href="/wiki/Code_de_l%27indig%C3%A9nat" class="mw-redirect" title="Code de l'indigénat">Code de l'indigénat</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indigenous-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indigenous_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indigenous_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article527">le code de l'indigénat dans l'Algérie coloniale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070314151739/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article527">Archived</a> 2007-03-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_League_(France)" title="Human Rights League (France)">Human Rights League</a></i> (LDH), March 6, 2005 – URL accessed on January 17, 2007 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gianluca P. Parolin, <i>Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation</i>, Amsterdam University Press, 2009, pp. 94–95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article297">les tirailleurs, bras armé de la France coloniale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070314151757/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article297">Archived</a> 2007-03-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_League_(France)" title="Human Rights League (France)">Human Rights League</a></i> (LDH), August 25, 2004 – URL accessed on January 17, 2007 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970501050510/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc31.htm">"Interpretation of President Wilson's Fourteen Points"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc31.htm">the original</a> on 1 May 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interpretation+of+President+Wilson%27s+Fourteen+Points&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fdoc31.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane1995" class="citation book cs1">Lane, A. Thomas (1 December 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VlR8YCE8lkQC&q=the+Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale+du+travail+unitaire+(CGTU),+joined+the+following+year&pg=PA352"><i>Biographical Dictionary of European Labor Leaders</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313264566" title="Special:BookSources/9780313264566"><bdi>9780313264566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+European+Labor+Leaders&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995-12-01&rft.isbn=9780313264566&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=A.+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVlR8YCE8lkQC%26q%3Dthe%2BConf%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ration%2Bg%25C3%25A9n%25C3%25A9rale%2Bdu%2Btravail%2Bunitaire%2B%28CGTU%29%2C%2Bjoined%2Bthe%2Bfollowing%2Byear%26pg%3DPA352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-setif-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-setif_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-setif_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeyroulou2008" class="citation web cs1">Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre (21 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945">"Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945)"</a>. Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180409043956/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/le-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+cas+de+S%C3%A9tif-Kherrata-Guelma+%28Mai+1945%29&rft.pub=Violence+de+masse+et+R%C3%A9sistance+-+R%C3%A9seau+de+recherche&rft.date=2008-03-21&rft.aulast=Peyroulou&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Ffr%2Fdocument%2Fle-cas-de-sa-tif-kherrata-guelma-mai-1945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNgoc_H._Huynh2016" class="citation web cs1">Ngoc H. Huynh (5 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1241&context=curej">"The Time-Honored Friendship: A History of Vietnamese-Algerian Relations (1946-2015) Relations (1946-2015)"</a>. University of Pennsylvania. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200810204807/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1241&context=curej">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Time-Honored+Friendship%3A+A+History+of+Vietnamese-Algerian+Relations+%281946-2015%29+Relations+%281946-2015%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.date=2016-01-05&rft.au=Ngoc+H.+Huynh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1241%26context%3Dcurej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/39-algerian-war.html">"UQAM | Guerre d'Indochine | ALGERIAN WAR"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725041101/http://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/39-algerian-war.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UQAM+%26%23124%3B+Guerre+d%27Indochine+%26%23124%3B+ALGERIAN+WAR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findochine.uqam.ca%2Fen%2Fhistorical-dictionary%2F39-algerian-war.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization">"Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150509014941/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Colonial+Empires+after+the+War%2FDecolonization+%26%23124%3B+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War+%28WW1%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fcolonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boisset-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boisset_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boisset_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Alger-Bagdad", account of <a href="/wiki/Yves_Boisset" title="Yves Boisset">Yves Boisset</a>'s film documentary, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Algiers_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Battle of Algiers (film)">La Bataille d'Algers</a></i> (2006), in <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Canard_encha%C3%AEn%C3%A9" title="Le Canard enchaîné">Le Canard enchaîné</a></i>, January 10, 2007, n°4498, p.7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrantz_Fanon1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a> (1961). <i><a href="/wiki/Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="Wretched of the Earth">Wretched of the Earth</a></i>. François Maspero.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wretched+of+the+Earth&rft.pub=Fran%C3%A7ois+Maspero&rft.date=1961&rft.au=Frantz+Fanon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussey2013" class="citation news cs1">Hussey, Andrew (27 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/27/algeria-france-colonial-past-islam">"Algiers: a city where France is the promised land – and still the enemy"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2013</span>. <q>Meanwhile, Muslim villages were destroyed and whole populations forced to move to accommodate European farms and industry. As the pieds-noirs grew in number and status, the native Algerians, who had no nationality under French law, did not officially exist.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Algiers%3A+a+city+where+France+is+the+promised+land+%E2%80%93+and+still+the+enemy&rft.date=2013-01-27&rft.aulast=Hussey&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fjan%2F27%2Falgeria-france-colonial-past-islam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gers-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gers_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gers_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gers.pref.gouv.fr/acvg/documents/reperesalger.htm">Number given by the</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219113643/http://www.gers.pref.gouv.fr/acvg/documents/reperesalger.htm">Archived</a> February 19, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Prefectures_in_France" title="Prefectures in France">Préfecture</a> du <a href="/wiki/Gers" title="Gers">Gers</a>, French governmental site – URL accessed on February 17, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_66-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, William (2002). "The Algerian War, the French State and Official Memory". <i>Réflexions Historiques</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 219–239. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41299235">41299235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=R%C3%A9flexions+Historiques&rft.atitle=The+Algerian+War%2C+the+French+State+and+Official+Memory&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-239&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41299235%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/16/algeria-france-war-macron-apology-murder-michele-audin-interview">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'My father was tortured and murdered in Algeria. At last France has admitted it'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/TheGuardian.com" class="mw-redirect" title="TheGuardian.com">TheGuardian.com</a></i>. 16 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheGuardian.com&rft.atitle=%27My+father+was+tortured+and+murdered+in+Algeria.+At+last+France+has+admitted+it%27&rft.date=2018-09-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fsep%2F16%2Falgeria-france-war-macron-apology-murder-michele-audin-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulClarkeGrillDunigan2013" class="citation cs2">Paul, Christopher; Clarke, Colin P.; Grill, Beth; Dunigan, Molly (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.16">"Algerian Independence, 1954–1962: Case Outcome: COIN Loss"</a>, <i>Paths to Victory</i>, Detailed Insurgency Case Studies, RAND Corporation, pp. 75–93, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-8109-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-8109-4"><bdi>978-0-8330-8109-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.16">10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.16</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230321173223/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.16">archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paths+to+Victory&rft.atitle=Algerian+Independence%2C+1954%E2%80%931962%3A+Case+Outcome%3A+COIN+Loss&rft.pages=75-93&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7249%2Fj.ctt5hhsjk.16%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-8109-4&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Clarke%2C+Colin+P.&rft.au=Grill%2C+Beth&rft.au=Dunigan%2C+Molly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7249%2Fj.ctt5hhsjk.16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StoraSiri-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StoraSiri_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StoraSiri_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a>, "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Histoire" title="L'Histoire">L'Histoire</a></i> n°324, October 2007, pp.28–29 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPimlott1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Pimlott_(historian)" title="John Pimlott (historian)">Pimlott, John</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armedforcesmoder0000unse/page/66">"The French Army: From Indochina to Chad, 1946–1984"</a>. In Beckett, Ian F. W.; Pimlott, John (eds.). <i>Armed Forces & Modern Counter-Insurgency</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/St_Martin%27s_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="St Martin's Press">St Martin's Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armedforcesmoder0000unse/page/66">66</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04924-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04924-9"><bdi>978-0-312-04924-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+French+Army%3A+From+Indochina+to+Chad%2C+1946%E2%80%931984&rft.btitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Modern+Counter-Insurgency&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-312-04924-9&rft.aulast=Pimlott&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farmedforcesmoder0000unse%2Fpage%2F66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderKieger2002" class="citation journal cs1">Alexander, Martin S.; Kieger, J. F. V. (2002). "France and the Algerian War: Strategy, Operations, and Diplomacy". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Strategic_Studies" title="Journal of Strategic Studies">Journal of Strategic Studies</a></i>. <b>25</b> (2): 6–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402390412331302635">10.1080/01402390412331302635</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154354671">154354671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Strategic+Studies&rft.atitle=France+and+the+Algerian+War%3A+Strategy%2C+Operations%2C+and+Diplomacy&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6-7&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402390412331302635&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154354671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Martin+S.&rft.au=Kieger%2C+J.+F.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Faligot" title="Roger Faligot">Roger Faligot</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pascal_Krop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pascal Krop (page does not exist)">Pascal Krop</a>, <i>DST, Police Secrète</i>, Flammarion, 1999, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cline-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cline_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cline_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCline2005" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Lawrence (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161116130502/http://www.blackwaterusa.com/btw2005/articles/080105counter.pdf"><i>Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons From Other Countries</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Strategic Studies Institute. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584871996" title="Special:BookSources/978-1584871996"><bdi>978-1584871996</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwaterusa.com/btw2005/articles/080105counter.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudo+Operations+and+Counterinsurgency%3A+Lessons+From+Other+Countries&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Strategic+Studies+Institute&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1584871996&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackwaterusa.com%2Fbtw2005%2Farticles%2F080105counter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leulliette-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leulliette_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeulliette1964" class="citation book cs1">Leulliette, Pierre (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stmichaeldrago00leul"><i>St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper</i></a></span>. Houghton Mifflin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=St.+Michael+and+the+Dragon%3A+Memoirs+of+a+Paratrooper&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Leulliette&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstmichaeldrago00leul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shatz-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shatz_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shatz_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shatz_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatz2002" class="citation web cs1">Shatz, Adam (21 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.algeria-watch.org/farticle/analyse/shatz_torture.htm">"The Torture of Algiers"</a>. Algeria-Watch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180515064649/http://www.algeria-watch.org/farticle/analyse/shatz_torture.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Torture+of+Algiers&rft.pub=Algeria-Watch&rft.date=2002-11-21&rft.aulast=Shatz&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algeria-watch.org%2Ffarticle%2Fanalyse%2Fshatz_torture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: "<i>J'ai pris, au nom de la France, la décision que voici: les Algériens auront le libre choix de leur destin. Quand d'une manière ou d'une autre – conclusion d'un cessez-le-feu ou écrasement total des rebelles – nous aurons mis un terme aux combats, quand, ensuite, après une période prolongée d'apaisement, les populations auront pu prendre conscience de l'enjeu et, d'autre part, accomplir, grâce à nous, les progrès nécessaires dans les domaines, politique, économique, social, scolaire, etc., alors ce seront les Algériens qui diront ce qu'ils veulent être. ... Français d'Algérie, comment pouvez-vous écouter les menteurs et les conspirateurs qui vous disent qu'en accordant le libre choix aux Algériens, la France et De Gaulle veulent vous abandonner, se retirer de l'Algérie et vous livrer à la rébellion? ... Je dis à tous nos soldats: votre mission ne comporte ni équivoque, ni interprétation. Vous avez à liquider la force rebelle qui veut chasser la France de l'Algérie et faire régner sur ce pays sa dictature de misère et de stérilité. ... Enfin, je m'adresse à la France. Eh bien! mon cher et vieux pays, nous voici donc ensemble, encore une fois, face à une lourde épreuve. En vertu du mandat que le peuple m'a donné et de la légitimité nationale que j'incarne depuis vingt ans (sic), je demande à tous et à toutes de me soutenir quoi qu'il arrive</i>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ena-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ena_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061023025336/http://www.ena.lu/mce.cfm">"Accueil – CVCE Website - French Army audio archives"</a>. ena.lu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ena.lu/mce.cfm">the original</a> on 23 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Accueil+%E2%80%93+CVCE+Website+-+French+Army+audio+archives&rft.pub=ena.lu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ena.lu%2Fmce.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marxists-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-marxists_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Paul_SartreHenri_Curiel" class="citation web cs1">Jean-Paul Sartre; Henri Curiel; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/france/algerian-war/1960/manifesto-121.htm">"Declaration on the Right to Insubordination in the War in Algeria by 121 French citizens - Manifeste des 121, transl. in English"</a>. marxists.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191120070530/https://www.marxists.org/history/france/algerian-war/1960/manifesto-121.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Declaration+on+the+Right+to+Insubordination+in+the+War+in+Algeria+by+121+French+citizens+-+Manifeste+des+121%2C+transl.+in+English&rft.pub=marxists.org&rft.au=Jean-Paul+Sartre&rft.au=Henri+Curiel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Ffrance%2Falgerian-war%2F1960%2Fmanifesto-121.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-voteresults-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-voteresults_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/ref1961.htm">"Référendum sur l'autodétermination en Algérie"</a>. Université Perpignan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726011708/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/ref1961.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rendum+sur+l%27autod%C3%A9termination+en+Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A9+Perpignan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fref1961.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cairns-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cairns_80-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCairns1962" class="citation journal cs1">Cairns, John (1962). "Algeria: The Last Ordeal". <i>International Journal</i>. <b>17</b> (2 Spring): 87–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002070206201700201">10.1177/002070206201700201</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144891906">144891906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal&rft.atitle=Algeria%3A+The+Last+Ordeal&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2+Spring&rft.pages=87-88&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002070206201700201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144891906%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cairns&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shepard, Todd <i>The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France</i> Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008 page 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontagnon2012" class="citation book cs1">Montagnon, Pierre (2012). <i>L'Armee d' Afrique</i>. Pygmalion. pp. 425–426. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7564-0574-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7564-0574-2"><bdi>978-2-7564-0574-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Armee+d%27+Afrique&rft.pages=425-426&rft.pub=Pygmalion&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-7564-0574-2&rft.aulast=Montagnon&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne1978" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Alistair (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/525"><i>A Savage War of Peace</i></a></span>. New York : Viking Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/525">525</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1"><bdi>978-0-670-61964-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace&rft.pages=525&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Viking+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-670-61964-1&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsavagewarofpeace00horn%2Fpage%2F525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/001/FP3.pdf">"Proclamation des résultats du référendum d'autodétermination du 1er juillet 1962"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal Officiel de l'État Algérien</i>. 6 July 1962. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181231010605/http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/001/FP3.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2009</span>. <q>Total d'inscrits dans les 15 départements : 6.549.736 — Votants : 6.017.800 — Blancs ou nul : 25.565 — Suffrages exprimés : 5.992.115 — OUI : 5.975.581 — NON : 16.534</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Officiel+de+l%27%C3%89tat+Alg%C3%A9rien&rft.atitle=Proclamation+des+r%C3%A9sultats+du+r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rendum+d%27autod%C3%A9termination+du+1er+juillet+1962&rft.date=1962-07-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.joradp.dz%2FJO6283%2F1962%2F001%2FFP3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eberhart, George M. 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Vol. 33 No. 3 (Summer 2010) pp. 445–474, p.445</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlazna2017" class="citation news cs1">Vlazna, Vacy (9 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alethonews.com/2017/11/16/inside-the-battle-of-algiers-memoir-of-a-woman-freedom-fighter-book-review/">"Inside the Battle of Algiers: Memoir of a Woman Freedom Fighter – Book Review"</a>. Palestine Chronicle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728154420/https://alethonews.com/2017/11/16/inside-the-battle-of-algiers-memoir-of-a-woman-freedom-fighter-book-review/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inside+the+Battle+of+Algiers%3A+Memoir+of+a+Woman+Freedom+Fighter+%E2%80%93+Book+Review&rft.date=2017-11-09&rft.aulast=Vlazna&rft.aufirst=Vacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falethonews.com%2F2017%2F11%2F16%2Finside-the-battle-of-algiers-memoir-of-a-woman-freedom-fighter-book-review%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrif2017" class="citation book cs1">Drif, Zohra (2017). <i>Inside the Battle of Algiers: Memoir of a Woman Freedom Fighter</i>. Just World Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1682570753" title="Special:BookSources/978-1682570753"><bdi>978-1682570753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Battle+of+Algiers%3A+Memoir+of+a+Woman+Freedom+Fighter&rft.pub=Just+World+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1682570753&rft.aulast=Drif&rft.aufirst=Zohra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrew2014" class="citation book cs1">Drew, Allison (1 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DfI_CwAAQBAJ&q=Raymonde+Peschard+algerian+martyr&pg=PT241"><i>We Are No Longer in France: Communists in Colonial Algeria</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847799203" title="Special:BookSources/9781847799203"><bdi>9781847799203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Are+No+Longer+in+France%3A+Communists+in+Colonial+Algeria&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-11-01&rft.isbn=9781847799203&rft.aulast=Drew&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDfI_CwAAQBAJ%26q%3DRaymonde%2BPeschard%2Balgerian%2Bmartyr%26pg%3DPT241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaley_Eager2016" class="citation book cs1">Whaley Eager, Paige (2016). <i>From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists: Women and Political Violence</i>. Routledge. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317132288" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317132288"><bdi>978-1317132288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Freedom+Fighters+to+Terrorists%3A+Women+and+Political+Violence&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317132288&rft.aulast=Whaley+Eager&rft.aufirst=Paige&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohlof2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rohlof, Caroline (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=french_honproj">"Reality and Representation of Algerian Women: The Complex Dynamic of Heroines and Repressed Women"</a>. <i>Illinois Wesleyan University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506164350/https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=french_honproj">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Illinois+Wesleyan+University&rft.atitle=Reality+and+Representation+of+Algerian+Women%3A+The+Complex+Dynamic+of+Heroines+and+Repressed+Women&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Rohlof&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.iwu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1006%26context%3Dfrench_honproj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ina-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ina_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=pied+noir&datedif_annee1=1962&num_notice=2&total_notices=36">"Alger Panse Ses Plaies"</a>. ina.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070419233350/http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=pied+noir&datedif_annee1=1962&num_notice=2&total_notices=36">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alger+Panse+Ses+Plaies&rft.pub=ina.fr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ina.fr%2Farchivespourtous%2Findex.php%3Fvue%3Dnotice%26from%3Dfulltext%26full%3Dpied%2Bnoir%26datedif_annee1%3D1962%26num_notice%3D2%26total_notices%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippe Denoix, "Harkis" in Encyclopædia Universalis, 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General Maurice Faivre, <i>Les combattants musulmans de la guerre d'Algérie: des soldats sacrifiés</i>, Editions L'Harmattan, 1995, p.124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On 19 March 1962 Joxe ordered attempts by French officers to transfer Harkis and their families to France to cease, followed by a statement that "the Auxiliary troops landing in the Metropolis in deviation from the general plan will be sent back to Algeria".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Chirac hails Algerians who fought for France", The Telegraph 26 September 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/france-returns-algerian-remains-as-nations-mend-ways/1904563">"France returns Algerian remains as nations mend ways"</a>. <i>www.aa.com.tr</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201130134/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/france-returns-algerian-remains-as-nations-mend-ways/1904563">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aa.com.tr&rft.atitle=France+returns+Algerian+remains+as+nations+mend+ways&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aa.com.tr%2Fen%2Feurope%2Ffrance-returns-algerian-remains-as-nations-mend-ways%2F1904563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/13/france-admits-torture-during-algerias-war-of-independence">"France admits torture during Algeria's war of independence"</a>. <i>www.aljazeera.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201121745/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/13/france-admits-torture-during-algerias-war-of-independence">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.aljazeera.com&rft.atitle=France+admits+torture+during+Algeria%27s+war+of+independence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2018%2F9%2F13%2Ffrance-admits-torture-during-algerias-war-of-independence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pervillé-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pervillé_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy Pervillé, <i>La Guerre d'Algérie</i>, PUF, 2007, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Voir <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://guy.perville.free.fr/spip/article.php3?id_article=74">« Mémoire et histoire de la guerre d'Algérie, de part et d'autre de la Méditerranée »</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422064118/http://guy.perville.free.fr/spip/article.php3?id_article=74">Archived</a> 22 April 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Guy Pervillé, page 157-68 in <i>Confluences Méditerranée</i> (No. 19), automne 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Morgan_(writer)" title="Ted Morgan (writer)">Morgan, Ted</a> (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/17"><i>My Battle of Algiers</i></a>. HarperCollins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/17">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5"><bdi>978-0-06-085224-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Battle+of+Algiers&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-06-085224-5&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmybattleofalgier00morg%2Fpage%2F17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alistair_Horne-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alistair_Horne_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlistair_Horne2012" class="citation book cs1">Alistair Horne (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f4-UHiZTlpMC&pg=PA"><i>A Savage War of Peace Algeria 1954-1962</i></a>. Pan Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4472-3343-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4472-3343-5"><bdi>978-1-4472-3343-5</bdi></a>. <q>It was undeniably and horribly savage , bringing death to an estimated one million Muslim Algerians and the expulsion from their homes of approximately the same number of European settlers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace+Algeria+1954-1962&rft.pub=Pan+Macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4472-3343-5&rft.au=Alistair+Horne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df4-UHiZTlpMC%26pg%3DPA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_P._Forsythe-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-David_P._Forsythe_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_P._Forsythe2009" class="citation book cs1">David P. Forsythe (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=PA37"><i>Encyclopedia of Human Rights</i></a>. OUP USA. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533402-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533402-9"><bdi>978-0-19-533402-9</bdi></a>. <q>Alistair Horne estimates one million Algerians and twenty thousand French were casualties of the war.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Human+Rights&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533402-9&rft.au=David+P.+Forsythe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QbX90fmCVUC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clayton-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clayton_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton2001" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Anthony (2001). <i>Frontiersmen: Warfare In Africa Since 1950</i>. p. 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontiersmen%3A+Warfare+In+Africa+Since+1950&rft.pages=34&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGithens-Mazer2009" class="citation journal cs1">Githens-Mazer, Jonathan (2009). "The Blowback of Repression and the Dynamics of North African Radicalization". <i>International Affairs</i>. <b>85</b> (5): 1015–1029 [pp. 1022–1023]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2009.00844.x">10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00844.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Blowback+of+Repression+and+the+Dynamics+of+North+African+Radicalization&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1015-1029+pp.+1022-1023&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2009.00844.x&rft.aulast=Githens-Mazer&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannibal2013" class="citation book cs1">Hannibal, Travis (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA137"><i>Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945</i></a>. Routledge. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415531252" title="Special:BookSources/9780415531252"><bdi>9780415531252</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%2C+Ethnonationalism%2C+and+the+United+Nations%3A+Exploring+the+Causes+of+Mass+Killing+Since+1945&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780415531252&rft.aulast=Hannibal&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNbWdlRL8WzMC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanssen-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanssen_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanssen_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJens_HanssenAmal_N._Ghazal2020" class="citation book cs1">Jens Hanssen; Amal N. Ghazal (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hGkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Middle Eastern and North African History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165279-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165279-0"><bdi>978-0-19-165279-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Contemporary+Middle+Eastern+and+North+African+History&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-165279-0&rft.au=Jens+Hanssen&rft.au=Amal+N.+Ghazal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhGkLEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarnia_Lazreg1994" class="citation book cs1">Marnia Lazreg (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122"><i>The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question</i></a>. Routledge. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134713301" title="Special:BookSources/9781134713301"><bdi>9781134713301</bdi></a>. <q>Reports of French soldiers, especially members from the French Legion, cutting up pregnant women's bellies were not uncommon during the war</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eloquence+of+Silence%3A+Algerian+Women+in+Question&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781134713301&rft.au=Marnia+Lazreg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0iVpAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VIDAL-NAQUET2014-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VIDAL-NAQUET2014_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierre_VIDAL-NAQUET2014" class="citation book cs1">Pierre VIDAL-NAQUET (20 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd09BQAAQBAJ&pg=PT118"><i>Les crimes de l'armée française: Algérie, 1954-1962</i></a>. La Découverte. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7071-8309-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7071-8309-5"><bdi>978-2-7071-8309-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+crimes+de+l%27arm%C3%A9e+fran%C3%A7aise%3A+Alg%C3%A9rie%2C+1954-1962&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=La+D%C3%A9couverte&rft.date=2014-11-20&rft.isbn=978-2-7071-8309-5&rft.au=Pierre+VIDAL-NAQUET&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHd09BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huma00-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huma00_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huma00_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522">"Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i> (in French). 24 June 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050625201336/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Humanit%C3%A9&rft.atitle=Prise+de+t%C3%AAte+Marcel+Bigeard%2C+un+soldat+propre+%3F&rft.date=2000-06-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanite.presse.fr%2Fjournal%2F2000-06-24%2F2000-06-24-227522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard">Film testimony</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081128154820/http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice">Archived</a> 2008-11-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Teitgen" title="Paul Teitgen">Paul Teitgen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Duquesne_(journalist)" title="Jacques Duquesne (journalist)">Jacques Duquesne</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9lie_Denoix_de_Saint_Marc" class="mw-redirect" title="Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc">Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27audiovisuel" title="Institut national de l'audiovisuel">INA</a> archive website <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2013">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095">Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203219/http://elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095">Archived</a> 2007-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/El_Watan" title="El Watan">El Watan</a></i>, 1 November 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778">Des guerres d'Indochine et d'Algérie aux dictatures d'Amérique latine</a>, interview with <a href="/wiki/Marie-Monique_Robin" title="Marie-Monique Robin">Marie-Monique Robin</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ligue_des_droits_de_l%27homme" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligue des droits de l'homme">Ligue des droits de l'homme</a> (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm">THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABlle_Branche" title="Raphaëlle Branche">Raphaëlle Branche</a>, Université de <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>, 18 November 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne1977" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Alistair (1977). <i>A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962</i>. New York Review (published 2006). pp. 198–200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-218-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-218-6"><bdi>978-1-59017-218-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Savage+War+of+Peace%3A+Algeria+1954-1962&rft.pages=198-200&rft.pub=New+York+Review&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-218-6&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rey-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rey_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Text published in <i>Vérité Liberté</i> n°9 May 1961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill_2009_p._60-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hill_2009_p._60_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation book cs1">Hill, J.N.C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=REwOAQAAMAAJ"><i>Identity in Algerian Politics: The Legacy of Colonial Rule</i></a>. Lynne Rienner Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58826-608-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58826-608-8"><bdi>978-1-58826-608-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identity+in+Algerian+Politics%3A+The+Legacy+of+Colonial+Rule&rft.pub=Lynne+Rienner+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-58826-608-8&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=J.N.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DREwOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernardot2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bernardot, Marc (2008). <i>Camps d'étrangers</i> (in French). Paris: Terra. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782914968409" title="Special:BookSources/9782914968409"><bdi>9782914968409</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Camps+d%27%C3%A9trangers&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Terra&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9782914968409&rft.aulast=Bernardot&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeauvoir2012" class="citation book cs1">Beauvoir, Simone de (15 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EwNYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA272"><i>Political Writings</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252036941" title="Special:BookSources/9780252036941"><bdi>9780252036941</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221023130216/https://books.google.com/books?id=EwNYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA272">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Writings&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2012-07-15&rft.isbn=9780252036941&rft.aulast=Beauvoir&rft.aufirst=Simone+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEwNYBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Harbi" title="Mohamed Harbi">Mohamed Harbi</a>, <i>La guerre d'Algérie</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABlle_Branche" title="Raphaëlle Branche">Raphaëlle Branche</a>, <i>La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962</i>, Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm">The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>, 18 November 2004 <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Huf" title="David Huf">David Huf</a>, <i>Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899">"L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie"</a>. <i>Le Monde</i>. 3 May 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904085335/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=L%27accablante+confession+du+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+Aussaresses+sur+la+torture+en+Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.date=2001-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fcgi-bin%2FACHATS%2Facheter.cgi%3Foffre%3DARCHIVES%26type_item%3DART_ARCH_30J%26objet_id%3D702899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html">"Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture"</a>. <i>Le Monde</i>. 4 July 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html">the original</a> on 19 February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=Guerre+d%27Alg%C3%A9rie%3A+le+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+Bigeard+et+la+pratique+de+la+torture&rft.date=2000-07-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fweb%2Frecherche_breve%2F1%2C13-0%2C37-90746%2C0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797">Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop "</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797">Archived</a> June 24, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i>, May 12, 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html">La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html">Archived</a> 2007-02-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, AIDH</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-92611,0.html">Guerre d'Algérie: Mgr Joseph Doré et Marc Lienhard réagissent aux déclarations du général Bigeard justifiant la pratique de la torture par l'armée française</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071105232819/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-92611,0.html">Archived</a> 2007-11-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i>, July 15, 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827">"Le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i>, June 22, 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041927/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=88827">Archived</a> February 19, 2010, at <a href="/wiki/Archive-It" class="mw-redirect" title="Archive-It">Archive-It</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron">"France admits systematic torture during Algeria war for first time"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 13 September 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517042650/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/13/france-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=France+admits+systematic+torture+during+Algeria+war+for+first+time&rft.date=2018-09-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fsep%2F13%2Ffrance-state-responsible-for-1957-death-of-dissident-maurice-audin-in-algeria-says-macron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenin2019" class="citation web cs1">Genin, Aaron (30 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">"France Resets African Relations: a Potential Lesson for President Trump"</a>. <i>The California Review</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501003400/https://calrev.org/2019/04/30/french-soft-power-resetting-african-relations/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+California+Review&rft.atitle=France+Resets+African+Relations%3A+a+Potential+Lesson+for+President+Trump&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft.aulast=Genin&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalrev.org%2F2019%2F04%2F30%2Ffrench-soft-power-resetting-african-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel2018" class="citation news cs1">Samuel, Henry (15 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/">"France may have apologised for atrocities in Algeria, but the war still casts a long shadow"</a>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235">0307-1235</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011332/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/15/france-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=France+may+have+apologised+for+atrocities+in+Algeria%2C+but+the+war+still+casts+a+long+shadow&rft.date=2018-09-15&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2018%2F09%2F15%2Ffrance-may-have-apologied-atrocities-algeria-war-still-casts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Grosjean2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arthur Grosjean (10 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.openedition.org/criminocorpus/2676">"Internement, emprisonnement et guerre d'indépendance algérienne en métropole : l'exemple du camp de Thol (1958-1965)"</a>. <i>Criminocorpus. Revue d'Histoire de la justice, des crimes et des peines</i> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fcriminocorpus.2676">10.4000/criminocorpus.2676</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162123460">162123460</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221107072404/https://journals.openedition.org/criminocorpus/2676">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criminocorpus.+Revue+d%27Histoire+de+la+justice%2C+des+crimes+et+des+peines&rft.atitle=Internement%2C+emprisonnement+et+guerre+d%27ind%C3%A9pendance+alg%C3%A9rienne+en+m%C3%A9tropole+%3A+l%27exemple+du+camp+de+Thol+%281958-1965%29&rft.date=2014-03-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fcriminocorpus.2676&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162123460%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Arthur+Grosjean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fcriminocorpus%2F2676&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Burleigh2013" class="citation book cs1">Michael Burleigh (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PVchrDVoJSIC&pg=PA226"><i>Small Wars, Faraway Places - Global Insurrection and the Making of the Modern World, 1945-1965</i></a>. Penguin. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101638033" title="Special:BookSources/9781101638033"><bdi>9781101638033</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221023130214/https://books.google.com/books?id=PVchrDVoJSIC&pg=PA226">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Small+Wars%2C+Faraway+Places+-+Global+Insurrection+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World%2C+1945-1965&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781101638033&rft.au=Michael+Burleigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPVchrDVoJSIC%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGannon2008" class="citation book cs1">Gannon, James (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1sDgR3KKfBAC&pg=PA48"><i>Military Occupations in the Age of Self-Determination: The History Neocons Neglected</i></a>. Praeger Security International. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313353826" title="Special:BookSources/9780313353826"><bdi>9780313353826</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Occupations+in+the+Age+of+Self-Determination%3A+The+History+Neocons+Neglected&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Praeger+Security+International&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780313353826&rft.aulast=Gannon&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1sDgR3KKfBAC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DiploApril-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DiploApril_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiploApril_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DiploApril_146-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture">Colonialism Through the School Books – The hidden history of the Algerian war</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422180941/https://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture">Archived</a> 22 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a></i>, April 2001 <span class="languageicon">(in English and French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dine-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dine_147-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDine2000" class="citation book cs1">Dine, Philip (2000). <i>France At War In the Twentieth Century </i>A la recherche du soldat perdu<i>: Myth, Metaphor and Memory in the French Cinema of the Algerian War</i>. Berghahan Books. p. 144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+At+War+In+the+Twentieth+Century+A+la+recherche+du+soldat+perdu%3A+Myth%2C+Metaphor+and+Memory+in+the+French+Cinema+of+the+Algerian+War&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Berghahan+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Dine&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brett-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brett_148-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrett1994" class="citation journal cs1">Brett, Michael (1994). "Anglo-Saxon Attitudes: The Algerian War of Independence in Retrospect". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 220–1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700026402">10.1017/S0021853700026402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154576215">154576215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Anglo-Saxon+Attitudes%3A+The+Algerian+War+of+Independence+in+Retrospect&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-1&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700026402&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154576215%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreer1962" class="citation book cs1">Greer, Herb (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KDYMAQAAIAAJ"><i>A Scattering of Dust</i></a>. Hutchinson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Scattering+of+Dust&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Greer&rft.aufirst=Herb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKDYMAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MemoryStora-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MemoryStora_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ina.fr/voir_revoir/algerie/itv_stora.light.en.html">Bringing down the barriers – people's memories of the Algerian War</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705003504/http://www.ina.fr/voir_revoir/algerie/itv_stora.light.en.html">Archived</a> July 5, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, interview with <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a> published on the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27audiovisuel" title="Institut national de l'audiovisuel">Institut national de l'audiovisuel</a> archive website <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCormack2004" class="citation journal cs1">McCormack, J. (2004). "<i>Terminale</i> history class: teaching about torture during the Algerian war". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_%26_Contemporary_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Modern & Contemporary France (page does not exist)">Modern & Contemporary France</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1): 75–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0963948042000196379">10.1080/0963948042000196379</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145083214">145083214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+%26+Contemporary+France&rft.atitle=Terminale+history+class%3A+teaching+about+torture+during+the+Algerian+war&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-86&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0963948042000196379&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145083214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McCormack&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20010217152409/http://www.cndp.fr/Tice/Teledoc/dossiers/dossier_gone.htm">"Français, histoire - Écoles, collège"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cndp.fr/Tice/Teledoc/dossiers/dossier_gone.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fran%C3%A7ais%2C+histoire+-+%C3%89coles%2C+coll%C3%A8ge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cndp.fr%2FTice%2FTeledoc%2Fdossiers%2Fdossier_gone.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecolesdifferentes.free.fr/rapport_BENISTI_prevention.pdf">Rapport préliminaire de la commission prévention du groupe d'études parlementaire sur la sécurité intérieure – Sur la prévention de la délinquance</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061208052714/http://ecolesdifferentes.free.fr/rapport_BENISTI_prevention.pdf">Archived</a> 8 December 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, presided by the deluty <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Alain_B%C3%A9nisti" title="Jacques-Alain Bénisti">Jacques-Alain Bénisti</a>, October 2004 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1084">Analyse de la version finale du rapport Benisti</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070825095933/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1084">Archived</a> 2007-08-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligue_des_droits_de_l%27homme" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligue des droits de l'homme">Ligue des droits de l'homme</a> (LDH, Human Rights League), and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070615180905/http://www.abri.org/antidelation/IMG/pdf/RAPPORT_BESNISTI.pdf">Final version</a> of the Bénisti report given to Interior Minister <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy" title="Nicolas Sarkozy">Nicolas Sarkozy</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfo.ac.uk/fr/node/246">The French Army and Torture during the Algerian War (1954–1962)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211153515/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/fr/node/246">Archived</a> 2008-12-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>, 18 November 2004 <span class="languageicon">(in English)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bancel&al-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bancel&al_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/2001/06/10torture">"Torture in Algeria: Past Acts That Haunt France – False memory"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191226162846/https://mondediplo.com/2001/06/10torture">Archived</a> 26 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a></i>, June 2001 <span class="languageicon">(in English and French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bancel&al_2-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bancel&al_2_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bancel, Blanchard and Lemaire (op.cit.) quote **<a href="/w/index.php?title=Boucif_Mekhaled&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boucif Mekhaled (page does not exist)">Boucif Mekhaled</a>, <i>Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 mai 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata</i>, <a href="/wiki/Syros" title="Syros">Syros</a>, Paris, 1995 **<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yves_Benot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yves Benot (page does not exist)">Yves Benot</a>, <i>Massacres coloniaux</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=La_D%C3%A9couverte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La Découverte (page does not exist)">La Découverte</a>, coll. "Textes à l'appui", Paris, 1994 <ul><li><ul><li>Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, <i>Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie</i>, La Découverte, Paris, 2001.</li></ul></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro2008" class="citation journal cs1">Shapiro, Michael J. (1 August 2008). "Slow Looking: The Ethics and Politics of Aesthetics: Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005); Mark Reinhardt, Holly Edwards, and Erina Duganne, <i>Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain</i> (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Gillo Pontecorvo, director, <i>The Battle of Algiers</i> (Criterion: Special Three-Disc Edition, 2004)". <i><a href="/wiki/Millennium:_Journal_of_International_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium: Journal of International Studies">Millennium: Journal of International Studies</a></i>. <b>37</b>: 181–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0305829808093770">10.1177/0305829808093770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Millennium%3A+Journal+of+International+Studies&rft.atitle=Slow+Looking%3A+The+Ethics+and+Politics+of+Aesthetics%3A+Jill+Bennett%2C+Empathic+Vision%3A+Affect%2C+Trauma%2C+and+Contemporary+Art+%28Stanford%2C+CA%3A+Stanford+University+Press%2C+2005%29%3B+Mark+Reinhardt%2C+Holly+Edwards%2C+and+Erina+Duganne%2C+Beautiful+Suffering%3A+Photography+and+the+Traffic+in+Pain+%28Chicago%2C+IL%3A+University+of+Chicago+Press%2C+2007%29%3B+Gillo+Pontecorvo%2C+director%2C+The+Battle+of+Algiers+%28Criterion%3A+Special+Three-Disc+Edition%2C+2004%29&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=181-197&rft.date=2008-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0305829808093770&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html">Library of Congress Country Study</a> of Algeria</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradby1994" class="citation journal cs1">Bradby, David (October 1994). "Images of the Algerian War on the French Stage 1988-1992". <i>Theatre Journal</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 375–384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3208613">10.2307/3208613</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3208613">3208613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Images+of+the+Algerian+War+on+the+French+Stage+1988-1992&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=375-384&rft.date=1994-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3208613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3208613%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bradby&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1994" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Anthony (1994). <i>The wars of French decolonization</i>. Modern wars in perspective. London ; New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-09802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-09802-2"><bdi>978-0-582-09802-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+wars+of+French+decolonization&rft.place=London+%3B+New+York&rft.series=Modern+wars+in+perspective&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-582-09802-2&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDine1994" class="citation book cs1">Dine, Philip (1994). <i>Images of the Algerian War: French fiction and film, 1954-1992</i>. Oxford [England] : New York: Clarendon Press ; Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815875-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815875-2"><bdi>978-0-19-815875-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+the+Algerian+War%3A+French+fiction+and+film%2C+1954-1992&rft.place=Oxford+%5BEngland%5D+%3A+New+York&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press+%3B+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815875-2&rft.aulast=Dine&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalula2006" class="citation book cs1">Galula, David (2006) [1963]. <i>Pacification in Algeria, 1956-1958</i>. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3920-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-3920-0"><bdi>978-0-8330-3920-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/227297246">227297246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pacification+in+Algeria%2C+1956-1958&rft.place=Santa+Monica%2C+CA&rft.pub=RAND+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F227297246&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-3920-0&rft.aulast=Galula&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Horne" title="Alistair Horne">Horne, Alistair</a> (1978). <a href="/wiki/A_Savage_War_of_Peace:_Algeria,_1954%E2%80%931962" title="A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962"><i>A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954-1962</i></a>. New York: Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-61964-1"><bdi>978-0-670-61964-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+savage+war+of+peace%3A+Algeria+1954-1962&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-670-61964-1&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeJeune2019" class="citation journal cs1">LeJeune, John (July 2019). "Revolutionary Terror and Nation-Building: Frantz Fanon and the Algerian Revolution". <i>Journal for the Study of Radicalism</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 1–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14321%2Fjstudradi.13.2.0001">10.14321/jstudradi.13.2.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1930-1189">1930-1189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+Radicalism&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+Terror+and+Nation-Building%3A+Frantz+Fanon+and+the+Algerian+Revolution&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=2019-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14321%2Fjstudradi.13.2.0001&rft.issn=1930-1189&rft.aulast=LeJeune&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2017" class="citation journal cs1">McDougall, James (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3fcec5a2-738d-4cc7-ae7d-0e8acd9adae7">"The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a></i>. <b>89</b> (4): 772–811. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F694427">10.1086/694427</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2801">0022-2801</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148602270">148602270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Impossible+Republic%3A+The+Reconquest+of+Algeria+and+the+Decolonization+of+France%2C+1945%E2%80%931962&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=772-811&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148602270%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F694427&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A3fcec5a2-738d-4cc7-ae7d-0e8acd9adae7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2006" class="citation book cs1">McDougall, James (2006). <a href="/wiki/History_and_the_culture_of_nationalism_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria"><i>History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria</i></a>. Cambridge Middle East studies. Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84373-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84373-7"><bdi>978-0-521-84373-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61879728">61879728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+the+culture+of+nationalism+in+Algeria&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK+%3B+New+York&rft.series=Cambridge+Middle+East+studies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Focm61879728&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84373-7&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2017" class="citation book cs1">McDougall, James (2017). <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Algeria" title="A History of Algeria"><i>A history of Algeria</i></a> (1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85164-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85164-0"><bdi>978-0-521-85164-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Algeria&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85164-0&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Peterson, Terrence G. (2024). <i>Revolutionary Warfare: How the Algerian War Made Modern Counterinsurgency</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-7698-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-7698-4"><bdi>978-1-5017-7698-4</bdi></a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartre1968" class="citation book cs1">Sartre, Jean-Paul (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5629332M/On_genocide."><i>On genocide.: And a summary of the evidence and the judgments of the International War Crimes Tribunal</i></a>. Boston: Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5629332M">5629332M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+genocide.%3A+And+a+summary+of+the+evidence+and+the+judgments+of+the+International+War+Crimes+Tribunal&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5629332M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Sartre&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5629332M%2FOn_genocide.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepard2006" class="citation book cs1">Shepard, Todd (2006). <i>The invention of decolonization: the Algerian War and the remaking of France</i>. Ithaca (N.Y.): Cornell university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4360-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4360-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-4360-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+invention+of+decolonization%3A+the+Algerian+War+and+the+remaking+of+France&rft.place=Ithaca+%28N.Y.%29&rft.pub=Cornell+university+press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4360-2&rft.aulast=Shepard&rft.aufirst=Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShrader1999" class="citation book cs1">Shrader, Charles R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CharlesR.ShraderTheFirstHelicopterWarLogisticsAndMobilityInAlgeria19541962"><i>The first helicopter war: logistics and mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962</i></a>. Westport (Conn.): Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96388-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96388-0"><bdi>978-0-275-96388-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+first+helicopter+war%3A+logistics+and+mobility+in+Algeria%2C+1954-1962&rft.place=Westport+%28Conn.%29&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-275-96388-0&rft.aulast=Shrader&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCharlesR.ShraderTheFirstHelicopterWarLogisticsAndMobilityInAlgeria19541962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamus1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus, Albert</a> (1961). <a href="/wiki/Resistance,_Rebellion,_and_Death" title="Resistance, Rebellion, and Death"><i>Resistance, Rebellion, and Death</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resistance%2C+Rebellion%2C+and+Death&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Camus&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaulle1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Gaulle, Charles de</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofhoperen0000gaul"><i>Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21118-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21118-9"><bdi>978-0-671-21118-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Hope%3A+Renewal+and+Endeavor&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-671-21118-9&rft.aulast=Gaulle&rft.aufirst=Charles+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoirsofhoperen0000gaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1968" class="citation book cs1">Maier, Charles S. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thirteenthofmaya0000maie"><i>The thirteenth of May: the advent of De Gaulle's Republic</i></a>. New York : Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+thirteenth+of+May%3A+the+advent+of+De+Gaulle%27s+Republic&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthirteenthofmaya0000maie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFServan-Schreiber1957" class="citation book cs1">Servan-Schreiber, Jean Jacques (1957). <i>Lieutenant in Algeria</i>. Knopf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lieutenant+in+Algeria&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Servan-Schreiber&rft.aufirst=Jean+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgerian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algerian_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Algerian War">Algerian War</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050415041553/http://www.usfca.edu/fac-staff/webberm/algeria.htm">Algerian War Reading</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/algeria/index.htm">Algerian Independence Archive at marxists.org</a></li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.649319"><i>French President Charles De Gaulle and the Six-Year War (1960)</i></a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.rfi.fr/africa/20120705-algeria-celebrates-50-years-independence-france-keeps-mum">Algeria celebrates 50 years of independence – France keeps mum RFI English</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Algerian_War_(1954–1962)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Algerian_War" title="Template:Algerian War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Algerian_War" title="Template talk:Algerian War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Algerian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Algerian War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Algerian_War_(1954–1962)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a> (1954–1962)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler<br />colonialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_(1830)" title="Invasion of Algiers (1830)">Invasion of Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Atrocities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerians_of_the_Pacific" title="Algerians of the Pacific">Deportations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="French_Algeria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_popular_resistance_against_French_invasion" title="Algerian popular resistance against French invasion">Algerian popular resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li>Attempted reforms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Algerian_Political_Rights_Petition" title="1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition">1920 petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonnart_Law" title="Jonnart Law">Jonnart Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Algerian_People" title="Manifesto of the Algerian People">1943 manifesto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and rule</a> policies <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A9mieux_Decree" title="Crémieux Decree">Crémieux Decree</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_myth" title="Kabyle myth">Kabyle myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat#Indigénat_regime_in_Algeria" title="Indigénat">Indigénat</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_status_of_Indigenous_Algerians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legal status of Indigenous Algerians (page does not exist)">Legal status</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statut_juridique_des_indig%C3%A8nes_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie" class="extiw" title="fr:Statut juridique des indigènes d'Algérie">fr</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pied_noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied noir">Pied noir</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_and_Guelma_massacre" title="Sétif and Guelma massacre">Sétif and Guelma massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_Conference" title="Brazzaville Conference">Brazzaville Conference</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> (1946–54)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising</a> (1947–49)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_14_July_1953_in_Paris" title="Massacre of 14 July 1953 in Paris">Massacre of 14 July 1953 in Paris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chronology_of_the_Algerian_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chronology of the Algerian War (page does not exist)">Chronology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronologie_de_la_guerre_d%27Alg%C3%A9rie" class="extiw" title="fr:Chronologie de la guerre d'Algérie">fr</a>]</span><br />of key events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">Declaration of 1 November 1954</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Rouge" title="Toussaint Rouge">Toussaint Rouge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippeville" title="Battle of Philippeville">Battle of Philippeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soummam_conference" title="Soummam conference">Soummam conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Algiers_(1956%E2%80%931957)" title="Battle of Algiers (1956–1957)">Battle of Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_hijacking_of_the_FLN_plane" title="French hijacking of the FLN plane">Hijacking of the FLN plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Corsica" title="Operation Corsica">Operation Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Week_of_barricades&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Week of barricades (page does not exist)">Week of barricades</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaine_des_barricades" class="extiw" title="fr:Semaine des barricades">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">Algiers putsch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War crimes /<br />human rights<br />violations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torture_during_the_Algerian_War" title="Torture during the Algerian War">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Saadia_Mebarek" title="Killing of Saadia Mebarek">Killing of Saadia Mebarek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charonne_subway_massacre" title="Charonne subway massacre">Charonne subway massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reactions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Community" title="French Community"><i>Communauté française</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Plan" title="Constantine Plan">Constantine Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FLN_football_team" title="FLN football team">FLN football team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_121" title="Manifesto of the 121">Manifesto of the 121</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partition_of_Algeria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Partition of Algeria (page does not exist)">Proposed partition of Algeria</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_de_l%27Alg%C3%A9rie" class="extiw" title="fr:Partition de l'Algérie">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">End of the war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1961_French_referendum_on_Algerian_self-determination" title="1961 French referendum on Algerian self-determination">1961 French referendum on Algerian self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1962_French_%C3%89vian_Accords_referendum" title="1962 French Évian Accords referendum">referendum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_Algerian_independence_referendum" title="1962 Algerian independence referendum">Algerian independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and<br />aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">May 1958 crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">French Fifth Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)#Aftermath_of_the_war" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">Aftermath in Algeria</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1962_Algerian_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1962 Algerian crisis (page does not exist)">1962 Algerian crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Lasting_effects_in_Algerian_politics">Effects in Algerian politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_the_Algerian_War" title="List of films about the Algerian War">Films</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Monuments_andcommemorations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monuments and<br />commemorations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1 November 1954 Stadiums <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1_November_1954_Stadium_(Algiers)" title="1 November 1954 Stadium (Algiers)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1_November_1954_Stadium_(Batna)" title="1 November 1954 Stadium (Batna)">Batna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1_November_1954_Stadium_(El_Oued)" title="1 November 1954 Stadium (El Oued)">El Oued</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1_November_1954_Stadium_(Tizi_Ouzou)" title="1 November 1954 Stadium (Tizi Ouzou)">Tizi Ouzou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Memorial,_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrs' Memorial, Algiers">Martyrs' Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_Liberation_of_Algeria" title="Memorial to the Liberation of Algeria">Memorial to the Liberation of Algeria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Army_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Army (Algeria)">National Liberation Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_National_Movement" title="Algerian National Movement">Algerian National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Communist_Party" title="Algerian Communist Party">Algerian Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oujda_Group" title="Oujda Group">Oujda Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anti-independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">French Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Commandos_de_Chasse" title="Commandos de Chasse">Commandos de Chasse</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Main_Rouge" title="La Main Rouge">La Main Rouge</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_Alg%C3%A9rie_Fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Front Algérie Française">Front Algérie Française</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Organisation armée secrète">Organisation armée secrète</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defectors_from_the_French_army_to_the_ALN" title="Defectors from the French army to the ALN">Defectors from the French army to the ALN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harki" title="Harki">Harkis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Algerian_War" title="Women in the Algerian War">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Algerian_War" title="Category:Algerian War">Category</a></b> /  <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algerian_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Algerian War">Commons</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Conflicts_between_France_and_Algeria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conflicts_between_France_and_Algeria" title="Template:Conflicts between France and Algeria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conflicts_between_France_and_Algeria" title="Template talk:Conflicts between France and Algeria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conflicts_between_France_and_Algeria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conflicts between France and Algeria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Conflicts_between_France_and_Algeria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_popular_resistance_against_French_invasion" title="Algerian popular resistance against French invasion">Conflicts between France and Algeria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Mujahideen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Mujahideen (page does not exist)">Ministry of Mujahideen</a> - <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">Declaration of 1 November 1954</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Pre-1830 conflicts</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Djidjelli_expedition" title="Djidjelli expedition">Djidjelli expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French-Algerian_War_1681%E2%80%931688" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Algerian War 1681–1688">French-Algerian War 1681–1688</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1682)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1682)">Bombardment of Algiers (1682)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1683)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1683)">Bombardment of Algiers (1683)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1688)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1688)">Bombardment of Algiers (1688)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_(1838-1839).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png/200px-L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png/300px-L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png/400px-L%E2%80%99Emir_Abdelkader_en_Kabylie_%281838-1839%29.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><b><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a>: 1830-1836</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shipwreck_of_Dellys" title="Shipwreck of Dellys">Shipwreck of Dellys</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_in_1830" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Algiers in 1830">Invasion of Algiers in 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Staou%C3%A9li" title="Battle of Staouéli">Battle of Staouéli</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Blida" title="First Battle of Blida">First Battle of Blida</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Blida" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Blida">Second Battle of Blida</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_El_Ouffia" title="Massacre of El Ouffia">Massacre of El Ouffia</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sig" title="Battle of Sig">Battle of Sig</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Macta" title="Battle of Macta">Battle of Macta</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Constantine" title="Battle of Constantine">Battle of Constantine</a> (1836)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><b><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a>: 1837-1870</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Regha%C3%AFa_(1837)" title="Raid on Reghaïa (1837)">Raid on Reghaïa</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Col_des_Beni_A%C3%AFcha" title="Expedition of the Col des Beni Aïcha">Expedition of the Col des Beni Aïcha</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Boudouaou" title="First Battle of Boudouaou">First Battle of Boudouaou</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Issers" title="First Battle of the Issers">First Battle of the Issers</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Assault_of_Dellys" title="First Assault of Dellys">First Assault of Dellys</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantine" title="Siege of Constantine">Siege of Constantine</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Of_Ammal_(1840)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle Of Ammal (1840)">Battle Of Ammal (1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Boudouaou_(1840)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Boudouaou (1840) (page does not exist)">Battle of Boudouaou (1840)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%88_(1840)" class="extiw" title="ar:معركة بودواو (1840)">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mazagran" title="Battle of Mazagran">Battle of Mazagran</a> (1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beni_Mered" title="Battle of Beni Mered">Battle of Beni Mered</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Smala" title="Battle of the Smala">Battle of the Smala</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Assault_of_Dellys" title="Second Assault of Dellys">Second Assault of Dellys</a> (1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sidi_Brahim" title="Battle of Sidi Brahim">Battle of Sidi Brahim</a> (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Col_des_Beni_A%C3%AFcha_(1846)" title="Battle of the Col des Beni Aïcha (1846)">Battle of the Col des Beni Aïcha (1846)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Laghouat" title="Siege of Laghouat">Siege of Laghouat</a> (1852)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allegiance" title="Allegiance">Allegiances</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allegiance_to_Mohamed_ben_Zamoum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allegiance to Mohamed ben Zamoum (page does not exist)">Allegiance to Mohamed ben Zamoum (1830)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B2%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85_(1830)" class="extiw" title="ar:مبايعة محمد بن زعموم (1830)">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allegiance_to_Emir_Abdelkader_(1832)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allegiance to Emir Abdelkader (1832) (page does not exist)">Allegiance to Emir Abdelkader (1832)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1_(1832)" class="extiw" title="ar:مبايعة الأمير عبد القادر (1832)">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allegiance_to_Emir_Abdelkader_(1833)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allegiance to Emir Abdelkader (1833) (page does not exist)">Allegiance to Emir Abdelkader (1833)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1_(1833)" class="extiw" title="ar:مبايعة الأمير عبد القادر (1833)">ar</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><b><a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alma_(Algeria)" title="Battle of Alma (Algeria)">Battle of Alma (1871)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Col_des_Beni_A%C3%AFcha" title="Battle of the Col des Beni Aïcha">Battle of the Col des Beni Aïcha (1871)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Naciria_(1871)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Naciria (1871) (page does not exist)">Battle of Naciria (1871)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_(1871)" class="extiw" title="ar:معركة الناصرية (1871)">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Bordj_Mena%C3%AFel_(1871)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Bordj Menaïel (1871) (page does not exist)">Battle of Bordj Menaïel (1871)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%84_(1871)" class="extiw" title="ar:معركة برج منايل (1871)">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Issers_(1871)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Issers (1871) (page does not exist)">Battle of Issers (1871)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B1_(1871)" class="extiw" title="ar:معركة يسر (1871)">ar</a>]</span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Palestro_(1871)" title="Capture of Palestro (1871)">Capture of Palestro</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Touggourt_(1871)" title="Capture of Touggourt (1871)">Capture of Touggourt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Rouge" title="Toussaint Rouge">Toussaint Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_V%C3%A9ronique" title="Operation Véronique">Véronique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Djorf" title="First Battle of El Djorf">El Djorf I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippeville" title="Battle of Philippeville">Philippeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blue_Bird" title="Operation Blue Bird"><i>Blue Bird</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_of_Palestro" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambush of Palestro">Palestro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Algiers_(1956%E2%80%931957)" title="Battle of Algiers (1956–1957)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agounennda" title="Battle of Agounennda">Agounennda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouzegza" title="Battle of Bouzegza">Bouzegza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bab_El_Bekkouche" title="Battle of Bab El Bekkouche">Bab El Bekkouche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">May 1958 crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jumelles" title="Operation Jumelles"><i>Jumelles</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">Algiers putsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bab_El_Oued" title="Battle of Bab El Oued">Bab El Oued</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">Treaties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desmichels_Treaty" title="Desmichels Treaty">Desmichels Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tafna" title="Treaty of Tafna">Tafna Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords" title="Évian Accords">Évian Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Bourmont_Treaty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Bourmont Treaty (page does not exist)">De Bourmont Treaty</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86" class="extiw" title="ar:معاهدة دي بورمن">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Lamorici%C3%A8re_Treaty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Lamoricière Treaty (page does not exist)">De Lamoricière Treaty</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%B1" class="extiw" title="ar:معاهدة لاموريسيير">ar</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">Documents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Algerian_Political_Rights_Petition" title="1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition">1920 Algerian Political Rights Petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Algerian_People" title="Manifesto of the Algerian People">1943 Manifesto of the Algerian People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_1_November_1954" title="Declaration of 1 November 1954">Declaration of 1 November 1954</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_participants_in_the_invasion_of_Algiers_in_1830&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of participants in the invasion of Algiers in 1830 (page does not exist)">List of participants in the invasion of Algiers in 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_participants_in_Mokrani_Revolt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of participants in Mokrani Revolt (page does not exist)">List of participants in Mokrani Revolt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200790#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200790#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200790#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1354461/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4141868-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85003462">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Algérie -- 1954-1962 (Guerre d'Algérie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119519776">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Algérie -- 1954-1962 (Guerre d'Algérie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119519776">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="alžírská válka (1954-1962)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph202191&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Argelia -- Historia -- 1954-1962 (Revolución)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX470797">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000198793&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293929805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027491927">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Algeria_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Algeria_topics" title="Template:Algeria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Algeria_topics" title="Template talk:Algeria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Algeria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Algeria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Algeria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Algeria-related_articles" title="Index of Algeria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">Classical period <span style="font-size:85%;">(Antiquity)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Muslim_Algeria" title="Medieval Muslim Algeria">Medieval Muslim Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Algiers" title="Regency of Algiers">Ottoman regency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algerian_popular_resistance_against_French_invasion" title="Algerian popular resistance against French invasion">popular resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Algerian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1965 Algerian coup d'état">1965 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Algerian_coup_attempt" title="1967 Algerian coup attempt">1967 coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria_(1962%E2%80%931999)" title="History of Algeria (1962–1999)">1962–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Algerian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1992 Algerian coup d'état">1992 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_Algeria" title="2000s in Algeria">2000s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932012_Algerian_protests" title="2010–2012 Algerian protests">Arab Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirak_(Algeria)" title="Hirak (Algeria)">Hirak Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Algeria" title="Geography of Algeria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Algeria" title="Template:Borders of Algeria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Algeria" title="List of cities in Algeria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Algeria" title="Districts of Algeria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Algeria" title="List of earthquakes in Algeria">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Algeria" title="List of ecoregions in Algeria">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communes_of_Algeria" title="Communes of Algeria">Municipalities <span style="font-size:85%;">(communes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national parks of Algeria">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Algeria" title="Provinces of Algeria">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Algeria" title="List of rivers of Algeria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Algeria" title="List of volcanoes in Algeria">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Algeria" title="Wildlife of Algeria">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Algeria" title="Politics of Algeria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Algeria" title="Cabinet of Algeria">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria" title="Constitution of Algeria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Nation" title="Council of the Nation">Council of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Algeria" title="Elections in Algeria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Algeria" title="Foreign relations of Algeria">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Algeria" title="Human rights in Algeria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Algeria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Algeria" title="Law enforcement in Algeria">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_People%27s_National_Army" title="Algerian People's National Army">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_People%27s_National_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the People's National Army">Chief of Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_National_Assembly" title="People's National Assembly">People's National Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Algeria" title="Parliament of Algeria">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Algeria" title="List of political parties in Algeria">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Algeria" title="President of Algeria">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Algeria" title="Prime Minister of Algeria">Prime Minister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Algeria" title="Economy of Algeria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Algeria" title="Bank of Algeria">Bank of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Algeria" title="List of companies of Algeria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_dinar" title="Algerian dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Algeria" title="Energy in Algeria">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Algeria" title="Health in Algeria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Algeria" title="Mining industry of Algeria">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Algeria" title="Taxation in Algeria">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Algeria" title="Tourism in Algeria">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Algeria" title="Trade unions in Algeria">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Algeria" title="Transport in Algeria">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Algeria" title="Category:Society of Algeria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Algeria" title="Demographics of Algeria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Algeria" title="Ethnic groups in Algeria">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Algeria" title="Languages of Algeria">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Algerians" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Algerians">List of Algerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Algeria" title="Public holidays in Algeria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Algeria" title="Squatting in Algeria">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Algeria" title="Women in Algeria">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Algeria" title="Culture of Algeria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_cuisine" title="Algerian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Algeria" title="Cinema of Algeria">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Algeria" title="Flag of Algeria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Algeria" title="Football in Algeria">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Algeria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Algerian_films" title="List of Algerian films">films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Algeria" title="Music of Algeria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Algeria" title="Sport in Algeria">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Algeria" title="National symbols of Algeria">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Algeria" title="Outline of Algeria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Algeria-related_articles" title="Index of Algeria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Algeria" title="Category:Algeria">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Algeria" title="Portal:Algeria">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_colonial_conflicts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_colonial_conflicts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial conflicts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="North_America" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parris_Island,_South_Carolina" title="Parris Island, South Carolina">South Carolina (1562)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">Florida (1562–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_de_Gourgue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominique de Gourgue">Florida (1568)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">Brazil (1555–67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1590–04)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Razilly" title="Isaac de Razilly">Morocco (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">Senegal (1659–77)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djidjelli_expedition" title="Djidjelli expedition">Djidjelli (1664)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1682)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1682)">Algiers (1682)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1683)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1683)">Algiers (1683)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1688)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1688)">Algiers (1688)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars (1609–1701)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Brazil (1612–15)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)" title="Anglo-French War (1627–1629)">North America (1627–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">West Indies (1635–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carib_Expulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Carib Expulsion">Carib Expulsion (1660)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">Texas (1685–89)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War (1689–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sabana_Real" title="Battle of Sabana Real">Santo Domingo (1691)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1688" title="Siamese revolution of 1688">Siam (1687–90)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Seven_Years%27_War:_Africa" title="Template:Campaignbox Seven Years' War: Africa">West Africa (1758–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larache_expedition" title="Larache expedition">Morocco (1765)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Wars" title="Chickasaw Wars">Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War (1721–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_revolt" title="Natchez revolt">Natchez revolt (1729)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War (1744–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Nova Scotia (1749–55)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War (1754–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">North America (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Caribbean (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Santo Domingo (1795–1809)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Myanmar_relations" title="France–Myanmar relations">Burma–France relations (1729–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carnatic_War" title="First Carnatic War">India (1746–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars#Second_Carnatic_War_(1749–1754)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">India (1749–54)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Carnatic War">India (1756–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">Vietnam (1777–1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">East Indies (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Indies_theatre_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars">East Indies (1793–1801)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius_campaign_of_1809%E2%80%9311" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauritius campaign of 1809–11">Indian Ocean (1809–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">Algeria (1830–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Algeria (1835–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Moroccan_War" title="Franco-Moroccan War">Morocco (1844)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Bombardment of Salé">Salé (1851)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">French conquest of Senegal (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Tunisia" title="French conquest of Tunisia">Tunisia (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Madagascar_expedition" title="First Madagascar expedition">Madagascar (1883)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandingo_Wars" title="Mandingo Wars">Ivory Coast (1883–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="First Franco-Dahomean War">First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="Second Franco-Dahomean War">Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Madagascar_expedition" title="Second Madagascar expedition">Second Madagascar expedition (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menalamba_rebellion" title="Menalamba rebellion">Menalamba rebellion (1895–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voulet%E2%80%93Chanoine_Mission" title="Voulet–Chanoine Mission">Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898–1900)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Campaign_1804%E2%80%9310" class="mw-redirect" title="West Indies Campaign 1804–10">West Indies (1804–10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata (1838–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastry_War" title="Pastry War">Mexico (1838–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia & Pacific Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">Moluccas (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Basilan#The_French_blockade" title="History of Basilan">Philippines (1844–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1847)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1847)">Tourane (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Tahitian_War" title="Franco-Tahitian War">Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1856)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1856)">Tourane (1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garnier_Expedition" title="Garnier Expedition">North Vietnam (1873–74)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonkin Campaign">Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War (1884–85)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">North Vietnam (1886–96)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimonoseki Campaign">Japan (1863–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_against_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign against Korea">Korea (1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Leeward_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Leeward Islands">Leewards War (1888–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wadai_War" title="Wadai War">Wadai War (1906–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Casablanca_(1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardment of Casablanca (1907)">Casablanca (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War (1914–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War (1915–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt (1916–17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo-Wara_rebellion" title="Kongo-Wara rebellion">Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War (1954–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon_War" title="Cameroon War">Cameroon War (1955–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bizerte_crisis" title="Bizerte crisis">Bizerte crisis (1961)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion (1901)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Man%27s_Rebellion" title="Holy Man's Rebellion">Holy Man's Rebellion (1901–36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Vietnam (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vue_Pa_Chay%27s_revolt" title="Vue Pa Chay's revolt">Vietnam (1918–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Syria (1919–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Cilicia (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Syria (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Vietnam (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87-T%C4%A9nh_Soviets" title="Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets">Vietnam (1930–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War (1940–41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Indochina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Indochina Campaign">Indochina (1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Vietnam (1945–46)">South Vietnam (1945–46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War (1946–54)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ouv%C3%A9a_cave_hostage_taking" title="Ouvéa cave hostage taking">Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Charles_de_Gaulle" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Template:Charles de Gaulle"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Template talk:Charles de Gaulle"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Charles de Gaulle"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Charles_de_Gaulle" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_names_and_terms_of_address_used_for_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="List of names and terms of address used for Charles de Gaulle">Names and terms of address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and<br />career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before WWII</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early life <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthplace_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Birthplace of Charles de Gaulle">Birthplace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Gaulle_family" title="De Gaulle family">Family</a></li> <li>World War I <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5th_Army_(France)" title="5th Army (France)">5th Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dinant" title="Battle of Dinant">Battle of Dinant</a></li></ul></li> <li>Interwar period <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Military_Mission_to_Poland" title="French Military Mission to Poland">French Military Mission to Poland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle_during_World_War_II" title="Charles de Gaulle during World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of<br />France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4th_Armored_Division_(France,_1940)" title="4th Armored Division (France, 1940)">4th Armored Division</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montcornet" title="Battle of Montcornet">Battle of Montcornet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abbeville" title="Battle of Abbeville">Battle of Abbeville</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Free_French" title="Template:Campaignbox Free French">Campaigns</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administrations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">CNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">CFLN</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casablanca_Conference" title="Casablanca Conference">Casablanca Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_Conference" title="Brazzaville Conference">Brazzaville Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation of France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1945–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levant_Crisis" title="Levant Crisis">Levant Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1958_crisis_in_France" title="May 1958 crisis in France">May 1958 crisis</a></li> <li>1958 elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1958_French_presidential_election" title="1958 French presidential election">presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_French_legislative_election" title="1958 French legislative election">legislative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">1958 constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1958_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1958 French constitutional referendum">referendum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Presidency of Charles de Gaulle">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Plan" title="Constantine Plan">Constantine Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_putsch_of_1961" title="Algiers putsch of 1961">Algiers putsch of 1961</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouchet_Plan" title="Fouchet Plan">Fouchet Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petit-Clamart_attack" title="Petit-Clamart attack">1962 assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_French_presidential_election_referendum" title="1962 French presidential election referendum">1962 referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Treaty" title="Élysée Treaty">Élysée Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle%27s_trip_to_South_America" title="Charles de Gaulle's trip to South America">Trip to South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_French_presidential_election" title="1965 French presidential election">1965 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1969 French constitutional referendum">1969 referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle#Later_life" title="Charles de Gaulle">Later life and death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governments and<br />political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rally_of_the_French_People" title="Rally of the French People">Rally of the French People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democrats_for_the_Republic" title="Union of Democrats for the Republic">Union of Democrats for the Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speeches and<br />statements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayeux_speeches" title="Bayeux speeches">Bayeux speeches</a></li> <li><i>"<a href="/wiki/Vive_le_Qu%C3%A9bec_libre" title="Vive le Québec libre">Vive le Québec libre</a> !"</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and<br />depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9morial_Charles-de-Gaulle" title="Mémorial Charles-de-Gaulle">Mémorial Charles-de-Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenauer-de_Gaulle_Prize" title="Adenauer-de Gaulle Prize">Adenauer-de Gaulle Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth French Republic">Fifth French Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaullist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaullist Party">Gaullist Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="List of things named after Charles de Gaulle">Things named after Charles de Gaulle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Resurrection" title="Operation Resurrection">Operation Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Liberation" title="Order of Liberation">Order of Liberation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resistance_Medal" title="Resistance Medal">Resistance Medal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trente_Glorieuses" title="Trente Glorieuses">Trente Glorieuses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ngol" title="Ngol">Ngol</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Category:Charles de Gaulle">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_nationalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_nationalism" title="Template talk:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_nationalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine">Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalists" title="Category:Arab nationalists">Personalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jassem_Alwan" title="Jassem Alwan">Jassem Alwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most%C3%A9fa_Merarda" title="Mostéfa Merarda">Mostéfa Merarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_nationalist_parties" title="List of Arab nationalist parties">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">Al-Mourabitoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Action_Party" title="Arab Socialist Action Party">Arab Socialist Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Egypt)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)">Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Iraq)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)">Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Libya)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Libya)">Arab Socialist Union (Libya)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_People%27s_Union" title="Arabian Peninsula People's Union">Arabian Peninsula People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Legion" title="Islamic Legion">Islamic Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalist_symbols" title="Category:Arab nationalist symbols">Symbolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic">Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Federation" title="Flag of the Arab Federation">Flag of the Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk_of_Quraish" title="Hawk of Quraish">Hawk of Quraish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Greater Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Greater Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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