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var a = axel * 10000000000000; document.write('<iframe src="https://2542116.fls.doubleclick.net/activityi;src=2542116;type=gblog;cat=googl0;ord=ord=' + a + '?" width="1" height="1" frameborder="0" style="display:none"></iframe>'); //]]> </script> <noscript> <img alt='' height='1' src='https://ad.doubleclick.net/ddm/activity/src=2542116;type=gblog;cat=googl0;ord=1?' width='1'/> </noscript>  <div class='header-outer'> <div class='header-inner'> <div class='section' id='header'><div class='widget Header' data-version='1' id='Header1'> <div class='header-left'> <div class='header-title'> <a class='google-logo' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/'> <img height='50' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/branding/googlelogo/2x/googlelogo_color_150x54dp.png'/> </a> <a href='/.'> <h2> Testing Blog </h2> </a> </div> <div class='header-desc'> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div>  <div class='cols-wrapper loading'> <div class='col-main-wrapper'> <div class='col-main'> <div class='section' id='main'><div class='widget Blog' data-version='1' id='Blog1'> <div class='post' data-id='2012075819086436887' itemscope='' itemtype='http://schema.org/BlogPosting'> <h2 class='title' itemprop='name'> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/two-new-videos-about-testing-at-google.html' itemprop='url' title='Two New Videos About Testing at Google'> Two New Videos About Testing at Google </a> </h2> <div class='post-header'> <div class='published'> <span class='publishdate' itemprop='datePublished'> Friday, April 12, 2013 </span> </div> </div> <div class='post-body'> <div class='post-content' itemprop='articleBody'> <script type='text/template'> by <a href="http://anthonyvallone.com/">Anthony Vallone</a><br /> <br /> We have two excellent, new videos to share about testing at Google. If you are curious about the work that our Test Engineers (TEs) and Software Engineers in Test (SETs) do, you’ll find both of these videos very interesting.<br /> <br /> The <a href="//www.youtube.com/lifeatgoogle">Life at Google</a> team produced a video series called <a href="//www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZHEnPCEe0o&feature=c4-overview-vl&list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-">Do Cool Things That Matter</a>. This series includes a video from an SET and TE on the Maps team (Sean Jordan and Yvette Nameth) discussing their work on the Google Maps team.<br /> <br /> <a href="//www.youtube.com/watch?v=FcwMMEsRFW4&list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-">Meet Yvette and Sean from the Google Maps Test Team</a><br /> <br /> <div style="text-align: center;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/FcwMMEsRFW4?list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-" width="560"></iframe> </div> <br /> <br /> The <a href="https://plus.sandbox.google.com/u/0/101571483150813305324">Google Students</a> team hosted a <a href="//www.google.com/+/learnmore/hangouts/onair.html">Hangouts On Air</a> event with several Google SETs (Diego Salas, Karin Lundberg, Jonathan Velasquez, Chaitali Narla, and Dave Chen) discussing the SET role.<br /> <br /> <a href="https://plus.google.com/u/0/101571483150813305324/posts/diXcYNHmMvM">Software Engineers in Test at Google - Covering your (Code)Bases</a><br /> <br /> <div style="text-align: center;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/OZk8nlcpe3w" width="560"></iframe> </div> <br /> <br /> Interested in joining the ranks of TEs or SETs at Google? Search for <a href="//goo.gl/I0w5J">Google test jobs</a>.<br /> <br /> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </script> <noscript> by <a href="http://anthonyvallone.com/">Anthony Vallone</a><br /> <br /> We have two excellent, new videos to share about testing at Google. If you are curious about the work that our Test Engineers (TEs) and Software Engineers in Test (SETs) do, you’ll find both of these videos very interesting.<br /> <br /> The <a href="//www.youtube.com/lifeatgoogle">Life at Google</a> team produced a video series called <a href="//www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZHEnPCEe0o&feature=c4-overview-vl&list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-">Do Cool Things That Matter</a>. This series includes a video from an SET and TE on the Maps team (Sean Jordan and Yvette Nameth) discussing their work on the Google Maps team.<br /> <br /> <a href="//www.youtube.com/watch?v=FcwMMEsRFW4&list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-">Meet Yvette and Sean from the Google Maps Test Team</a><br /> <br /> <div style="text-align: center;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/FcwMMEsRFW4?list=PLllx_3tLoo4fd1deqnzvyZrIrJzRdSC6-" width="560"></iframe> </div> <br /> <br /> The <a href="https://plus.sandbox.google.com/u/0/101571483150813305324">Google Students</a> team hosted a <a href="//www.google.com/+/learnmore/hangouts/onair.html">Hangouts On Air</a> event with several Google SETs (Diego Salas, Karin Lundberg, Jonathan Velasquez, Chaitali Narla, and Dave Chen) discussing the SET role.<br /> <br /> <a href="https://plus.google.com/u/0/101571483150813305324/posts/diXcYNHmMvM">Software Engineers in Test at Google - Covering your (Code)Bases</a><br /> <br /> <div style="text-align: center;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/OZk8nlcpe3w" width="560"></iframe> </div> <br /> <br /> Interested in joining the ranks of TEs or SETs at Google? Search for <a href="//goo.gl/I0w5J">Google test jobs</a>.<br /> <br /> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </noscript> </div> </div> <div class='share'> <span class='twitter-custom social-wrapper' data-href='http://twitter.com/share?text=Google Testing Blog:Two New Videos About Testing at Google&url=https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/two-new-videos-about-testing-at-google.html&via=googletesting'> <img alt='Share on Twitter' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_twitter_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> <span class='fb-custom social-wrapper' data-href='https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/two-new-videos-about-testing-at-google.html'> <img alt='Share on Facebook' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_facebook_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> </div> <div class='comment-container'> <i class='comment-img material-icons'>  </i> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/two-new-videos-about-testing-at-google.html#comments' style='font-weight: 500; text-decoration: underline;'>No comments</a> </div> <div class='post-footer'> <div class='cmt_iframe_holder' data-href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/two-new-videos-about-testing-at-google.html' data-viewtype='FILTERED_POSTMOD'></div> <a href='https://plus.google.com/112374322230920073195' rel='author' style='display:none;'> Google </a> <div class='label-footer'> <span class='labels-caption'> Labels: </span> <span class='labels'> <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Anthony%20Vallone' rel='tag'> Anthony Vallone </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Chaitali%20Narla' rel='tag'> Chaitali Narla </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Dave%20Chen' rel='tag'> Dave Chen </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Diego%20Salas' rel='tag'> Diego Salas </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Jobs' rel='tag'> Jobs </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Jonathan%20Velasquez' rel='tag'> Jonathan Velasquez </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Karin%20Lundberg' rel='tag'> Karin Lundberg </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Sean%20Jordan' rel='tag'> Sean Jordan </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Yvette%20Nameth' rel='tag'> Yvette Nameth </a> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='post' data-id='3357254256212116946' itemscope='' itemtype='http://schema.org/BlogPosting'> <h2 class='title' itemprop='name'> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/hermetic-servers.html' itemprop='url' title='Hermetic Servers'> Hermetic Servers </a> </h2> <div class='post-header'> <div class='published'> <span class='publishdate' itemprop='datePublished'> Wednesday, October 03, 2012 </span> </div> </div> <div class='post-body'> <div class='post-content' itemprop='articleBody'> <script type='text/template'> <div> <i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By <a href="https://plus.google.com/112344924130503126632/">Chaitali Narla</a> and <a href="https://plus.google.com/106528103954793102526/">Diego Salas</a></span></i></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Consider a complex and rich web app. Under the hood, it is probably a maze of servers, each performing a different task and most talking to each other. Any user action navigates this server maze on its round-trip from the user to the datastores and back. A lot of Google’s web apps are like this including <a href="https://mail.google.com/">GMail</a> and <a href="https://plus.google.com/">Google+</a>. So how do we write end-to-end tests for them?</span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The “End-To-End” Test</span></b></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An end-to-end test in the Google testing world is a test that exercises the entire server stack from a user request to response. Here is a simplified view of the System Under Test (SUT) that an end-to-end test would assert. Note that the frontend server in the SUT connects to a third backend which this particular user request does not need.</span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="//1.bp.blogspot.com/-lwP4J6FcN34/UGx-bU41ImI/AAAAAAAAAP8/l5M0J3A0Xgk/s1600/1-SUT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="//1.bp.blogspot.com/-lwP4J6FcN34/UGx-bU41ImI/AAAAAAAAAP8/l5M0J3A0Xgk/s640/1-SUT.jpg" width="640"></a></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> One of the challenges to writing a <b>fast</b> and <b>reliable</b> end-to-end test for such a system is avoiding network access. Tests involving network access are slower than their counterparts that only access local resources, and accessing external servers might lead to <a href="http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2008/04/tott-avoiding-flakey-tests.html">flakiness</a> due to lack of determinism or unavailability of the external servers. </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> <b>Hermetic Servers</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> One of the tricks we use at Google to design end-to-end tests is <b>Hermetic Servers</b>.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> What is a Hermetic Server? The short definition would be a “<i>server in a box</i>”. If you can start up the entire server on a single machine that has no network connection AND the server works as expected, you have a hermetic server! This is a special case of the more general “hermetic” concept which applies to an isolated system not necessarily on a single machine. </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Why is it useful to have a hermetic server? Because if your entire SUT is composed of hermetic servers, it could all be started on a single machine for testing; no network connection necessary! The single machine could be a physical or virtual machine.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> <b>Designing Hermetic Servers</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> The process for building a hermetic server starts early in the design phase of any new server. Some things we watch out for:</div> </div> <div> <div> <ul> <li>All connections to other servers are injected into the server at runtime using a suitable form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_injection">dependency injection</a> such as commandline flags or <a href="http://code.google.com/p/google-guice/">Guice</a>.</li> <li>All required static files are bundled in the server binary.</li> <li>If the server talks to a datastore, make sure the datastore can be <a href="http://xunitpatterns.com/Fake%20Object.html">faked</a> with data files or in-memory implementations.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> Meeting the above requirements ensures we have a highly configurable server that has potential to become a hermetic server. But it is not yet ready to be used in tests. We do a few more things to complete the package:</div> <div> <ul> <li>Make sure those connection points which our test won’t exercise have appropriate <a href="http://xunitpatterns.com/Fake%20Object.html">fakes</a> or mocks to verify this non-interaction.</li> <li>Provide modules to easily populate datastores with test data.</li> <li>Provide logging modules that can help trace the request/response path as it passes through the SUT.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <b>Using Hermetic Servers in tests</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Let’s take the SUT shown earlier and assume all the servers in it are hermetic servers. Here is how an end-to-end test for the same user request would look:</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="//2.bp.blogspot.com/-Y3IxG8HH1Og/UGyJPxQE4EI/AAAAAAAAAQM/RMxO1VsdovI/s1600/2-E2ETest.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="327" src="//2.bp.blogspot.com/-Y3IxG8HH1Og/UGyJPxQE4EI/AAAAAAAAAQM/RMxO1VsdovI/s640/2-E2ETest.jpg" width="640"></a></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> The end-to-end test does the following steps:</div> <div> <ul> <li>starts the entire SUT as shown in the diagram on a single machine</li> <li>makes requests to the server via the test client</li> <li>validates responses from the server</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> One thing to note here is the mock server connection for the backend is not needed in this test. If we wish to test a request that needs this backend, we would have to provide a hermetic server at that connection point as well.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> This end-to-end test is more reliable because it uses no network connection. It is faster because everything it needs is available in-memory or in the local hard disk. We run such tests on our continuous builds, so they run at each changelist affecting any of the servers in the SUT. If the test fails, the logging module helps track where the failure occurred in the SUT.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> We use hermetic servers in a lot of end-to-end tests. Some common cases include</div> <div> <ul> <li>Startup tests for servers using <a href="http://code.google.com/p/google-guice/">Guice</a> to verify that there are no Guice errors on startup.</li> <li>API tests for backend servers.</li> <li>Micro-benchmark performance tests.</li> <li>UI and API tests for frontend servers.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <b>Conclusion</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Hermetic servers do have some limitations. They will increase your test’s runtime since you have to start the entire SUT each time you run the end-to-end test. If your test runs with limited resources such as memory and CPU, hermetic servers might push your test over those limits as the server interactions grow in complexity. The dataset size you can use in the in-memory datastores will be much smaller than production datastores.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Hermetic servers are a great testing tool. Like all other tools, they need to be used thoughtfully where appropriate.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </script> <noscript> <div> <i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By <a href="https://plus.google.com/112344924130503126632/">Chaitali Narla</a> and <a href="https://plus.google.com/106528103954793102526/">Diego Salas</a></span></i></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Consider a complex and rich web app. Under the hood, it is probably a maze of servers, each performing a different task and most talking to each other. Any user action navigates this server maze on its round-trip from the user to the datastores and back. A lot of Google’s web apps are like this including <a href="https://mail.google.com/">GMail</a> and <a href="https://plus.google.com/">Google+</a>. So how do we write end-to-end tests for them?</span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The “End-To-End” Test</span></b></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An end-to-end test in the Google testing world is a test that exercises the entire server stack from a user request to response. Here is a simplified view of the System Under Test (SUT) that an end-to-end test would assert. Note that the frontend server in the SUT connects to a third backend which this particular user request does not need.</span></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="//1.bp.blogspot.com/-lwP4J6FcN34/UGx-bU41ImI/AAAAAAAAAP8/l5M0J3A0Xgk/s1600/1-SUT.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="//1.bp.blogspot.com/-lwP4J6FcN34/UGx-bU41ImI/AAAAAAAAAP8/l5M0J3A0Xgk/s640/1-SUT.jpg" width="640"></a></div> <div> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div> One of the challenges to writing a <b>fast</b> and <b>reliable</b> end-to-end test for such a system is avoiding network access. Tests involving network access are slower than their counterparts that only access local resources, and accessing external servers might lead to <a href="http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2008/04/tott-avoiding-flakey-tests.html">flakiness</a> due to lack of determinism or unavailability of the external servers. </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> <b>Hermetic Servers</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> One of the tricks we use at Google to design end-to-end tests is <b>Hermetic Servers</b>.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> What is a Hermetic Server? The short definition would be a “<i>server in a box</i>”. If you can start up the entire server on a single machine that has no network connection AND the server works as expected, you have a hermetic server! This is a special case of the more general “hermetic” concept which applies to an isolated system not necessarily on a single machine. </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Why is it useful to have a hermetic server? Because if your entire SUT is composed of hermetic servers, it could all be started on a single machine for testing; no network connection necessary! The single machine could be a physical or virtual machine.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> <b>Designing Hermetic Servers</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> The process for building a hermetic server starts early in the design phase of any new server. Some things we watch out for:</div> </div> <div> <div> <ul> <li>All connections to other servers are injected into the server at runtime using a suitable form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency_injection">dependency injection</a> such as commandline flags or <a href="http://code.google.com/p/google-guice/">Guice</a>.</li> <li>All required static files are bundled in the server binary.</li> <li>If the server talks to a datastore, make sure the datastore can be <a href="http://xunitpatterns.com/Fake%20Object.html">faked</a> with data files or in-memory implementations.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> Meeting the above requirements ensures we have a highly configurable server that has potential to become a hermetic server. But it is not yet ready to be used in tests. We do a few more things to complete the package:</div> <div> <ul> <li>Make sure those connection points which our test won’t exercise have appropriate <a href="http://xunitpatterns.com/Fake%20Object.html">fakes</a> or mocks to verify this non-interaction.</li> <li>Provide modules to easily populate datastores with test data.</li> <li>Provide logging modules that can help trace the request/response path as it passes through the SUT.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <b>Using Hermetic Servers in tests</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Let’s take the SUT shown earlier and assume all the servers in it are hermetic servers. Here is how an end-to-end test for the same user request would look:</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="//2.bp.blogspot.com/-Y3IxG8HH1Og/UGyJPxQE4EI/AAAAAAAAAQM/RMxO1VsdovI/s1600/2-E2ETest.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="327" src="//2.bp.blogspot.com/-Y3IxG8HH1Og/UGyJPxQE4EI/AAAAAAAAAQM/RMxO1VsdovI/s640/2-E2ETest.jpg" width="640"></a></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> The end-to-end test does the following steps:</div> <div> <ul> <li>starts the entire SUT as shown in the diagram on a single machine</li> <li>makes requests to the server via the test client</li> <li>validates responses from the server</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> One thing to note here is the mock server connection for the backend is not needed in this test. If we wish to test a request that needs this backend, we would have to provide a hermetic server at that connection point as well.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> This end-to-end test is more reliable because it uses no network connection. It is faster because everything it needs is available in-memory or in the local hard disk. We run such tests on our continuous builds, so they run at each changelist affecting any of the servers in the SUT. If the test fails, the logging module helps track where the failure occurred in the SUT.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div> We use hermetic servers in a lot of end-to-end tests. Some common cases include</div> <div> <ul> <li>Startup tests for servers using <a href="http://code.google.com/p/google-guice/">Guice</a> to verify that there are no Guice errors on startup.</li> <li>API tests for backend servers.</li> <li>Micro-benchmark performance tests.</li> <li>UI and API tests for frontend servers.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <b>Conclusion</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Hermetic servers do have some limitations. They will increase your test’s runtime since you have to start the entire SUT each time you run the end-to-end test. If your test runs with limited resources such as memory and CPU, hermetic servers might push your test over those limits as the server interactions grow in complexity. The dataset size you can use in the in-memory datastores will be much smaller than production datastores.</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> Hermetic servers are a great testing tool. Like all other tools, they need to be used thoughtfully where appropriate.</div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </noscript> </div> </div> <div class='share'> <span class='twitter-custom social-wrapper' data-href='http://twitter.com/share?text=Google Testing Blog:Hermetic Servers&url=https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/hermetic-servers.html&via=googletesting'> <img alt='Share on Twitter' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_twitter_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> <span class='fb-custom social-wrapper' data-href='https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/hermetic-servers.html'> <img alt='Share on Facebook' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_facebook_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> </div> <div 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href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2019/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2019/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2018/'> 2018 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(7)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2018/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li 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href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2018/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2018/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/'> 2017 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(17)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/'> 2016 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(15)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/'> 2015 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(14)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/'> 2014 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(24)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/'> 2013 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(16)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/'> 2012 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(11)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/'> 2011 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(39)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li 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