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<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/open_search.xml" title="Academia.edu"> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="bKJMBZA7E43xhDOopFZkssMMkBRjvYERV-NaN4R6mrs"> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="tSUThb/wI4uUG/K7Q12RyAbPBd6od18J10QqlqWA/YGcoifdRksA6d/rjZMGpJQP3nNOL7ut8VbmSkiepbqr2w==" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="Canine perspective-taking" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Animal Cognition" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Ludwig Huber" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Canine perspective-taking" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="An important question in the study of canine cognition is how dogs understand humans, given that they show impressive abilities for interacting and communicating with us. In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://0.academia-photos.com/75790937/18948742/18897196/s200_ludwig.huber.jpg" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Canine perspective-taking" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="An important question in the study of canine cognition is how dogs understand humans, given that they show impressive abilities for interacting and communicating with us. In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’" /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://vetmeduni.academia.edu/LudwigHuber" /> <meta name="description" content="An important question in the study of canine cognition is how dogs understand humans, given that they show impressive abilities for interacting and communicating with us. In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’" /> <title>(PDF) Canine perspective-taking | Ludwig Huber - Academia.edu</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '1086bfafd5b5c78bcba1554863994f709e2874d0'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1733285186000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1733285186000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"An important question in the study of canine cognition is how dogs understand humans, given that they show impressive abilities for interacting and communicating with us. In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’ perspective-taking abilities. There is solid evidence that dogs are not only sensitive to the gaze of others, but also their attention. We specifically address the question whether dogs have the ability to take the perspective of others and thus come to understand what others can or cannot perceive. From the latter, they may then infer what others know and use this representation to anticipate what others do next. Still, dogs might simply rely on directly observable cues and on what they themselves can perceive when they assess what others can perceive. And instead of making inferences from representations of others\u0026amp;amp;#39; mental states, they may have just learned that certain behaviours of ours lead to certain outcomes. However, recent rese...","author":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Ludwig Huber"}],"contributor":[],"dateCreated":"2023-06-17","dateModified":"2023-06-17","headline":"Canine perspective-taking","image":"https://attachments.academia-assets.com/103465118/thumbnails/1.jpg","inLanguage":"en","keywords":["Psychology","Cognitive Psychology","Cognition","Animal Cognition","Biological Sciences","Gaze","Psychology and Cognitive Sciences"],"publication":"Animal Cognition","publisher":{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","name":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC"},"sourceOrganization":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"EducationalOrganization","name":"vetmeduni"}],"thumbnailUrl":"https://attachments.academia-assets.com/103465118/thumbnails/1.jpg","url":"https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking"}</script><link rel="stylesheet" media="all" 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In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’ perspective-taking abilities. There is solid evidence that dogs are not only sensitive to the gaze of others, but also their attention. We specifically address the question whether dogs have the ability to take the perspective of others and thus come to understand what others can or cannot perceive. From the latter, they may then infer what others know and use this representation to anticipate what others do next. Still, dogs might simply rely on directly observable cues and on what they themselves can perceive when they assess what others can perceive. And instead of making inferences from representations of others\u0026#39; mental states, they may have just learned that certain behaviours of ours lead to certain outcomes. However, recent rese...","publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","publication_name":"Animal Cognition"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Canine perspective-taking","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [75790937]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "control"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loswp.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon';</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":103465118,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Canine perspective-taking”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/103465118/mini_magick20230617-1-hsmeg7.png?1686986626" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/assets/single_work_splash/adobe.icon-574afd46eb6b03a77a153a647fb47e30546f9215c0ee6a25df597a779717f9ef.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Canine perspective-taking</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="75790937" href="https://vetmeduni.academia.edu/LudwigHuber"><img alt="Profile image of Ludwig Huber" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/75790937/18948742/18897196/s65_ludwig.huber.jpg" />Ludwig Huber</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">Animal Cognition</p></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">An important question in the study of canine cognition is how dogs understand humans, given that they show impressive abilities for interacting and communicating with us. In this review, we describe and discuss studies that have investigated dogs’ perspective-taking abilities. There is solid evidence that dogs are not only sensitive to the gaze of others, but also their attention. We specifically address the question whether dogs have the ability to take the perspective of others and thus come to understand what others can or cannot perceive. From the latter, they may then infer what others know and use this representation to anticipate what others do next. Still, dogs might simply rely on directly observable cues and on what they themselves can perceive when they assess what others can perceive. And instead of making inferences from representations of others&#39; mental states, they may have just learned that certain behaviours of ours lead to certain outcomes. However, recent rese...</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":103465118,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":103465118,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div></div><div data-auto_select="false" data-client_id="331998490334-rsn3chp12mbkiqhl6e7lu2q0mlbu0f1b" data-doc_id="103465118" data-landing_url="https://www.academia.edu/103464273/Canine_perspective_taking" data-login_uri="https://www.academia.edu/registrations/google_one_tap" data-moment_callback="onGoogleOneTapEvent" id="g_id_onload"></div><div class="ds-top-related-works--grid-container"><div class="ds-related-content--container ds-top-related-works--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="32922469" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/32922469/Dogs_demonstrate_perspective_taking_based_on_geometrical_gaze_following_in_a_Guesser_Knower_task">Dogs demonstrate perspective taking based on geometrical gaze following in a Guesser–Knower task</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1288314" href="https://elte.academia.edu/LisaWallis">Lisa Wallis</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Currently, there is still no consensus about whether animals can ascribe mental states (Theory of Mind) to themselves and others. Showing animals can respond to cues that indicate whether another has visual access to a target or not, and that they are able to use this information as a basis for whom to rely on as an informant, is an important step forward in this direction. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) with human informants are an ideal model, because they show high sensitivity towards human eye contact, they have proven able to assess the attentional state of humans in food-stealing or food-begging contexts, and they follow human gaze behind a barrier when searching for food. With 16 dogs, we not only replicated the main results of Maginnity and Grace (Anim Cogn 17(6):1375–1392, 2014) who recently found that dogs preferred to follow the pointing of a human who witnessed a food hiding event over a human who did not (the Guesser–Knower task), but also extended this finding with a further, critical control for behaviour-reading: two informants showed identical looking behaviour, but due to their different position in the room, only one had the opportunity to see where the food was hidden by a third person. Preference for the Knower in this critical test provides solid evidence for geometrical gaze following and perspective taking in dogs.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Dogs demonstrate perspective taking based on geometrical gaze following in a Guesser–Knower task","attachmentId":53056961,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/32922469/Dogs_demonstrate_perspective_taking_based_on_geometrical_gaze_following_in_a_Guesser_Knower_task","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/32922469/Dogs_demonstrate_perspective_taking_based_on_geometrical_gaze_following_in_a_Guesser_Knower_task"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="4724767" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/4724767/Can_your_dog_read_your_mind_Understanding_the_causes_of_canine_perspective_taking">Can your dog read your mind? Understanding the causes of canine perspective taking</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="6040247" href="https://oregonstate.academia.edu/MoniqueUdell">Monique Udell</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Learning & Behavior</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Prior studies have documented the domestic dog’s (Canis lupus familiaris) sensitivity to human attentional state, including a tendency to preferentially beg for food from attentive individuals and an ability to selectively perform forbidden behaviors when humans are not looking. Due to the success of dogs on perspective-taking tasks, some have hypothesized that domestic dogs may have theory of mind, or the ability to infer what other individuals know. Here we provide the first evidence that nondomesticated canids, grey wolves (Canis lupus), are also sensitive to human attentional state under some conditions. We also demonstrate that dogs do not display an undifferentiated sensitivity to all visual cues of attentional state. Rather, dogs are more sensitive to stimuli encountered in their home environment. Some dogs perform poorly on perspective-taking tasks. These findings have important implications for the interpretation of research designed to understand complex social cognition across species.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Can your dog read your mind? 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class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="87118111" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/87118111/When_facing_an_unfamiliar_person_pet_dogs_present_social_referencing_based_on_their_owners_direction_of_movement_alone">When facing an unfamiliar person, pet dogs present social referencing based on their owners' direction of movement alone</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="2663997" href="https://sorbonneparisnord.academia.edu/CharlotteDuranton">Charlotte Duranton</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Animal Behaviour, 2016</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"When facing an unfamiliar person, pet dogs present social referencing based on their owners' direction of movement alone","attachmentId":91420581,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/87118111/When_facing_an_unfamiliar_person_pet_dogs_present_social_referencing_based_on_their_owners_direction_of_movement_alone","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/87118111/When_facing_an_unfamiliar_person_pet_dogs_present_social_referencing_based_on_their_owners_direction_of_movement_alone"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="30061754" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/30061754/Report_Dogs_Gaze_Following_Is_Tuned_to_Human_Communicative_Signals">Report Dogs' Gaze Following Is Tuned to Human Communicative Signals</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="57146240" href="https://independent.academia.edu/Firouz">Kiana Firouz</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Recent evidence suggests that preverbal infants' gaze following can be triggered only if an actor's head turn is preceded by the expression of communicative intent [1]. Such connectedness between ostensive and referential signals may be uniquely human, enabling infants to effectively respond to referential communication directed to them. In the light of increasing evidence of dogs' social communicative skills [2], an intriguing question is whether dogs' responsiveness to human directional gestures [3] is associated with the situational context in an infant-like manner. Borrowing a method used in infant studies [1], dogs watched video presentations of a human actor turning toward one of two objects, and their eye-gaze patterns were recorded with an eye tracker. Results show a higher tendency of gaze following in dogs when the human's head turning was preceded by the expression of communicative intent (direct gaze, addressing). This is the first evidence to show that (1) eye-tracking techniques can be used for studying dogs' social skills and (2) the exploitation of human gaze cues depends on the communicatively relevant pattern of ostensive and referential signals in dogs. Our findings give further support to the existence of a functionally infant-analog social competence in this species. Results Although recent research has provided important evidence about dogs' social communicative skills [2], it is still unclear whether dogs' gaze following is tuned to cues that signal the human's communicative intent (e.g., eye contact, verbal addressing). In order to investigate this first, we have collected eye-gaze data from 16 adult, task-naive pet dogs. Subjects were presented with a series of movies in which a human female turned her attention toward one of two identical containers either in an ostensive-communicative (O) or in a nonos-tensive (NO) manner. In the ostensive condition, the human actor overtly expressed her communicative intent, whereas in the nonostensive condition, we removed the ostensive signal from the stimulus. Each trial consisted of introductory, addressing, and cueing phases (Figures 1A–1C). All dogs participated in both O and NO trials that were different only in the addressing phase. We obtained valid data for analysis from 13 dogs in the ostensive and 14 dogs in the nonostensive condition; however, only 11 of them provided valid data in each of these conditions (for the validity criteria see Data Analysis). In the addressing phase, dogs spent similar amounts of time gazing toward the human actor in the two conditions (mean 6 SEM: 1,088.8 6 181.1 ms in O and 980.9 6 267.8 ms in NO conditions , ns) and invested a comparable amount of time scanning the region containing the actor's face relative to the whole body: mean 6 SEM = 0.46 6 0.09 in the O condition and 0.55 6 0.10 in the NO condition [paired t test t(10) = 20.88; p = 0.39] showing that in the addressing phase, the human actor evoked the same level of visual attention in both conditions. Next we analyzed whether dogs looked longer at the gaze-congruent area (Figure 1D) as compared to the gaze-incon-gruent area (cumulative accuracy). In accordance with infant eye-tracking studies (e.g., [1]), difference scores were calculated for this variable. We found that subjects looked longer to the gaze-congruent area than to the gaze-incongruent area after having seen ostensive addressing (one sample t test, t(12) = 2.382; p = 0.034). However, this was not the case for the nonostensive condition in which the difference score did not differ from zero [one-sample t test, t(13) = 20.756; p = 0.46], indicating no tendency to follow the human's gaze in the absence of communicative addressing (Figure 2). This differential sensitivity to human referential gestures is strikingly similar to that found in a study of 6.5-month-old human infants [1]. A similar analysis on dogs' first look did not reveal any significant bias toward the gaze-congruent area in O or in the NO conditions [one-sample t test, t(12) = 1.167; p = 0.266; t(13) = 20.105; p = 0.91, Figure 2]. A within subject analysis of the difference scores for cumulative looking time in the two experimental conditions was run on the 11 subjects that gave valid data in both conditions. This analysis shows that dogs were more likely to follow the model's gaze in a gaze-congruent manner in the O than in the NO condition [t(10) = 2.49; p = 0.03; the effect was independent of presentation order; see Supplemental Results available online]. However, no difference was found between conditions for the first look [t(10) = 21.21; p = 0.25]. We also explored the spatiotemporal pattern of eye movements during cueing phase, investigating how the gaze points move away from the midline of the display and approach the target objects. Gaze points were averaged into 1 s bins and were projected to the x axis of the display (Figure 3). The averaged eye movements showed a greater proximity to the target object only in the ostensive condition. Thus, we may conclude that dogs' context-dependent responsiveness to human head turning mirrors the specific effect of human ostensive communication on dogs' cognitive processing. Although the stimuli in the two conditions were equally successful in orienting dogs' attention toward the actor's head in the addressing phase, only the ostensive cues led to gaze following. However, in order to elicit a comparable saliency of the addressing phases in the two conditions in the NO condition, we displayed a moving attention-getter on the model's forehead (Figure 1C) similar to the infant</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Report Dogs' Gaze Following Is Tuned to Human Communicative Signals","attachmentId":50511867,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/30061754/Report_Dogs_Gaze_Following_Is_Tuned_to_Human_Communicative_Signals","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/30061754/Report_Dogs_Gaze_Following_Is_Tuned_to_Human_Communicative_Signals"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="116289693" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/116289693/Why_do_dogs_look_back_at_the_human_in_an_impossible_task_Looking_back_behaviour_may_be_over_interpreted">Why do dogs look back at the human in an impossible task? Looking back behaviour may be over-interpreted</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="162495644" href="https://independent.academia.edu/MartinaLazzaroni">Martina Lazzaroni</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Animal Cognition, 2020</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The impossible task paradigm has been extensively used to study the looking back behaviour in dogs. This behaviour is commonly considered a social problem-solving strategy: dogs facing an unsolvable task, soon give up and look back at the experimenter to ask for help. We aimed to test if the looking back in an impossible task does indeed represent a social problem-solving strategy. We used a modified version of the classic impossible task, in which the subjects simultaneously faced three possible and one impossible trials. Additionally, subjects were tested in four different conditions: social condition (with an unknown experimenter); asocial condition (subject alone); &#39;dummy&#39; human condition (with a ‘dummy’ human); object condition (with a big sheet of cardboard). Finally, we compared two populations of dogs differing in their experience of receiving help from humans: 20 pet dogs tested in their houses and 31 free-ranging dogs tested in Morocco. We found that the pet dogs a...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Why do dogs look back at the human in an impossible task? 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