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mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Madagascar" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Madagascar" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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[o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_and_European_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_and_European_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Arab and European contacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_and_European_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Madagascar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Madagascar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Kingdom of Madagascar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Madagascar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 French colonization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Independent state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_and_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_and_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Biodiversity and conservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_and_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_law_enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_law_enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Military and law enforcement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_law_enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Administrative divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 United Nations involvement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_resources_and_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_resources_and_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Natural resources and trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_resources_and_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrastructure_and_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructure_and_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Infrastructure and media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrastructure_and_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ethnic groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Largest_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Largest_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Largest cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Largest_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Sport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Madagascar</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 252 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-252" aria-hidden="true" > 252 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%B3%E1%8C%8B%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%AD" title="ማዳጋስካር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ማዳጋስካር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="माडागास्कार – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="माडागास्कार" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%BA%D8%B4%D9%82%D8%B1" title="مدغشقر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مدغشقر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Մատակասքար – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մատակասքար" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasc%C3%A2r" title="Madagascâr – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Madagascâr" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="মাদাগাস্কাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মাদাগাস্কাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandagaka" title="Mandagaka – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mandagaka" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madaqaskar" title="Madaqaskar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Madaqaskar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداقاسکار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماداقاسکار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="মাদাগাস্কার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাদাগাস্কার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मेडागास्कर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मेडागास्कर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D" title="མ་ད་གཱ་སི་ཀར། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མ་ད་གཱ་སི་ཀར།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Мадагаскар Республики – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Мадагаскар Республики" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matagadzikwa" title="Matagadzikwa – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Matagadzikwa" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascara" title="Madagascara – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Madagascara" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasgar" title="Madagasgar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Madagasgar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DD%A3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداݣاسكار – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ماداݣاسكار" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%89%DE%A6%DE%91%DE%A6%DE%8E%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%A6" title="މަޑަގަސްކަރަ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="މަޑަގަސްކަރަ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag%C3%AD_Bitsee%CA%BC_Nood%C7%AB%CC%81z%C3%AD_Bik%C3%A9yah" title="Magí Bitseeʼ Noodǫ́zí Bikéyah – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Magí Bitseeʼ Noodǫ́zí Bikéyah" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मडागास्कर – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="मडागास्कर" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B7" title="Μαδαγασκάρη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαδαγασκάρη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskaro" title="Madagaskaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Madagaskaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascal" title="Madagascal – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Madagascal" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malagasi" title="Malagasi – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Malagasi" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gur mw-list-item"><a href="https://gur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Frafra" lang="gur" hreflang="gur" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Farefare" data-language-local-name="Frafra" class="interlanguage-link-target">Farefare</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداگاسکار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماداگاسکار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaska" title="Madagaska – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Madagaska" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%A1%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0" title="મડાગાસ્કર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મડાગાસ્કર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EB%8B%A4%EA%B0%80%EC%8A%A4%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4" title="마다가스카르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마다가스카르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Մադագասկար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մադագասկար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मेडागास्कर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मेडागास्कर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="মাদাগাস্কার – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="মাদাগাস্কার" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMadagasika" title="IMadagasika – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IMadagasika" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%92%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%A8" title="מדגסקר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדגסקר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhagaskar" title="Madhagaskar – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Madhagaskar" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madakas%C9%A9kar%C9%A9" title="Madakasɩkarɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Madakasɩkarɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮಡಗಾಸ್ಕರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಡಗಾಸ್ಕರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="მადაგასკარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მადაგასკარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasikari" title="Madagasikari – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Madagasikari" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaska" title="Madagaska – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Madagaska" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malagasi" title="Malagasi – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Malagasi" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasikara" title="Madagasikara – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Madagasikara" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskars" title="Madagaskars – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Madagaskars" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascaria" title="Madagascaria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Madagascaria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskara" title="Madagaskara – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Madagaskara" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskaras" title="Madagaskaras – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Madagaskaras" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasikari" title="Madagasikari – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Madagasikari" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasicara" title="Madagasicara – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Madagasicara" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaszk%C3%A1r" title="Madagaszkár – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Madagaszkár" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasikara" title="Madagasikara – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Madagasikara" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BC" title="മഡഗാസ്കർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മഡഗാസ്കർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marak%C4%81hia" title="Marakāhia – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Marakāhia" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मादागास्कर – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मादागास्कर" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="მადაგასკარი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მადაგასკარი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="مادجاسكار – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مادجاسكار" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداگاسکار – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ماداگاسکار" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%94" title="ꯃꯦꯗꯒꯥꯁ꯭ꯀꯔ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯃꯦꯗꯒꯥꯁ꯭ꯀꯔ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%92%E1%80%AB%E1%80%82%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="မဒါဂတ်စကားနိုင်ငံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဒါဂတ်စကားနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madaqasika" title="Madaqasika – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Madaqasika" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="माडागास्कर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="माडागास्कर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मादागास्कर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मादागास्कर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%80%E3%82%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB" title="マダガスカル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マダガスカル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Pitcairn-Norfolk" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Pitcairn-Norfolk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskaar" title="Madagaskaar – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Madagaskaar" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0" title="ਮਾਦਾਗਾਸਕਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਾਦਾਗਾਸਕਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मडगास्कर – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="मडगास्कर" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%88%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="مڈغاسکر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مڈغاسکر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="مادغاسکر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مادغاسکر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagiaska" title="Madagiaska – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Madagiaska" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6" title="ម៉ាដាហ្កាស្កា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ម៉ាដាហ្កាស្កា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD" title="Μαδαγασκάρην – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Μαδαγασκάρην" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madag%C3%A1scar" title="Madagáscar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Madagáscar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ty mw-list-item"><a href="https://ty.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matatatihata" title="Matatatihata – Tahitian" lang="ty" hreflang="ty" data-title="Matatatihata" data-language-autonym="Reo tahiti" data-language-local-name="Tahitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Reo tahiti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathaqaskar" title="Mathaqaskar – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mathaqaskar" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0" title="मडगास्कर – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मडगास्कर" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagask%C3%A4ra" title="Madagaskära – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Madagaskära" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱢᱟᱫᱟᱜᱟᱥᱠᱟᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱫᱟᱜᱟᱥᱠᱟᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasc%C3%A0r" title="Madagascàr – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Madagascàr" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskari" title="Madagaskari – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Madagaskari" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="මැඩගස්කරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මැඩගස්කරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%8A%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%AA%D8%B1" title="مڊگاسڪر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مڊگاسڪر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMadagasikha" title="IMadagasikha – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="IMadagasikha" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداگاسکار – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماداگاسکار" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="மடகாசுகர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மடகாசுகர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mada%C9%A3acqar" title="Madaɣacqar – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Madaɣacqar" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%81%A2%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%80%90%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%81%B5%E1%81%A2%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%80%9E%E1%81%B5%E1%82%83%E1%82%87" title="မိူင်းမၢတ်ႈတႃႇၵၢတ်ႈသၵႃႇ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="မိူင်းမၢတ်ႈတႃႇၵၢတ်ႈသၵႃႇ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Atayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Atayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="మడగాస్కర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మడగాస్కర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประเทศมาดากัสการ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประเทศมาดากัสการ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagathkar" title="Madagathkar – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Madagathkar" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%B3%E1%8C%8B%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%AD" title="ማዳጋስካር – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ማዳጋስካር" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matakasika" title="Matakasika – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Matakasika" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tsetsêhestâhese</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mada%CC%B1ga%CC%B1si%CC%B1ka" title="Mada̱ga̱si̱ka – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Mada̱ga̱si̱ka" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мадагаскар – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мадагаскар" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%88%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="مڈغاسکر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مڈغاسکر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ماداگاسكار – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ماداگاسكار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malagase%C3%A4n" title="Malagaseän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Malagaseän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%81%94%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%A0" title="馬達加斯加 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="馬達加斯加" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskaar" title="Madagaskaar – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Madagaskaar" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%81%94%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%A0" title="馬達加斯加 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="馬達加斯加" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Madagascar" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%93%D7%90%D7%92%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8" title="מאדאגאסקאר – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מאדאגאסקאר" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madag%C3%A1s%C3%ADk%C3%A0" title="Madagásíkà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Madagásíkà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%81%94%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%A0" title="馬達加斯加 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬達加斯加" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madahaskar" title="Madahaskar – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Madahaskar" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskars" title="Madagaskars – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Madagaskars" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E8%BE%BE%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%A0" title="马达加斯加 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="马达加斯加" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagasika" title="Madagasika – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Madagasika" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" title="Madagaskar – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Madagaskar" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="Batak Toba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Toba</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagaskar" 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.geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Madagascar&params=20_S_47_E_scale:10000000_source:GNS">20°S 47°E / 20°S 47°E / -20; 47</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. 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For the island itself, see <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Geography of Madagascar</a>. For the film franchise, see <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_(franchise)" title="Madagascar (franchise)">Madagascar (franchise)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Madagascar (disambiguation)">Madagascar (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Republic of Madagascar</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Repoblikan'i Madagasikara (<a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a>)</li><li>République de Madagascar (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Madagascar.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Madagascar"><img alt="Flag of Madagascar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/125px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/188px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/250px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Madagascar" title="Flag of Madagascar">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Madagascar.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of Madagascar"><img alt="Seal of Madagascar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/85px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/128px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/170px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_Madagascar" title="Seal of Madagascar">Seal</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana (Malagasy)</li><li>Amour, Patrie, Progrès (French)</li><li>"Love, Fatherland, Progress"<a href="#cite_note-4thRepublic-1">[1]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4!" title="Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!">Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!</a> (Malagasy) Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés! (French) "Oh, land of our beloved ancestors!"<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="63" data-mwtitle="Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_ô!_(instrumental).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg/Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARy_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARy_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARy_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARy_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg&lang=mg&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="mg" label="Malagasy ‪(mg)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARy_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4%21_%28instrumental%29.ogg&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_(centered_orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Madagascar (dark green)"><img alt="Location of Madagascar (dark green)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Madagascar_%28centered_orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption"><div style="text-align:center;line-height:1.15em;">Location of Madagascar (dark green)</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Madagascar&params=18_55_S_47_31_E_type:city">18°55′S 47°31′E / 18.917°S 47.517°E / -18.917; 47.517</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a> • <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"> (2017)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>26% <a href="/wiki/Merina_people" title="Merina people">Merina</a></li><li>15% <a href="/wiki/Betsimisaraka_people" title="Betsimisaraka people">Betsimisaraka</a></li><li>12% <a href="/wiki/Betsileo_people" title="Betsileo people">Betsileo</a></li><li>7% <a href="/wiki/Tsimihety_people" title="Tsimihety people">Tsimihety</a></li><li>6% <a href="/wiki/Sakalava_people" title="Sakalava people">Sakalava</a></li><li>5% <a href="/wiki/Antaisaka_people" title="Antaisaka people">Antaisaka</a></li><li>5% <a href="/wiki/Antandroy" title="Antandroy">Antandroy</a></li><li>24% <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Madagascar">others</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"> (2020)<a href="#cite_note-grf-3">[3]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>84.7% <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Madagascar" title="Christianity in Madagascar">Christianity</a> <ul><li>45.8% <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li>38.1% <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Madagascar" title="Catholic Church in Madagascar">Catholicism</a></li> <li>0.8% other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">Christian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></li><li>7.3% <a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Africa" title="Irreligion in Africa">no religion</a></li><li>4.7% <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">traditional faiths</a></li><li>3.1% <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Madagascar" title="Islam in Madagascar">Islam</a></li><li>0.3% <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">others</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_peoples" title="Malagasy peoples">Malagasy</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Madagascar" title="Politics of Madagascar">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_republic" title="Semi-presidential republic">semi-presidential republic</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Madagascar">President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Andry_Rajoelina" title="Andry Rajoelina">Andry Rajoelina</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Madagascar" title="Prime Minister of Madagascar">Prime Minister</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Ntsay" title="Christian Ntsay">Christian Ntsay</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Madagascar" title="Parliament of Madagascar">Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate of Madagascar">Senate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Madagascar">National Assembly</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">Formation</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Kingdom</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1540</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French colony</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">6 August 1896</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">Republic</a> proclaimed </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 October 1958</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">Declaration of independence</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">26 June 1960</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Area </a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">592,796<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> km2 (228,880 sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">46th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water</div></th><td class="infobox-data">5,501 km2 (2,124 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">0.9%</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Madagascar" title="Demographics of Madagascar">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 2024 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data">31,964,956<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">49th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">55/km2 (142.4/sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">2023 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $56.754 billion<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.MG-10">[10]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP)">117th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $1,906<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.MG-10">[10]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita">182nd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">2023 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $15.763 billion<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.MG-10">[10]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal)">139th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $529<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.MG-10">[10]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">188th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2012)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Positive decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/11px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/17px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/22px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 42.6<a href="#cite_note-wb-gini-11">[11]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>medium inequality</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Steady" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/11px-Steady2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/17px-Steady2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/22px-Steady2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 0.487<a href="#cite_note-HDI-12">[12]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">low (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">177th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_ariary" title="Malagasy ariary">Ariary</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">MGA</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+3 (<a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Time" title="East Africa Time">EAT</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Summer (<a href="/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" title="Daylight saving time">DST</a>)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+3 (not observed<a href="#cite_note-Bradtp2-13">[13]</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date format</th><td class="infobox-data">dd/mm/yyyy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Madagascar" title="Telephone numbers in Madagascar">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%2B261" class="mw-redirect" title="+261">+261</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradtp2-13">[13]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:MG" title="ISO 3166-2:MG">MG</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.mg" title=".mg">.mg</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Madagascar,<a href="#cite_note-name-14">[a]</a> officially the Republic of Madagascar,<a href="#cite_note-official-name-15">[b]</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Island_country" title="Island country">island country</a> that includes the <a href="/wiki/Island_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Island of Madagascar">island of Madagascar</a> and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, it is the world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_by_area" title="List of islands by area">fourth largest island</a> (after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo), the <a href="/wiki/List_of_island_countries" title="List of island countries">second-largest island country</a> (after Indonesia), and the 46th largest country overall.<a href="#cite_note-world-atlas-16">[14]</a> Its capital and largest city is <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a>. Following the prehistoric breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> approximately 90 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is a <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot" title="Biodiversity hotspot">biodiversity hotspot</a> and one of the world's 17 <a href="/wiki/Megadiverse_countries" title="Megadiverse countries">megadiverse countries</a>, with over 90% of its <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Madagascar" title="Wildlife of Madagascar">wildlife</a> being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:4-18">[16]</a> presumably arriving on <a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">outrigger canoes</a> from present-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> These were joined around the ninth century AD by <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> groups crossing the <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Channel" title="Mozambique Channel">Mozambique Channel</a> from East Africa.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_peoples" title="Malagasy peoples">peoples of Madagascar</a>, the most numerous being the <a href="/wiki/Merina_people" title="Merina people">Merina</a> of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the <a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Kingdom of Madagascar</a> by a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Imerina_monarchs" title="List of Imerina monarchs">series</a> of Merina <a href="/wiki/Andriana" title="Andriana">nobles</a>. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">annexation by France</a>, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a <a href="/wiki/2009_Malagasy_political_crisis" title="2009 Malagasy political crisis">political crisis and military coup in 2009</a>, Madagascar underwent a <a href="/wiki/High_Transitional_Authority" title="High Transitional Authority">protracted transition towards</a> its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN), the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU), the <a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Development_Community" title="Southern African Development Community">Southern African Development Community</a> (SADC), and the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_Internationale_de_la_Francophonie" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie">Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie</a>. <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> are both <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official languages</a> of the state. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">traditional faiths</a>. Madagascar is classified as a <a href="/wiki/Least_developed_countries" title="Least developed countries">least developed country</a> by the UN.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">Ecotourism</a> and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population was considered to be <a href="/wiki/Multidimensional_Poverty_Index" title="Multidimensional Poverty Index">multidimensionally poor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-24">[22]</a> According to the World Food Programme, as of January 2025, 1.31 million citizens faced high levels of food insecurity and more than 90% of its 28 million people lived on less than $3.10 per day.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy language</a>, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Malagasy pronunciation: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malagasy" title="Help:IPA/Malagasy">[madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]</a>) and its people are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo1-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-MalagasyOrNot-27">[25]</a> The origin of the name is uncertain,<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Cousins2-29">[27]</a> If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited.<a href="#cite_note-Room_2006,_p._2302-30">[28]</a> One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word <a href="/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)" title="Malays (ethnic group)">Malay</a>, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a> origin of the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy people</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. In a map by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai, or "Malay island" in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>. The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira, as it was known by the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island.<a href="#cite_note-:022-31">[29]</a> The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu, an abbreviated form of Malai Insula, in the medieval <a href="/wiki/Hereford_Mappa_Mundi" title="Hereford Mappa Mundi">Hereford Mappa Mundi</a> as the name of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-:022-31">[29]</a> Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a>. This name would then have been popularized on <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> maps by Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Cousins2-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Room_2006,_p._2302-30">[28]</a> One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser.<a href="#cite_note-London_Missionary_Society_Press-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sibree_1896-34">[32]</a> Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal</a> traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-London_Missionary_Society_Press-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sibree_1896-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Warhafftige,_gründliche_und_aussfüh-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten" title="Jan Huyghen van Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.<a href="#cite_note-London_Missionary_Society_Press-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually became <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> An 1882 edition of the British newspaper <a href="/wiki/The_Graphic" title="The Graphic">The Graphic</a> referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> origin, and may be related to the name of <a href="/wiki/Malacca_City" title="Malacca City">Malacca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibari</a> traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the <a href="/wiki/Emin_Pasha_Relief_Expedition" title="Emin Pasha Relief Expedition">Emin Pasha Relief Expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy, and not Madagasy.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">History of Madagascar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_period">Early period</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg/220px-Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg/330px-Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg/440px-Malagasy_girls_Madagascar_Merina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy</a> ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.</figcaption></figure> Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in <a href="/wiki/Outrigger_canoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Outrigger canoe">outrigger canoes</a> from <a href="/wiki/South_Kalimantan" title="South Kalimantan">South Borneo</a>, possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> It is proposed that <a href="/wiki/Ma%27anyan_people" title="Ma'anyan people">Ma'anyan people</a> were brought as laborers and slaves by <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Javan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatran</a>-<a href="/wiki/Malay_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay (ethnic group)">Malays</a> in their trading fleets to Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-Dewar19932-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burney20042-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cox-46">[44]</a> Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.<a href="#cite_note-:4-18">[16]</a> However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See <a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar#First_inhabitants_and_settlements_(500_BCE–700_CE)" title="History of Madagascar">History of Madagascar</a>).<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a> finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> Upon arrival, early settlers practiced <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_megafauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleistocene megafauna">megafauna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> including 17 species of <a href="/wiki/Subfossil_lemur" title="Subfossil lemur">giant lemurs</a>, the large flightless <a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">elephant birds</a> (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, <a href="/wiki/Aepyornis_maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aepyornis maximus">Aepyornis maximus</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Cryptoprocta_spelea" title="Cryptoprocta spelea">giant fossa</a>, and several species of <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_hippopotamus" title="Malagasy hippopotamus">Malagasy hippopotamus</a>, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.<a href="#cite_note-Camp93-54">[52]</a> Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Wink-55">[53]</a> A wave of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a>-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> Around this time, <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> from <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> were first brought, intermingling with <a href="/wiki/Sanga_cattle" title="Sanga cattle">sanga</a> found in East Africa.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland <a href="/wiki/Betsileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Betsileo">Betsileo</a> Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Imerina" class="mw-redirect" title="Imerina">Imerina</a> a century later.<a href="#cite_note-Camp93-54">[52]</a> The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Gade_1996-58">[56]</a> The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the <a href="/wiki/Vazimba" title="Vazimba">Vazimba</a>. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings <a href="/wiki/Andriamanelo" title="Andriamanelo">Andriamanelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralambo" title="Ralambo">Ralambo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andrianjaka" title="Andrianjaka">Andrianjaka</a> in the 16th and early 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-vazimbadjp-59">[57]</a> Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.<a href="#cite_note-Mythe-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_and_European_contacts">Arab and European contacts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_(Cabral_Armada).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg/220px-Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg/330px-Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg/440px-Detail_of_Diogo_Dias%27s_ship_%28Cabral_Armada%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>European contact began in 1500 when <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese explorer</a> <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Dias" title="Diogo Dias">Diogo Dias</a> recorded the island while participating in the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Portuguese_India_Armada_(Cabral,_1500)" title="2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)">2nd Portuguese India Armadas</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">written history</a> of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as <a href="/wiki/Sorabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Sorabe">sorabe</a>), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> European contact began in 1500, when the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> sea captain <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Dias" title="Diogo Dias">Diogo Dias</a> sighted the island, while participating in the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Portuguese_India_Armada_(Cabral,_1500)" title="2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)">2nd Armada</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas" title="Portuguese India Armadas">Portuguese India Armadas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sainte_Luce_Reserve" title="Sainte Luce Reserve">Matatana</a> was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dauphin_(Madagascar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Dauphin (Madagascar)">Fort Dauphin</a>. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_de_Azevedo" title="Jerónimo de Azevedo">Jeronimo de Azevedo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-62">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matatana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Matatana.jpg/220px-Matatana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Matatana.jpg/330px-Matatana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Matatana.jpg/440px-Matatana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3227" data-file-height="2109" /></a><figcaption>Matatana, represented in a picture of 1613, regarding a settlement of the beginning of the 16th century, in the Book of Humberto Leitão"</figcaption></figure> Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal" title="John III of Portugal">João III</a> and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">trans-Atlantic slave trade</a>. The small island of <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Sainte-Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Île Sainte-Marie">Nosy Boroha</a> off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of <a href="/wiki/Libertalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertalia">Libertalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drury_(sailor)" title="Robert Drury (sailor)">Robert Drury</a>, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> European accounts until the early 20th century <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar#The_"Jewish_thesis"" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-:2-67">[65]</a> Among these were the <a href="/wiki/Betsimisaraka_people" title="Betsimisaraka people">Betsimisaraka</a> alliance of the eastern coast and the <a href="/wiki/Sakalava" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakalava">Sakalava</a> chiefdoms of <a href="/wiki/Menabe" title="Menabe">Menabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boina_Kingdom" title="Boina Kingdom">Boina</a> on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the <a href="/wiki/Rova_of_Antananarivo" title="Rova of Antananarivo">royal palace</a> of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<a href="#cite_note-Ogot-68">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Madagascar">Kingdom of Madagascar</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion with: information about the pre-Merina Betsileo and Sakalava kingdoms. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMadagascar&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+17+February+2025&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Madagascar">making an edit request</a><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madagascar&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> . (March 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Merina Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg/220px-Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg/330px-Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg/440px-Andrianampoinimerina_HQ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1297" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Andrianampoinimerina" title="Andrianampoinimerina">Andrianampoinimerina</a> (1787–1810)</figcaption></figure> Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms<a href="#cite_note-Ogot-68">[66]</a> and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King <a href="/wiki/Andriamasinavalona" title="Andriamasinavalona">Andriamasinavalona</a> divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King <a href="/wiki/Andrianampoinimerina" title="Andrianampoinimerina">Andrianampoinimerina</a> (1787–1810).<a href="#cite_note-Hodder-69">[67]</a> From his initial capital <a href="/wiki/Ambohimanga" title="Ambohimanga">Ambohimanga</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> and later from the <a href="/wiki/Rova_of_Antananarivo" title="Rova of Antananarivo">Rova of Antananarivo</a>, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King <a href="/wiki/Radama_I" title="Radama I">Radama I</a> (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as <a href="/wiki/James_Cameron_(missionary)" title="James Cameron (missionary)">James Cameron</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Jones_(missionary)" title="David Jones (missionary)">David Jones</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Griffiths_(missionary)" title="David Griffiths (missionary)">David Griffiths</a>, who established schools, transcribed the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy language</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Roman alphabet</a>, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<a href="#cite_note-Ade_Ajayi_1998,_pp._413–422-71">[69]</a> Radama's successor, Queen <a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_I" title="Ranavalona I">Ranavalona I</a> (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Madagascar" title="Christianity in Madagascar">Christianity in Madagascar</a> and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. <a href="/wiki/William_Ellis_(British_missionary)" title="William Ellis (British missionary)">William Ellis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">fanompoana</a> (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Merina" class="mw-redirect" title="Merina">Merina</a> soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of <a href="/wiki/Tangena" title="Tangena">tangena</a> was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.<a href="#cite_note-Stats-72">[70]</a> The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were <a href="/wiki/Jean_Laborde" title="Jean Laborde">Jean Laborde</a>, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lambert" title="Joseph-François Lambert">Joseph-François Lambert</a>, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince <a href="/wiki/Radama_II" title="Radama II">Radama II</a> signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was <a href="/wiki/Radama_II#Assassination_plot" title="Radama II">overthrown</a> two years later by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rainivoninahitriniony" title="Rainivoninahitriniony">Rainivoninahitriniony</a> and an alliance of <a href="/wiki/Andriana" title="Andriana">Andriana</a> (noble) and <a href="/wiki/Hova_(Madagascar)" title="Hova (Madagascar)">Hova</a> (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, <a href="/wiki/Rasoherina" title="Rasoherina">Rasoherina</a>, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rainilaiarivony" title="Rainilaiarivony">Rainilaiarivony</a>, who would go on to marry Queen <a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_II" title="Ranavalona II">Ranavalona II</a> and Queen <a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_III" title="Ranavalona III">Ranavalona III</a> in succession.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.<a href="#cite_note-TA910-76">[74]</a> Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FFO522-77">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a> was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.<a href="#cite_note-TA910-76">[74]</a> Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.<a href="#cite_note-FFO522-77">[75]</a> In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<a href="#cite_note-FFO522-77">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_colonization">French colonization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Protectorate" title="Malagasy Protectorate">Malagasy Protectorate</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French Madagascar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar in World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/170px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/255px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg/340px-LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5300" data-file-height="7976" /></a><figcaption>A French poster about the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Hova_Wars" title="Franco-Hova Wars">Franco-Hova War</a></figcaption></figure> Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first <a href="/wiki/Franco-Hova_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Hova War">Franco-Hova War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Boogaerde_p7-78">[76]</a> At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of <a href="/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Antsiranana</a> (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.<a href="#cite_note-Randier_p400-79">[77]</a> In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Toamasina" title="Toamasina">Toamasina</a> on the east coast, and <a href="/wiki/Mahajanga" title="Mahajanga">Mahajanga</a> on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Disease-80">[78]</a> A French military <a href="/wiki/Flying_column" title="Flying column">flying column</a> then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Popular resistance to the French capture of <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a>—known as the <a href="/wiki/Menalamba_rebellion" title="Menalamba rebellion">Menalamba rebellion</a>—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion Island</a> and to Algeria. The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.<a href="#cite_note-Frémigacci-89">[87]</a> Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg/220px-29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg/330px-29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg/440px-29_Mars_1947_Monument.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>National monument in <a href="/wiki/Moramanga" title="Moramanga">Moramanga</a> commemorating the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising</a> on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a></figcaption></figure> Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> The Merina royal tradition of <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">taxes paid in the form of labor</a> was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Malagasy troops fought for France in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi</a> political thinkers developed the <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a> that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.<a href="#cite_note-contemplation-94">[92]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, the island was the site of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy French</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> expeditionary force.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising</a> of 1947.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the <a href="/wiki/Loi_Cadre" class="mw-redirect" title="Loi Cadre">Loi Cadre</a> (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.<a href="#cite_note-Kitchen_1962,_p._256-97">[95]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">Malagasy Republic</a> was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous entity">autonomous</a> state within the <a href="/wiki/French_Community" title="French Community">French Community</a>. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_state">Independent state</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">Malagasy Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Democratic Republic of Madagascar">Democratic Republic of Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Third_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Third Republic of Madagascar">Third Republic of Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg/170px-Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg/255px-Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg/340px-Philibert_Tsiranana_1962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philibert_Tsiranana" title="Philibert Tsiranana">Philibert Tsiranana</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Madagascar">president of Madagascar</a> (1960–1972)</figcaption></figure> Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">First Republic</a> (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President <a href="/wiki/Philibert_Tsiranana" title="Philibert Tsiranana">Philibert Tsiranana</a>, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a <a href="/wiki/Rotaka" title="Rotaka">series of farmer and student protests</a> that overturned his administration in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Ramanantsoa" title="Gabriel Ramanantsoa">Gabriel Ramanantsoa</a>, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel <a href="/wiki/Richard_Ratsimandrava" title="Richard Ratsimandrava">Richard Ratsimandrava</a>, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Andriamahazo" title="Gilles Andriamahazo">Gilles Andriamahazo</a> ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/Didier_Ratsiraka" title="Didier Ratsiraka">Didier Ratsiraka</a>, who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Democratic Republic of Madagascar">Second Republic</a> that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> This period saw a political alignment with the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a>, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.<a href="#cite_note-ISS-100">[98]</a> Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Zafy" title="Albert Zafy">Albert Zafy</a> (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the <a href="/wiki/Third_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Third Republic of Madagascar">Third Republic</a> (1992–2010).<a href="#cite_note-crisisgroup-101">[99]</a> The new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Madagascar" title="Constitution of Madagascar">Madagascar constitution</a> established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Ratsirahonana" title="Norbert Ratsirahonana">Norbert Ratsirahonana</a>, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.<a href="#cite_note-ISS-100">[98]</a> The contested <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_presidential_election,_2001" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy presidential election, 2001">2001 presidential elections</a> in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.<a href="#cite_note-ISS-100">[98]</a> Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, <a href="/wiki/Andry_Rajoelina" title="Andry Rajoelina">Andry Rajoelina</a>, led a <a href="/wiki/2009_Malagasy_political_crisis" title="2009 Malagasy political crisis">movement in early 2009</a> in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the <a href="/wiki/High_Transitional_Authority" title="High Transitional Authority">High Transitional Authority</a>, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_constitutional_referendum,_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010">adopted by referendum</a>, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.<a href="#cite_note-crisisgroup-101">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hery_Rajaonarimampianina" title="Hery Rajaonarimampianina">Hery Rajaonarimampianina</a> was declared the winner of the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_general_election,_2013" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy general election, 2013">2013 presidential election</a>, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> In 2018 the first round of the <a href="/wiki/2018_Malagasy_presidential_election" title="2018 Malagasy presidential election">presidential election</a> was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> In June 2019 <a href="/wiki/2019_Malagasy_parliamentary_election" title="2019 Malagasy parliamentary election">parliamentary elections</a> the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Madagascar_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="2021–2022 Madagascar famine">2021–2022 Madagascar famine</a> which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food insecurity</a> and over one million people were on the verge of a <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the <a href="/wiki/2023_Malagasy_presidential_election" title="2023 Malagasy presidential election">election</a> amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Geography of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Madagascar" title="Geology of Madagascar">Geology of Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_topo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Madagascar_topo.jpg/290px-Madagascar_topo.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Madagascar_topo.jpg/435px-Madagascar_topo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Madagascar_topo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Land coverage (left) and topographical (right) maps of Madagascar</figcaption></figure> At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi),<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> Madagascar is the world's 46th <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">largest country</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cia-110">[108]</a> the second-largest <a href="/wiki/List_of_island_countries" title="List of island countries">island country</a><a href="#cite_note-world-atlas-16">[14]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_by_area" title="List of islands by area">fourth-largest island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> The country lies mostly between latitudes <a href="/wiki/12th_parallel_south" title="12th parallel south">12°S</a> and <a href="/wiki/26th_parallel_south" title="26th parallel south">26°S</a>, and longitudes <a href="/wiki/43rd_meridian_east" title="43rd meridian east">43°E</a> and <a href="/wiki/51st_meridian_east" title="51st meridian east">51°E</a>.<a href="#cite_note-georeport-111">[109]</a> Neighboring islands include the French territory of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> and the country of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> to the east, as well as the state of <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> and the French territory of <a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> to the north west. The nearest mainland state is <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep <a href="/wiki/Escarpment" title="Escarpment">escarpment</a> containing much of the island's remaining tropical <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_lowland_forests" title="Madagascar lowland forests">lowland forest</a>. To the west of this ridge lies a <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a> in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These <a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_(Madagascar)" title="Central Highlands (Madagascar)">central highlands</a>, traditionally the homeland of the <a href="/wiki/Merina_people" title="Merina people">Merina people</a> and the location of their historic capital at <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a>, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_subhumid_forests" title="Madagascar subhumid forests">subhumid forests</a> that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Channel" title="Mozambique Channel">Mozambique Channel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_mangroves" title="Madagascar mangroves">mangrove swamps</a> along the coast.<a href="#cite_note-endemicstats-114">[112]</a> Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland <a href="/wiki/Massif" title="Massif">massifs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Maromokotro" title="Maromokotro">Maromokotro</a> 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Tsaratanana_Massif" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsaratanana Massif">Tsaratanana Massif</a> is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Andringitra_Massif" title="Andringitra Massif">Andringitra Massif</a>, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Ankaratra" title="Ankaratra">Ankaratra</a> Massif. To the east, the <a href="/wiki/Canal_des_Pangalanes" title="Canal des Pangalanes">Canal des Pangalanes</a> is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> The western and southern sides, which lie in the <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> of the central highlands, are home to <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_dry_deciduous_forests" title="Madagascar dry deciduous forests">dry deciduous forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_spiny_forests" title="Madagascar spiny forests">spiny forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">deserts and xeric shrublands</a>. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate">Climate</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg/290px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg/435px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg/580px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_MDG_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> map of Madagascar</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar#Climate" title="Geography of Madagascar">Geography of Madagascar § Climate</a></div> The combination of southeastern <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoons</a> produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclones</a>, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid climate</a> prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.<a href="#cite_note-endemicstats-114">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclones</a> cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Gafilo" title="Cyclone Gafilo">Cyclone Gafilo</a> became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless<a href="#cite_note-gafilo-116">[114]</a> and caused more than US$250 million in damage.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-117">[115]</a> In February 2022, <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Batsirai" title="Cyclone Batsirai">Cyclone Batsirai</a> killed 121 people,<a href="#cite_note-:4-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> weeks after <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Ana_(2022)" title="Tropical Storm Ana (2022)">Cyclone Ana</a> killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Madagascar" title="Climate change in Madagascar">climate change</a>, are going to be high.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity_and_conservation">Biodiversity and conservation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Madagascar" title="Wildlife of Madagascar">Wildlife of Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Madagascar" title="Flora of Madagascar">Flora of Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Madagascar" title="Fauna of Madagascar">Fauna of Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Madagascar" title="Agriculture in Madagascar">Agriculture in Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecoregions_of_Madagascar" title="Ecoregions of Madagascar">Ecoregions of Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Madagascar" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar">List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Madagascar" title="Deforestation in Madagascar">Deforestation in Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging_in_Madagascar" title="Illegal logging in Madagascar">Illegal logging in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg/220px-Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg/330px-Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg/440px-Angraecum_sesquipedale_Orchi_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Comet orchid (<a href="/wiki/Angraecum_sesquipedale" title="Angraecum sesquipedale">Angraecum sesquipedale</a>), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of <a href="/wiki/Sphingidae" title="Sphingidae">hawkmoth</a> with a proboscis of matching length.</figcaption></figure> As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various <a href="/wiki/Endemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic">endemic</a> plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-tattersall-122">[120]</a> Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> and the island has been classified by <a href="/wiki/Conservation_International" title="Conservation International">Conservation International</a> as a biodiversity hotspot.<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a> Madagascar is classed as one of 17 <a href="/wiki/Megadiverse_countries" title="Megadiverse countries">megadiverse countries</a>. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_lowland_forests" title="Madagascar lowland forests">Madagascar lowland forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_subhumid_forests" title="Madagascar subhumid forests">Madagascar subhumid forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_dry_deciduous_forests" title="Madagascar dry deciduous forests">Madagascar dry deciduous forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_ericoid_thickets" title="Madagascar ericoid thickets">Madagascar ericoid thickets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_spiny_forests" title="Madagascar spiny forests">Madagascar spiny forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_succulent_woodlands" title="Madagascar succulent woodlands">Madagascar succulent woodlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_mangroves" title="Madagascar mangroves">Madagascar mangroves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DinersteinOlson2017-125">[123]</a> More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 <a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Madagascar" title="Flora of Madagascar">plant species</a> are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.<a href="#cite_note-endemism-126">[124]</a> The family <a href="/wiki/Didiereaceae" title="Didiereaceae">Didiereaceae</a>, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_spiny_thickets" class="mw-redirect" title="Madagascar spiny thickets">spiny forests</a> of southwestern Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-endemicstats-114">[112]</a> Four-fifths of the world's <a href="/wiki/Pachypodium" title="Pachypodium">Pachypodium</a> species are endemic to the island.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Three-fourths<a href="#cite_note-B2011plant-128">[126]</a> of Madagascar's 860<a href="#cite_note-endemism-126">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orchidaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchidaceae">orchid</a> species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine <a href="/wiki/Adansonia" title="Adansonia">baobab</a> species.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> The island is home to around 170 <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a> species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.<a href="#cite_note-B2011plant-128">[126]</a> Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs <a href="/wiki/Vinblastine" title="Vinblastine">vinblastine</a><a href="#cite_note-MoleculesReview-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vincristine" title="Vincristine">vincristine</a><a href="#cite_note-MoleculesReview-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> are <a href="/wiki/Vinca_alkaloid" title="Vinca alkaloid">vinca alkaloids</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> used to treat <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin_lymphoma" title="Hodgkin lymphoma">Hodgkin lymphoma</a>,<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> and other cancers,<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> were derived from the <a href="/wiki/Catharanthus" title="Catharanthus">Madagascar periwinkle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-periw-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ravenala" title="Ravenala">traveler's palm</a>, known locally as ravinala<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> and endemic to the eastern rain forests,<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the <a href="/wiki/Air_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Madagascar">Air Madagascar</a> logo.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OaklandZooLemurs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two ring-tailed lemurs curled up together" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OaklandZooLemurs.jpg/220px-OaklandZooLemurs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OaklandZooLemurs.jpg/330px-OaklandZooLemurs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/OaklandZooLemurs.jpg/440px-OaklandZooLemurs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur" title="Ring-tailed lemur">ring-tailed lemur</a> is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-2009Mittermeier-143">[141]</a></figcaption></figure> Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a> In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madagascar&action=edit">[update]</a>, there were officially <a href="/wiki/List_of_lemur_species" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lemur species">103 species and subspecies of lemur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lemurextinction-144">[142]</a> 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Mittermeier2008-145">[143]</a> They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> A number of other mammals, including the catlike <a href="/wiki/Fossa_(animal)" title="Fossa (animal)">fossa</a>, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a> The few families and genera of <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic<a href="#cite_note-Okajima-147">[145]</a> (including one endemic family).<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a> The island is home to two-thirds of the world's <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleon</a> species,<a href="#cite_note-Okajima-147">[145]</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Brookesia_nana" title="Brookesia nana">smallest known</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, <a href="/wiki/Scarabaeidae" title="Scarabaeidae">scarab beetles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroptera" title="Neuroptera">lacewings</a>, spiders, and dragonflies.<a href="#cite_note-CIHotSpot-121">[119]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Burning Malagasy rainforest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/200px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/300px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/400px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2166" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_erosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vast, red soil gully caused by erosion" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Madagascar_erosion.jpg/200px-Madagascar_erosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Madagascar_erosion.jpg/300px-Madagascar_erosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Madagascar_erosion.jpg/400px-Madagascar_erosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Tavy (<a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a>) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion (bottom).</div></div></div></div> Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.<a href="#cite_note-Gade_1996-58">[56]</a> Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy).<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-152">[150]</a> By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.<a href="#cite_note-Gade_1996-58">[56]</a> More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> over the past century.<a href="#cite_note-spittingwind-153">[151]</a> According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President <a href="/wiki/Marc_Ravalomanana" title="Marc Ravalomanana">Marc Ravalomanana</a> from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of <a href="/wiki/Andry_Rajoelina" title="Andry Rajoelina">Andry Rajoelina</a> as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the <a href="/wiki/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus" title="Duttaphrynus melanostictus">Asian common toad</a>, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's <a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">elephant birds</a>, a family of endemic giant <a href="/wiki/Ratite" title="Ratite">ratites</a>, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.<a href="#cite_note-Davies-157">[155]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Subfossil_lemur" title="Subfossil lemur">giant lemur</a> species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in <a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a> found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's <a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Madagascar" title="Protected areas of Madagascar">protected natural areas</a> to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madagascar&action=edit">[update]</a>, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Madagascar" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar">World Heritage Site</a> under the name <a href="/wiki/Rainforests_of_the_Atsinanana" title="Rainforests of the Atsinanana">Rainforests of the Atsinanana</a>. These parks are <a href="/wiki/Marojejy_National_Park" title="Marojejy National Park">Marojejy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masoala_National_Park" title="Masoala National Park">Masoala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ranomafana_National_Park" title="Ranomafana National Park">Ranomafana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zahamena_National_Park" title="Zahamena National Park">Zahamena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andohahela_National_Park" title="Andohahela National Park">Andohahela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andringitra_National_Park" title="Andringitra National Park">Andringitra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Madagascar">Government of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Madagascar" title="Cabinet of Madagascar">Cabinet of Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antananarivo05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Antananarivo05.jpg/220px-Antananarivo05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Antananarivo05.jpg/330px-Antananarivo05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Antananarivo05.jpg/440px-Antananarivo05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a> is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.</figcaption></figure> Madagascar is a <a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">semi-presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">multi-party</a> republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Madagascar" title="Prime Minister of Madagascar">prime minister</a>, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Madagascar" title="Constitution of Madagascar">constitution</a>, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet,<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate of Madagascar">Senate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Madagascar">National Assembly</a>, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> The public directly elects the president and the 151 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 18 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 12 senators elected by local officials and 6 appointed by the president. At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.<a href="#cite_note-justiceMada-164">[162]</a> The courts, which adhere to <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.<a href="#cite_note-mediainfo-165">[163]</a> Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of <a href="/wiki/Twelve_sacred_hills_of_Imerina#Hill_of_Analamanga" title="Twelve sacred hills of Imerina">Analamanga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vazimbadjp-59">[57]</a> As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> The next largest cities are <a href="/wiki/Antsirabe" title="Antsirabe">Antsirabe</a> (500,000), <a href="/wiki/Toamasina" title="Toamasina">Toamasina</a> (450,000) and <a href="/wiki/Mahajanga" title="Mahajanga">Mahajanga</a> (400,000).<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Madagascar" title="Politics of Madagascar">Politics of Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Madagascar" title="Foreign relations of Madagascar">Foreign relations of Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Madagascar" title="Human rights in Madagascar">Human rights in Madagascar</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg/190px-Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg/285px-Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg/380px-Andry_Rajoelina_greeting_crowd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption>Madagascar's President <a href="/wiki/Andry_Rajoelina" title="Andry Rajoelina">Andry Rajoelina</a></figcaption></figure> Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/2009_Malagasy_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 Malagasy protests">A series of protests</a> led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.<a href="#cite_note-ethnicstrife-169">[167]</a> Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a>, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a>. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the <a href="/wiki/2009_Malagasy_political_crisis" title="2009 Malagasy political crisis">unconstitutional transfer of executive power</a> to Rajoelina.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> Madagascar is a member of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_military" class="mw-redirect" title="United States military">United States military</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India,<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> while Madagascar has <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Madagascar" title="List of diplomatic missions of Madagascar">embassies in sixteen other countries</a>. Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DOS-172">[170]</a> Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOS-172">[170]</a> Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> Accusations of media <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_law_enforcement">Military and law enforcement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Madagascar">Military of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Madagascar" title="Law enforcement in Madagascar">Law enforcement in Madagascar</a></div> The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.<a href="#cite_note-army-176">[174]</a> French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police.<a href="#cite_note-justiceMada-164">[162]</a> The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> Traditional community tribunals, called dina, are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.<a href="#cite_note-justiceMada-164">[162]</a> Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Madagascar" title="Regions of Madagascar">Regions of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Madagascar" title="Districts of Madagascar">Districts of Madagascar</a></div> Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (faritra).<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regions_of_Madagascar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Regions_of_Madagascar.svg/220px-Regions_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Regions_of_Madagascar.svg/330px-Regions_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Regions_of_Madagascar.svg/440px-Regions_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="1458" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Madagascar" title="Regions of Madagascar">Madagascar's regions</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Regions and former provinces<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>New regions</th> <th>Former provinces</th> <th>Area in km2</th> <th>Population 2018<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diana_Region" title="Diana Region">Diana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antsiranana_Province" title="Antsiranana Province">Antsiranana</a></td> <td align="right">19,993</td> <td align="right">889,962 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sava_Region" title="Sava Region">Sava</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antsiranana_Province" title="Antsiranana Province">Antsiranana</a></td> <td align="right">23,794</td> <td align="right">1,123,772 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Itasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Itasy">Itasy</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo_Province" title="Antananarivo Province">Antananarivo</a></td> <td align="right">6,579</td> <td align="right">898,549 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Analamanga" title="Analamanga">Analamanga</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo_Province" title="Antananarivo Province">Antananarivo</a></td> <td align="right">17,346</td> <td align="right">3,623,925 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vakinankaratra" title="Vakinankaratra">Vakinankaratra</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo_Province" title="Antananarivo Province">Antananarivo</a></td> <td align="right">17,884</td> <td align="right">2,079,659 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bongolava" title="Bongolava">Bongolava</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo_Province" title="Antananarivo Province">Antananarivo</a></td> <td align="right">18,096</td> <td align="right">670,993 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sofia_Region" title="Sofia Region">Sofia</a> (7)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahajanga_Province" title="Mahajanga Province">Mahajanga</a></td> <td align="right">50,973</td> <td align="right">1,507,591 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeny" title="Boeny">Boeny</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahajanga_Province" title="Mahajanga Province">Mahajanga</a></td> <td align="right">31,250</td> <td align="right">929,312 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Betsiboka" title="Betsiboka">Betsiboka</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahajanga_Province" title="Mahajanga Province">Mahajanga</a></td> <td align="right">28,964</td> <td align="right">393,278 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melaky" title="Melaky">Melaky</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahajanga_Province" title="Mahajanga Province">Mahajanga</a></td> <td align="right">40,863</td> <td align="right">308,944 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alaotra_Mangoro" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaotra Mangoro">Alaotra Mangoro</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toamasina_Province" title="Toamasina Province">Toamasina</a></td> <td align="right">27,846</td> <td align="right">1,249,931 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atsinanana" title="Atsinanana">Atsinanana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toamasina_Province" title="Toamasina Province">Toamasina</a></td> <td align="right">22,031</td> <td align="right">1,478,472 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Analanjirofo" title="Analanjirofo">Analanjirofo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toamasina_Province" title="Toamasina Province">Toamasina</a></td> <td align="right">21,666</td> <td align="right">1,150,089 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amoron%27i_Mania" title="Amoron'i Mania">Amoron'i Mania</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td align="right">16,480</td> <td align="right">837,116 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Haute-Matsiatra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haute-Matsiatra">Haute-Matsiatra</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td align="right">20,820</td> <td align="right">1,444,587 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vatovavy" title="Vatovavy">Vatovavy</a>-<a href="/wiki/Fitovinany" title="Fitovinany">Fitovinany</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td align="right">20,740</td> <td align="right">1,440,657 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atsimo-Atsinanana" title="Atsimo-Atsinanana">Atsimo-Atsinanana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td align="right">16,632</td> <td align="right">1,030,404 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ihorombe" title="Ihorombe">Ihorombe</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td align="right">26,046</td> <td align="right">418,520 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Menabe" title="Menabe">Menabe</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toliara_Province" title="Toliara Province">Toliara</a></td> <td align="right">48,814</td> <td align="right">692,463 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atsimo-Andrefana" title="Atsimo-Andrefana">Atsimo-Andrefana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toliara_Province" title="Toliara Province">Toliara</a></td> <td align="right">66,627</td> <td align="right">1,797,894 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Androy" title="Androy">Androy</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toliara_Province" title="Toliara Province">Toliara</a></td> <td align="right">18,949</td> <td align="right">900,235 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anosy" title="Anosy">Anosy</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toliara_Province" title="Toliara Province">Toliara</a></td> <td align="right">29,505</td> <td align="right">809,051 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Totals</td> <td></td> <td align="right">591,896</td> <td align="right">25,674,196 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations_involvement">United Nations involvement</h3></div> Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Stabilisation_Mission_in_Haiti" title="United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti">United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-:0-186">[184]</a> These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-186">[184]</a> In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons">treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madagascar" title="Economy of Madagascar">Economy of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Madagascar" title="Tourism in Madagascar">Tourism in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_GDP_per_capita,_1950_to_2022.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png/220px-Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png/330px-Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png/440px-Madagascar_GDP_per_capita%2C_1950_to_2022.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2825" /></a><figcaption>Historical change in per capita GDP of Madagascar since 1950</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg/220px-Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg/330px-Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg/440px-Nosy-iranja-beach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2120" data-file-height="1468" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nosy_Iranja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nosy Iranja (page does not exist)">Nosy Iranja</a> is one of the international tourism destinations in Madagascar</figcaption></figure> Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>, as of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is <a href="/wiki/Multidimensional_Poverty_Index" title="Multidimensional Poverty Index">multidimensionally poor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-24">[22]</a> During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.<a href="#cite_note-AEO2011-192">[190]</a> The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.<a href="#cite_note-tourismsector-194">[192]</a> An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-AEO2011-192">[190]</a> However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year;<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017,<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1%<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> The main economic resources of Madagascar are <a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Madagascar" title="Tourism in Madagascar">tourism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Madagascar" title="Agriculture in Madagascar">agriculture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Madagascar" title="Mining industry of Madagascar">mining</a>. Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_resources_and_trade">Natural resources and trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg/220px-Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg/330px-Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg/440px-Raffia_animals_created_by_artisans_in_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Toy animals made from <a href="/wiki/Raffia" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffia">raffia</a>, a native palm<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a></figcaption></figure> Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of <a href="/wiki/Raffia" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffia">raffia</a>), mining, fishing and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">vanilla</a>, cloves<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ylang-ylang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ylang-ylang">ylang-ylang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gafilo-116">[114]</a> The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> Other key agricultural resources include coffee, <a href="/wiki/Lychee" title="Lychee">lychees</a> and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near <a href="/wiki/Ilakaka" title="Ilakaka">Ilakaka</a> in the late 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of <a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">ilmenite</a> (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> Several major projects are underway in the mining, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">gas</a> sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining at the <a href="/wiki/Mandena" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandena">Mandena</a> mine by <a href="/wiki/Rio_Tinto_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Tinto Group">Rio Tinto</a>,<a href="#cite_note-RioTinto-207">[205]</a> extraction of nickel by the <a href="/wiki/Ambatovy_mine" title="Ambatovy mine">Ambatovy mine</a> near <a href="/wiki/Moramanga" title="Moramanga">Moramanga</a> and its processing near Toamasina by <a href="/wiki/Sherritt_International" title="Sherritt International">Sherritt International</a>,<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> and the development of the giant onshore <a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy oil</a> deposits at <a href="/wiki/Tsimiroro" title="Tsimiroro">Tsimiroro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bemolanga" title="Bemolanga">Bemolanga</a> by <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Oil" title="Madagascar Oil">Madagascar Oil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.<a href="#cite_note-AEO2011-192">[190]</a> France is the nation's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties.<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> High-value cash crops for export such as lychees are more recent growth areas, with 18,000 tons sold abroad in 2023, of which 16,000 tons were exported to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Madagascar-U.S._Business_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madagascar-U.S. Business Council (page does not exist)">Madagascar-U.S. Business Council</a> was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between <a href="/wiki/USAID" class="mw-redirect" title="USAID">USAID</a> and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.<a href="#cite_note-handicrafts-211">[209]</a> Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Madagascar_relations" title="China–Madagascar relations">China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrastructure_and_media">Infrastructure and media</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Madagascar" title="Transport in Madagascar">Transport in Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Telecommunications in Madagascar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Madagascar" title="List of newspapers in Madagascar">List of newspapers in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG/220px-Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG/330px-Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG/440px-Antananarivo_Madagascar_people_reading_news.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A news stand in Antananarivo</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg/220px-AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg/330px-AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg/440px-AmbatolampyOchsenkarren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3114" data-file-height="2857" /></a><figcaption>In many places oxcarts are an important medium of transport, like in <a href="/wiki/Ambatolampy" title="Ambatolampy">Ambatolampy</a></figcaption></figure> In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways.<a href="#cite_note-Bradtp2-13">[13]</a> The majority of <a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Roads in Madagascar">roads in Madagascar</a> are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved <a href="/wiki/National_routes_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="National routes of Madagascar">national routes</a> connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Construction of the <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo%E2%80%93Toamasina_toll_highway" title="Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway">Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway</a>, the country's first <a href="/wiki/Toll_highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Toll highway">toll highway</a>, began in December 2022. The approximately <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>1,000,000,000 infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete.<a href="#cite_note-:12-213">[211]</a> Another project meant to create 348 kilometers of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million. This includes a €116 million grant from the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, a €110 million loan from the <a href="/wiki/European_Investment_Bank" title="European Investment Bank">European Investment Bank</a>, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-:1403-214">[212]</a> Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.<a href="#cite_note-:1403-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> There are several <a href="/wiki/Rail_lines_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail lines in Madagascar">rail lines in Madagascar</a>. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north and Taolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money.<a href="#cite_note-:1403-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by <a href="/wiki/Rio_Tinto_(corporation)" title="Rio Tinto (corporation)">Rio Tinto</a>, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.<a href="#cite_note-RioTinto-207">[205]</a> <a href="/wiki/Air_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Madagascar">Air Madagascar</a> services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, <a href="/wiki/Jirama" title="Jirama">Jirama</a>, which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madagascar&action=edit">[update]</a>, only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> Fifty-six percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided by diesel engine generators.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than two kilometres away from an all-season road.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.<a href="#cite_note-:1403-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.<a href="#cite_note-mediainfo-165">[163]</a> In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina),<a href="#cite_note-CrossroadsMarcus-155">[153]</a> contributing to political polarization in reporting. The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close.<a href="#cite_note-mediainfo-165">[163]</a> Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.<a href="#cite_note-DOS-172">[170]</a> Access to the internet has grown dramatically in the 21st century; in December 2011, an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessed the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés .<a href="#cite_note-mediainfo-165">[163]</a> By January 2022, 22.3 percent of the population (6.43 million people) had internet access, mostly through mobile phones.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Madagascar" title="Demographics of Madagascar">Demographics of Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Madagascar" title="List of cities in Madagascar">List of cities in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Madagascar showing distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar_Map.png/350px-Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar_Map.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="445" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar_Map.png 1.5x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The regional distribution of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Madagascar">Malagasy ethnic subgroups</a></figcaption></figure> Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.<a href="#cite_note-:5-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-:5-223">[221]</a> Approximately 39.3 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4 percent of the total population.<a href="#cite_note-:5-223">[221]</a> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_groups">Ethnic groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Madagascar">Ethnic groups of Madagascar</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy</a> ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceanian</a> and East African genes,<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tofanelli-225">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cox-46">[44]</a> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Madagascar" title="Indians in Madagascar">Indian</a>, or European ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-Adelaar-226">[224]</a> Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> – are most predominant among the <a href="/wiki/Merina_people" title="Merina people">Merina</a> of the central highlands,<a href="#cite_note-ethnicstrife-169">[167]</a> who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26 percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called côtiers) have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the <a href="/wiki/Betsimisaraka_people" title="Betsimisaraka people">Betsimisaraka</a> (14.9 percent) and the <a href="/wiki/Tsimihety" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsimihety">Tsimihety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sakalava" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakalava">Sakalava</a> (6 percent each).<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples. <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Malagasy ethnic subgroups</th> <th>Regional concentration </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Antankarana" title="Antankarana">Antankarana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sakalava_people" title="Sakalava people">Sakalava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsimihety_people" title="Tsimihety people">Tsimihety</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Antsiranana_Province" title="Antsiranana Province">Antsiranana Province</a>; north and northwestern coasts </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sakalava_people" title="Sakalava people">Sakalava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vezo_people" title="Vezo people">Vezo</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Mahajanga_Province" title="Mahajanga Province">Mahajanga Province</a>; western coast </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Betsimisaraka_people" title="Betsimisaraka people">Betsimisaraka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sihanaka" title="Sihanaka">Sihanaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bezanozano" title="Bezanozano">Bezanozano</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Toamasina_Province" title="Toamasina Province">Toamasina Province</a>; eastern coast </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Merina_people" title="Merina people">Merina</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo_Province" title="Antananarivo Province">Antananarivo Province</a>; central highlands </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Betsileo_people" title="Betsileo people">Betsileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antaifasy" title="Antaifasy">Antaifasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antambahoaka" title="Antambahoaka">Antambahoaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antemoro_people" title="Antemoro people">Antaimoro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antaisaka_people" title="Antaisaka people">Antaisaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanala" title="Tanala">Tanala</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa_Province" title="Fianarantsoa Province">Fianarantsoa Province</a>; southeastern coast </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mahafaly" title="Mahafaly">Mahafaly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antandroy" title="Antandroy">Antandroy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antanosy_people" title="Antanosy people">Antanosy people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bara_people" title="Bara people">Bara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vezo" class="mw-redirect" title="Vezo">Vezo</a></td> <td>Former <a href="/wiki/Toliara_Province" title="Toliara Province">Toliara Province</a>; southern inland regions and coast </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Madagascar" title="Chinese people in Madagascar">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Madagascar" title="Indians in Madagascar">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoran</a> minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a>) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> The number of <a href="/wiki/French_people_in_Madagascar" title="French people in Madagascar">Europeans</a> has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958<a href="#cite_note-Kitchen_1962,_p._256-97">[95]</a> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Largest_cities">Largest cities</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219497266">.mw-parser-output .largestCities-table-background{background:#f9f9f9;color:#222}.mw-parser-output .largestCities-cell-background{background:#f0f0f0;color:#222}</style> <div> <table style="font-size:88%;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 100%; border: 1px solid darkgray;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10" style="padding:0.3em 0.75em;"><div style="float:right; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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style="height:2.6em;line-height:1.3em;">Largest cities or towns in Madagascar <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal;">According to the 2018 Census<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a></div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Madagascar" title="List of cities in Madagascar">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Madagascar" title="Regions of Madagascar">Region</a> </th> <th>Pop. </th></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">1</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Analamanga" title="Analamanga">Analamanga</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,275,207 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">2</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Toamasina" title="Toamasina">Toamasina</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Atsinanana" title="Atsinanana">Atsinanana</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">326,286 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">3</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Antsirabe" title="Antsirabe">Antsirabe</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Vakinankaratra" title="Vakinankaratra">Vakinankaratra</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">245,592 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">4</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mahajanga" title="Mahajanga">Mahajanga</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Boeny" title="Boeny">Boeny</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">244,722 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">5</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Fianarantsoa" title="Fianarantsoa">Fianarantsoa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Haute_Matsiatra" title="Haute Matsiatra">Haute Matsiatra</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">189,879 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">6</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Toliara" title="Toliara">Toliara</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Atsimo-Andrefana" title="Atsimo-Andrefana">Atsimo-Andrefana</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">169,760 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">7</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Antsiranana</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diana_Region" title="Diana Region">Diana</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">131,165 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">8</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Andoany" title="Andoany">Hell-Ville</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diana_Region" title="Diana Region">Diana</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">109,365 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">9</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sambava" title="Sambava">Sambava</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sava_Region" title="Sava Region">Sava</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">85,659 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">10</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B4lanaro" class="mw-redirect" title="Tôlanaro">Taolagnaro</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Anosy" title="Anosy">Anosy</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">67,188 </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_Kids_5_(4814978342).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg/220px-Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg/330px-Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg/440px-Madagascar_Kids_5_%284814978342%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>A Malagasy child</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Madagascar" title="Languages of Madagascar">Languages of Madagascar</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy language</a> is of <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayo-Polynesian">Malayo-Polynesian</a> origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. The <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy language</a> derives from the Southeast <a href="/wiki/Barito_languages" title="Barito languages">Barito languages</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Ma%27anyan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'anyan language">Ma'anyan language</a> being its closest relative, incorporating numerous <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a <a href="/wiki/Francophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone">francophone</a> country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_constitutional_referendum,_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010">a referendum</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4thRepublic-1">[1]</a> recognised only Malagasy and French. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Religion in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG/220px-Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG/330px-Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG/440px-Antsirabe_-_%C3%A9glise.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette_Cathedral,_Antsirabe" title="Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral, Antsirabe">Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antsirabe" title="Antsirabe">Antsirabe</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg/220px-130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg/330px-130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg/440px-130415-Eglise_de_Faravohitra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1397" data-file-height="926" /></a><figcaption>Faravohitra <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> Church in <a href="/wiki/Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> at 7 percent. However, according to the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> in 2020, 85% of the population identified as <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Madagascar" title="Christianity in Madagascar">Christian</a>, while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions; <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in Madagascar">Roman Catholics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pew-234">[232]</a> In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Religion_Data_Archives" title="Association of Religion Data Archives">Association of Religion Data Archives</a> found 58.1% of the population was <a href="/wiki/Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian">Christian</a>, 2.1% <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>, 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was <a href="/wiki/Irreligious" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreligious">nonreligious</a> or adhered to other faiths.<a href="#cite_note-National_Profiles-235">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretizing</a> different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">Christian minister</a> to consecrate a famadihana reburial.<a href="#cite_note-famadihana-236">[234]</a> Christianity is predominant in the highlands.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Jesus_Christ_in_Madagascar" title="Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar">Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Lutheran_Church" title="Malagasy Lutheran Church">Lutheran</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Province_of_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean">Anglican</a>) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.<a href="#cite_note-USSD-238">[236]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">veneration of ancestors</a> has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the <a href="/wiki/Famadihana" title="Famadihana">famadihana</a>, whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a <a href="/wiki/Hiragasy" title="Hiragasy">hiragasy</a> troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.<a href="#cite_note-famadihana-236">[234]</a> Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to <a href="/wiki/Fady_(taboo)" title="Fady (taboo)">fady</a>, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called <a href="/wiki/Zanahary" title="Zanahary">Zanahary</a> or Andriamanitra.<a href="#cite_note-Bradtbeliefs-239">[237]</a> Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Madagascar" title="Islam in Madagascar">Muslims</a> constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-National_Profiles-235">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Mahajanga" title="Mahajanga">Mahajanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Antsiranana</a>. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans. <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> was introduced to Madagascar through <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_people" title="Gujarati people">Gujarati people</a> immigrating from the <a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_(region)" title="Saurashtra (region)">Saurashtra</a> region of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-id-240">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired <a href="/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" title="Messianic Judaism">Messianic Jews</a> in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>. In 2016, 121 members of the <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Malagasy Jewish community</a> were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Madagascar" title="Healthcare in Madagascar">Healthcare in Madagascar</a></div> Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-243">[241]</a> The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-243">[241]</a> In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,<a href="#cite_note-BGNote-8">[8]</a> with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.<a href="#cite_note-SOWMY-244">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a> remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-243">[241]</a> Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2011-243">[241]</a> Madagascar had <a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">outbreaks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">pneumonic plague</a> in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> In 2019, Madagascar had a <a href="/wiki/2018_Madagascar_measles_outbreak" title="2018 Madagascar measles outbreak">measles outbreak</a>, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> due to what could become the first <a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Madagascar_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="2021–2022 Madagascar famine">famine</a> caused by climate change.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Education in Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_(EPP)_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Students working in groups in classroom as teacher observes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg/220px-Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg/330px-Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg/440px-Diego_Suarez_Antsiranana_urban_public_primary_school_%28EPP%29_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2916" data-file-height="2386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Education</a> access and quality were prioritized under <a href="/wiki/Marc_Ravalomanana" title="Marc Ravalomanana">Ravalomanana</a>.</figcaption></figure> Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at <a href="/wiki/Toamasina" title="Toamasina">Toamasina</a> by members of the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835,<a href="#cite_note-Ralibera-249">[247]</a> but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.<a href="#cite_note-WBeducation-252">[250]</a> The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.<a href="#cite_note-WBeducation-252">[250]</a> Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.<a href="#cite_note-INSTAT-181">[179]</a> The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a> As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.<a href="#cite_note-WBeducation-252">[250]</a> Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.<a href="#cite_note-cia-110">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Madagascar" title="Culture of Madagascar">Culture of Madagascar</a></div> Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and <a href="/wiki/Hasina_(Madagascar)" title="Hasina (Madagascar)">hasina</a>, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-LOC-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradtbeliefs-239">[237]</a> Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern <a href="/wiki/Antemoro_people" title="Antemoro people">Antemoro</a> ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the <a href="/wiki/Valiha" title="Valiha">valiha</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> <a href="/wiki/Tube_zither" title="Tube zither">tube zither</a> carried to Madagascar by early settlers from <a href="/wiki/South_Kalimantan" title="South Kalimantan">southern Borneo</a>, and is very similar in form to those found in <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Indonesia" title="Music of Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Philippines" title="Music of the Philippines">Philippines</a> today.<a href="#cite_note-Blench,_R._1982_pp._81-93-256">[254]</a> Traditional <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Madagascar" title="Architecture of Madagascar">houses in Madagascar</a> are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.<a href="#cite_note-Acquier,_Jean-Louis.-258">[256]</a> The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven <a href="/wiki/Lamba_(garment)" title="Lamba (garment)">lamba</a>, has evolved into a varied and refined art.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_cuisine" title="Malagasy cuisine">Malagasy cuisine</a>, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.<a href="#cite_note-Antal-260">[258]</a> African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. <a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding" title="Cattle raiding">Cattle rustling</a>, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.<a href="#cite_note-Camp93-54">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Madagascar">Media of Madagascar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts">Arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Madagascar" title="Music of Madagascar">Music of Madagascar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg/170px-Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg/255px-Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg/340px-Hira_gasy_dancer_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hiragasy" title="Hiragasy">Hiragasy</a> dancer.</figcaption></figure> A wide variety of oral and written <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Madagascar" title="Literature of Madagascar">literature</a> has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Hainteny" title="Hainteny">hainteny</a> (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs).<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-Madatana-262">[260]</a> An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the <a href="/wiki/Ibonia" title="Ibonia">Ibonia</a>, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Rabearivelo" title="Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo">Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo</a>, who is considered Africa's first modern poet,<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elie_Rajaonarison" title="Elie Rajaonarison">Elie Rajaonarison</a>, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> Madagascar has also developed a rich <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Madagascar" title="Music of Madagascar">musical heritage</a>, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal <a href="/wiki/Salegy" title="Salegy">salegy</a> or highland <a href="/wiki/Hiragasy" title="Hiragasy">hiragasy</a> that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.<a href="#cite_note-Randrianary-266">[264]</a> Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music. The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of <a href="/wiki/Raffia_palm" title="Raffia palm">raffia</a> and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.<a href="#cite_note-handicrafts-211">[209]</a> Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.<a href="#cite_note-Terrible-267">[265]</a> The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Zafimaniry" title="Zafimaniry">Zafimaniry</a> people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_Lists" title="UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists">list of Intangible Cultural Heritage</a> in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.<a href="#cite_note-Terrible-267">[265]</a> Embroidery and <a href="/wiki/Drawn_thread_work" title="Drawn thread work">drawn thread work</a> are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.<a href="#cite_note-handicrafts-211">[209]</a> Malagasy artists such as <a href="/wiki/Madame_Zo" title="Madame Zo">Madame Zo</a> have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work.<a href="#cite_note-Artnet_News-269">[267]</a> A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sport">Sport</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg/220px-Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg/330px-Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg/440px-Moraingy_fighting_Madagascar_sport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1301" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moraingy" title="Moraingy">Moraingy</a> is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.</figcaption></figure> A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. <a href="/wiki/Moraingy" title="Moraingy">Moraingy</a>, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> The wrestling of <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> cattle, which is named savika or tolon-omby, is also practiced in many regions.<a href="#cite_note-lambatradition-272">[270]</a> In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is <a href="/wiki/Fanorona" title="Fanorona">fanorona</a>, a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King <a href="/wiki/Andrianjaka" title="Andrianjaka">Andrianjaka</a> after his father <a href="/wiki/Ralambo" title="Ralambo">Ralambo</a> was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.<a href="#cite_note-iarivo-273">[271]</a> Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. <a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_in_Madagascar" title="Rugby union in Madagascar">Rugby union</a> is considered the national sport of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> <a href="/wiki/Football_in_Madagascar" title="Football in Madagascar">Soccer</a> is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9tanque" title="Pétanque">pétanque</a>, a French game similar to <a href="/wiki/Lawn_bowling" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawn bowling">lawn bowling</a>, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the <a href="/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics" title="1964 Summer Olympics">Olympic Games</a> in 1964, and has also competed in the <a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EBLand-115">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scouting" title="Scouting">Scouting</a> is represented in Madagascar by its <a href="/wiki/Firaisan%27ny_Skotisma_eto_Madagasikara" title="Firaisan'ny Skotisma eto Madagasikara">own local federation</a> of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.<a href="#cite_note-Census_2010-276">[274]</a> Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the <a href="/wiki/2011_FIBA_Africa_Championship" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 FIBA Africa Championship">2011 FIBA Africa Championship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a> the <a href="/wiki/2009_FIBA_Africa_Championship_for_Women" title="2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women">2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women</a>,<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> the <a href="/wiki/2014_FIBA_Africa_Under-18_Championship" title="2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship">2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> the <a href="/wiki/2013_FIBA_Africa_Under-16_Championship" title="2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship">2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2015_FIBA_Africa_Under-16_Championship_for_Women" title="2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women">2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar%27s_national_3x3_basketball_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team">Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team</a> won the gold medal at the <a href="/wiki/3x3_basketball_at_the_2019_African_Games" title="3x3 basketball at the 2019 African Games">2019 African Games</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_cuisine" title="Malagasy cuisine">Malagasy cuisine</a></div> Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_cuisines" title="List of Asian cuisines">Southeast Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">African</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic cuisine">Oceania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Chinese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">European</a> culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be <a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_cuisine" title="Vegetarian cuisine">vegetarian</a> or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Curd" title="Curd">curds</a> made from fermented <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory <a href="/wiki/Fritter" title="Fritter">fritters</a> as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a>, wine, and beer.<a href="#cite_note-Antal-260">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Three_Horses_Beer" title="Three Horses Beer">Three Horses Beer</a> is the most popular beer on the island<a href="#cite_note-THBpilsner-282">[280]</a> and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-promos-283">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/32px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/48px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/64px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Madagascar" title="Portal:Madagascar">Madagascar portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Madagascar-related_articles" title="Index of Madagascar-related articles">Index of Madagascar-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Madagascar" title="Outline of Madagascar">Outline of Madagascar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-name-14"><a href="#cite_ref-name_14-0">^</a> <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌmædəˈɡæskər, -kɑːr/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">MAD-ə-GAS-kər, -⁠kar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a>: Madagasikara <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malagasy" title="Help:IPA/Malagasy">[madaɡasikʲara]</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-official-name-15"><a href="#cite_ref-official-name_15-0">^</a> <div><ul><li>Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malagasy" title="Help:IPA/Malagasy">[repuˈblikʲanʲ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: République de Madagascar <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʁepyblik də madagaskaʁ]</a></li></ul></div> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4thRepublic-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-4thRepublic_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-4thRepublic_1-1">b</a> <style 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Retrieved 4 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Antananarvio+Annual+and+Madagascar+Magazine&rft.pub=London+Missionary+Society+Press&rft.date=1893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjYccAAAAMAAJ%26dq%3Djerome%2Bmegiser%2Bmadagascar%26pg%3DPA404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sibree_1896-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sibree_1896_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sibree_1896_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSibree1896" class="citation book cs1">Sibree, James (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HRApAAAAYAAJ&dq=jerome+megiser+madagascar+magadaxo&pg=PA113">Madagascar Before the Conquest: The Island, the Country, and the People, with Chapters on Travel and Topography, Folk-lore, Strange Customs and Superstitions, the Animal Life of the Island, and Mission Work and Progress Among the Inhabitants</a>. 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Cahiers du Monde Hispanique et Luso-Brésilien. 16 (1): 261. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034504/https://www.persee.fr/doc/carav_0008-0152_1971_num_16_1_1816_t1_0261_0000_2">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2021. 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Retrieved 27 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cronica+do+mujto+alto+e+poderoso+Rey+destes+Reynos+de+Portugal%2C+Dom+Jo%C3%A3o+o+III.&rft.date=1613&rft.aulast=Andrada&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCWlJAAAAcAAJ%26q%3DTararango%2BMadagascar%26pg%3DPT292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Oliver (1886), p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Kent (1976), pp. 65–71 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennings2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jennings, Eric T. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8">"Perspectives on French Colonial Madagascar"</a>. 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Retrieved 15 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Occasional+Paper+No.+89&rft.atitle=Political+change+in+Madagascar%3A+populist+democracy+or+neopatrimonialism+by+another+name%3F&rft.date=2004-08&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.issafrica.org%2Fpublications%2Fpapers%2Fpolitical-change-in-madagascar-populist-democracy-or-neopatrimonialism-by-another-name&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crisisgroup-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crisisgroup_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crisisgroup_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725204902/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx">"Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique?"</a>. 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Retrieved 30 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madagascar+court+declares+Rajoelina+as+election+winner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2019%2F1%2F8%2Fmadagascar-court-declares-rajoelina-as-election-winner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race/">"Madagascar: Ravalomanana challenges results in court, Rajoelina calls for calm"</a>. 28 December 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108124618/https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race//">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madagascar%3A+Ravalomanana+challenges+results+in+court%2C+Rajoelina+calls+for+calm&rft.date=2018-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.africanews.com%2F2018%2F12%2F28%2Fmadagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/">"Madagascar President assured of winning majority seats in parliament"</a>. 15 June 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030200649/https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2020. 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Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Non-Hodgkin+Lymphoma&rft.date=2016-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fnon-hodgkin-lymphoma%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 18 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130745/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Acute+Lymphocytic+Leukemia&rft.date=2016-02-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Facute-lymphocytic-leukemia%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Chronic Myeloid Leukemia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 22 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125626/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Chronic+Myeloid+Leukemia&rft.date=2016-02-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fchronic-myeloid-leukemia%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Childhood Leukemia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 3 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130958/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Childhood+Leukemia&rft.date=2016-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fleukemia-in-children%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Neuroblastoma"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 22 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124717/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Neuroblastoma&rft.date=2016-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fneuroblastoma%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 21 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125050/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Brain+and+Spinal+Cord+Tumors+in+Children&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fbrain-spinal-cord-tumors-children%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 16 May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124227/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cancer.org&rft.atitle=Chemotherapy+for+Non-Small+Cell+Lung+Cancer&rft.date=2016-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.org%2Fcancer%2Fnon-small-cell-lung-cancer%2Ftreating%2Fchemotherapy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html">"Chemotherapy for Testicular Cancer"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cancer.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer.org">cancer.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a>. 12 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170728012354/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2017. 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Architectures de Madagascar (in French). Berlin: Berger-Levrault. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7003-1169-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7003-1169-3"><bdi>978-2-7003-1169-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architectures+de+Madagascar&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Berger-Levrault&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-2-7003-1169-3&rft.aulast=Acquier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAde_Ajayi1989" class="citation book cs1">Ade Ajayi, Jacob Festus (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sMpMuJalFKoC">General history of Africa: Africa in the nineteenth century until the 1880s</a>. Paris: UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03917-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03917-9"><bdi>978-0-520-03917-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200716043327/https://books.google.com/books?id=sMpMuJalFKoC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+history+of+Africa%3A+Africa+in+the+nineteenth+century+until+the+1880s&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03917-9&rft.aulast=Ade+Ajayi&rft.aufirst=Jacob+Festus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsMpMuJalFKoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelaar2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Adelaar, Alexander (2006). "The Indonesian migrations to Madagascar: Making sense of the multidisciplinary evidence". In Simanjuntak, Truman; Pojoh, Ingrid; Harriet Eileen; Hisyam, Muhamad (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Szvr5hUtD5kC">Austronesian diaspora and the ethnogeneses of people in Indonesian archipelago</a>. Jakarta, Indonesia: LIPI Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-26-2436-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-26-2436-6"><bdi>978-979-26-2436-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221331/https://books.google.com/books?id=Szvr5hUtD5kC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Indonesian+migrations+to+Madagascar%3A+Making+sense+of+the+multidisciplinary+evidence&rft.btitle=Austronesian+diaspora+and+the+ethnogeneses+of+people+in+Indonesian+archipelago&rft.place=Jakarta%2C+Indonesia&rft.pub=LIPI+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-979-26-2436-6&rft.aulast=Adelaar&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSzvr5hUtD5kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmes2003" class="citation book cs1">Ames, Glenn Joseph (2003). Distant lands and diverse cultures: the French experience in Asia, 1600–1700. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30864-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30864-2"><bdi>978-0-313-30864-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distant+lands+and+diverse+cultures%3A+the+French+experience+in+Asia%2C+1600%E2%80%931700&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30864-2&rft.aulast=Ames&rft.aufirst=Glenn+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAuziasLabourdette2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Auzias, Dominique; Labourdette, Jean-Paul (2008). Petit Futé: Madagascar 2008 (in French). Paris: Petit Futé. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7469-1982-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7469-1982-2"><bdi>978-2-7469-1982-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petit+Fut%C3%A9%3A+Madagascar+2008&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Petit+Fut%C3%A9&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2-7469-1982-2&rft.aulast=Auzias&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft.au=Labourdette%2C+Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarendse2002" class="citation book cs1">Barendse, R.J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qvq9dN8j5MC">The Arabian seas: the Indian Ocean world of the seventeenth century</a>. Berlin: M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0729-4"><bdi>978-0-7656-0729-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151031012210/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qvq9dN8j5MC">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabian+seas%3A+the+Indian+Ocean+world+of+the+seventeenth+century&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0729-4&rft.aulast=Barendse&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qvq9dN8j5MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradt2011" class="citation book cs1">Bradt, Hilary (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC">Madagascar, 10th Ed.: The Bradt Travel Guide</a>. London: Bradt Travel Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-341-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-341-2"><bdi>978-1-84162-341-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170216211758/https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar%2C+10th+Ed.%3A+The+Bradt+Travel+Guide&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-341-2&rft.aulast=Bradt&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuTRPnMlOcwgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning2004" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Christopher R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jHQdRHNdK44C">The Origins of the Final Solution</a>. Jerusalem: Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-63293-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-63293-1"><bdi>978-3-540-63293-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160616233228/https://books.google.com/books?id=jHQdRHNdK44C">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Final+Solution&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Martyrs%27+and+Heroes%27+Remembrance+Authority&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-63293-1&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjHQdRHNdK44C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2005" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gwyn (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC">An economic history of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: the rise and fall of an island empire</a>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83935-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83935-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83935-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130319020757/http://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+economic+history+of+Imperial+Madagascar%2C+1750%E2%80%931895%3A+the+rise+and+fall+of+an+island+empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83935-8&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D13Yt9jLuKzsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapusMondain1953" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chapus, G.S.; Mondain, G. (1953). Un homme d'etat malgache: Rainilaiarivony (in French). Paris: Editions Diloutremer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Un+homme+d%27etat+malgache%3A+Rainilaiarivony&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Editions+Diloutremer&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Chapus&rft.aufirst=G.S.&rft.au=Mondain%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCousins1895" class="citation book cs1">Cousins, William Edward (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madagascartoday01cousgoog">Madagascar of to-day: A sketch of the island, with chapters on its past history and present prospects</a>. London: The Religious Tract Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar+of+to-day%3A+A+sketch+of+the+island%2C+with+chapters+on+its+past+history+and+present+prospects&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Religious+Tract+Society&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Cousins&rft.aufirst=William+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmadagascartoday01cousgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtin1998" class="citation book cs1">Curtin, Philip D. (1998). Disease and empire: the health of European troops in the conquest of Africa. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59835-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59835-4"><bdi>978-0-521-59835-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disease+and+empire%3A+the+health+of+European+troops+in+the+conquest+of+Africa&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59835-4&rft.aulast=Curtin&rft.aufirst=Philip+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Birds I: Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-5784-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-5784-0"><bdi>978-0-7876-5784-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Birds+I%3A+Tinamous+and+Ratites+to+Hoatzins&rft.btitle=Grzimek%27s+Animal+Life+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+MI&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Gale+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-5784-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=S.J.J.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeschamps1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Deschamps, Hubert Jules (1965). Histoire de Madagascar (in French). Ann Arbor, MI: Berger-Levrault.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+Madagascar&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=Berger-Levrault&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Deschamps&rft.aufirst=Hubert+Jules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1859" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, William (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/threevisitstoma04elligoog">Three visits to Madagascar during ... 1853-1854-1856</a>. London: Oxford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+visits+to+Madagascar+during+...+1853-1854-1856&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1859&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthreevisitstoma04elligoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Ellis1867" class="citation book cs1">William Ellis (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madagascarrevis00elligoog">Madagascar revisited, describing the events of a new reign and the revolution which followed</a>. John Murray. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-548-22734-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-548-22734-9"><bdi>0-548-22734-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar+revisited%2C+describing+the+events+of+a+new+reign+and+the+revolution+which+followed&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1867&rft.isbn=0-548-22734-9&rft.au=William+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmadagascarrevis00elligoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Ellis1870" class="citation book cs1">William Ellis (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/martyrchurchana00elligoog">The martyr church: a narrative of the introduction, progress, and triumph of Christianity in Madagascar</a>. J. Snow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8370-0407-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8370-0407-1"><bdi>0-8370-0407-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+martyr+church%3A+a+narrative+of+the+introduction%2C+progress%2C+and+triumph+of+Christianity+in+Madagascar&rft.pub=J.+Snow&rft.date=1870&rft.isbn=0-8370-0407-1&rft.au=William+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmartyrchurchana00elligoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmoff2004" class="citation book cs1">Emoff, Ron (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=owU3-pCIvyYC">"Spitting into the wind: Multi-edged environmentalism in Malagasy song"</a>. In Dawe, Kevin (ed.). Island Musics. New York: Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85973-703-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85973-703-3"><bdi>978-1-85973-703-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221327/https://books.google.com/books?id=owU3-pCIvyYC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spitting+into+the+wind%3A+Multi-edged+environmentalism+in+Malagasy+song&rft.btitle=Island+Musics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85973-703-3&rft.aulast=Emoff&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DowU3-pCIvyYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFageFlintOliver1986" class="citation book cs1">Fage, J.D.; Flint, J.E.; Oliver, R.A. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BOHYn7J4YzQC">The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 1790 to c. 1870</a>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20413-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20413-2"><bdi>978-0-521-20413-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715223158/https://books.google.com/books?id=BOHYn7J4YzQC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa%3A+From+c.+1790+to+c.+1870&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20413-2&rft.aulast=Fage&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rft.au=Flint%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Oliver%2C+R.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBOHYn7J4YzQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFournet-Guérin2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fournet-Guérin, Catherine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U_NHlyeI3mcC">Vivre à Tananarive: géographie du changement dans la capitale malgache</a> (in French). Antananarivo, Madagascar: Karthala Editions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84586-869-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84586-869-4"><bdi>978-2-84586-869-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233607/https://books.google.com/books?id=U_NHlyeI3mcC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vivre+%C3%A0+Tananarive%3A+g%C3%A9ographie+du+changement+dans+la+capitale+malgache&rft.place=Antananarivo%2C+Madagascar&rft.pub=Karthala+Editions&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-2-84586-869-4&rft.aulast=Fournet-Gu%C3%A9rin&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU_NHlyeI3mcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1990" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Leonard (1990). Hainteny: the traditional poetry of Madagascar. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8387-5175-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8387-5175-6"><bdi>978-0-8387-5175-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hainteny%3A+the+traditional+poetry+of+Madagascar&rft.place=Lewisburg%2C+PA&rft.pub=Bucknell+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8387-5175-6&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanJohns1840" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Joseph John; Johns, David (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anarrativeperse01johngoog">A narrative of the persecution of the Christians in Madagascar: with details of the escape of six Christian refugees now in England</a>. London: J. Snow.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+narrative+of+the+persecution+of+the+Christians+in+Madagascar%3A+with+details+of+the+escape+of+six+Christian+refugees+now+in+England&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Snow&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Joseph+John&rft.au=Johns%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanarrativeperse01johngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrémigacci1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Frémigacci, Jean (1999). "Le Rova de Tananarive: Destruction d'un lieu saint ou constitution d'une référence identitaire?". In Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/histoiredafrique0000unse">Histoire d'Afrique</a> (in French). Paris: Editions Karthala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-86537-904-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-86537-904-0"><bdi>978-2-86537-904-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+Rova+de+Tananarive%3A+Destruction+d%27un+lieu+saint+ou+constitution+d%27une+r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence+identitaire%3F&rft.btitle=Histoire+d%27Afrique&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Editions+Karthala&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-2-86537-904-0&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%A9migacci&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoiredafrique0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallieni1908" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gallieni, Joseph-Simon (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neufansamadagas01gallgoog">Neuf ans à Madagascar</a> (in French). Paris: Librairie Hachette.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuf+ans+%C3%A0+Madagascar&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Librairie+Hachette&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Gallieni&rft.aufirst=Joseph-Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneufansamadagas01gallgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealeAbdul_Latif2008" class="citation book cs1">Heale, Jay; Abdul Latif, Zawiah (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC">Cultures of the World: Madagascar</a>. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-3036-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-3036-0"><bdi>978-0-7614-3036-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210312201506/https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultures+of+the+World%3A+Madagascar&rft.place=Tarrytown%2C+NY&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-3036-0&rft.aulast=Heale&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft.au=Abdul+Latif%2C+Zawiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJWLCYGo2RgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillstromCollier_Hillstrom2003" class="citation book cs1">Hillstrom, Kevin; Collier Hillstrom, Laurie (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XxIk9zTm_e8C">Africa and the Middle East: a continental overview of environmental issues</a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-688-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-688-0"><bdi>978-1-57607-688-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221012/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxIk9zTm_e8C">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+and+the+Middle+East%3A+a+continental+overview+of+environmental+issues&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-688-0&rft.aulast=Hillstrom&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Collier+Hillstrom%2C+Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXxIk9zTm_e8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbesDolan2008" class="citation book cs1">Hobbes, Joseph; Dolan, Andrew (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC">World Regional Geography</a>. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-38950-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-38950-7"><bdi>978-0-495-38950-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233546/https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Regional+Geography&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-495-38950-7&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Dolan%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyAgGHnENHjoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodder1982" class="citation book cs1">Hodder, Ian (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdwiY7ziRYC">Symbolic and structural archaeology</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24406-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24406-0"><bdi>978-0-521-24406-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715220640/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdwiY7ziRYC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symbolic+and+structural+archaeology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24406-0&rft.aulast=Hodder&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdWdwiY7ziRYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/libraryofcongres0000wagn">The Library of Congress World War II companion</a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5219-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5219-5"><bdi>978-0-7432-5219-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Library+of+Congress+World+War+II+companion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-5219-5&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flibraryofcongres0000wagn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKent1976" class="citation book cs1">Kent, Raymond (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frommadagascarto0000kent">From Madagascar to the Malagasy Republic</a>. Ann Arbor, MI: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-8421-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-8421-0"><bdi>978-0-8371-8421-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Madagascar+to+the+Malagasy+Republic&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8371-8421-0&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrommadagascarto0000kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchen1962" class="citation book cs1">Kitchen, Helen A. (1962). The Educated African: a Country-by-Country Survey of Educational Development in Africa. Washington, D.C.: Praeger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Educated+African%3A+a+Country-by-Country+Survey+of+Educational+Development+in+Africa&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Kitchen&rft.aufirst=Helen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKull2004" class="citation book cs1">Kull, Christian (2004). Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46141-0"><bdi>978-0-226-46141-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isle+of+Fire%3A+The+Political+Ecology+of+Landscape+Burning+in+Madagascar%2C+Issue+246&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46141-0&rft.aulast=Kull&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKusimbaOdlandBronson2004" class="citation book cs1">Kusimba, Chapurukha; Odland, J. Claire; Bronson, Bennet (2004). Unwrapping the textile traditions of Madagascar. Textile Series. Los Angeles: Regents of the University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930741-95-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930741-95-2"><bdi>978-0-930741-95-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unwrapping+the+textile+traditions+of+Madagascar&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.series=Textile+Series&rft.pub=Regents+of+the+University+of+California&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-930741-95-2&rft.aulast=Kusimba&rft.aufirst=Chapurukha&rft.au=Odland%2C+J.+Claire&rft.au=Bronson%2C+Bennet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehoullier2010" class="citation book cs1">Lehoullier, Sara (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QhAbnvPKaVUC">Madagascar: Travel Companion</a>. New York: Other Places Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9822619-5-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9822619-5-8"><bdi>978-0-9822619-5-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar%3A+Travel+Companion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Other+Places+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-9822619-5-8&rft.aulast=Lehoullier&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQhAbnvPKaVUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1999" class="citation book cs1">Middleton, Karen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=My4B9q9FTiYC">Ancestors, Power, and History in Madagascar</a>. Los Angeles: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11289-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11289-6"><bdi>978-90-04-11289-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancestors%2C+Power%2C+and+History+in+Madagascar&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11289-6&rft.aulast=Middleton&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMy4B9q9FTiYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoriarty1891" class="citation book cs1">Moriarty, H.A. (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ">Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, westward of longitude 80 ̊east, including Madagascar</a>. London: J. D. Potter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929074055/https://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islands+in+the+southern+Indian+Ocean%2C+westward+of+longitude+80+%CC%8Aeast%2C+including+Madagascar&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+D.+Potter&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Moriarty&rft.aufirst=H.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-NmhAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNalla2010" class="citation book cs1">Nalla, Mahesh (2010). Crime and Punishment Around the World: Volume 1, Africa. Los Angeles: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35133-4"><bdi>978-0-313-35133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment+Around+the+World%3A+Volume+1%2C+Africa&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35133-4&rft.aulast=Nalla&rft.aufirst=Mahesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgot1992" class="citation book cs1">Ogot, Bethwell (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WAQbp7aLpZkC">Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century</a>. Paris: UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-101711-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-3-101711-7"><bdi>978-92-3-101711-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221905/https://books.google.com/books?id=WAQbp7aLpZkC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+from+the+Sixteenth+to+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-92-3-101711-7&rft.aulast=Ogot&rft.aufirst=Bethwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWAQbp7aLpZkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliverFageSanderson1983" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland; Fage, John Donnelly; Sanderson, G.N. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xh-QcHRG3OwC">The Cambridge History of Africa</a>. Vol. 6. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JArEn...6..195S">1983JArEn...6..195S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-1963%2818%2931535-0">10.1016/S0140-1963(18)31535-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22803-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22803-9"><bdi>978-0-521-22803-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-1963%2818%2931535-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983JArEn...6..195S&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22803-9&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft.au=Fage%2C+John+Donnelly&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+G.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxh-QcHRG3OwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver1886" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pasfield_Oliver" title="Samuel Pasfield Oliver">Oliver, Samuel Pasfield</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lKtBAAAAIAAJ">Madagascar: an historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies, Volume 1</a>. London: Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726123956/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKtBAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar%3A+an+historical+and+descriptive+account+of+the+island+and+its+former+dependencies%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Pasfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlKtBAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPezzotta2001" class="citation book cs1">Pezzotta, Federico (2001). Madagascar: a mineral and gemstone paradise. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9715371-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9715371-0-1"><bdi>978-0-9715371-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar%3A+a+mineral+and+gemstone+paradise&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-9715371-0-1&rft.aulast=Pezzotta&rft.aufirst=Federico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryor1990" class="citation book cs1">Pryor, Frederic L. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0P0fDzMA5lEC">The political economy of poverty, equity, and growth: Malawi and Madagascar</a>. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-520823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-520823-8"><bdi>978-0-19-520823-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200110044240/https://books.google.com/books?id=0P0fDzMA5lEC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+economy+of+poverty%2C+equity%2C+and+growth%3A+Malawi+and+Madagascar&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-520823-8&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=Frederic+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0P0fDzMA5lEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabearivelo2007" class="citation book cs1">Rabearivelo, Jean-Joseph (2007) [1936 (translation by Robert Ziller)]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F-5I6QlMfJEC">Translated from the Night</a>. Pittsburgh, PA: Lascaux Editions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60461-552-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60461-552-4"><bdi>978-1-60461-552-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221903/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-5I6QlMfJEC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translated+from+the+Night&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+PA&rft.pub=Lascaux+Editions&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60461-552-4&rft.aulast=Rabearivelo&rft.aufirst=Jean-Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF-5I6QlMfJEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajaonarimanana2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rajaonarimanana, Narivelo (2001). Grammaire moderne de la langue malgache. Langues INALCO (in French). Paris: Langues et mondes – l'Asiatheque. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-911053-79-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-911053-79-5"><bdi>978-2-911053-79-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammaire+moderne+de+la+langue+malgache&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Langues+INALCO&rft.pub=Langues+et+mondes+%E2%80%93+l%27Asiatheque&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-911053-79-5&rft.aulast=Rajaonarimanana&rft.aufirst=Narivelo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRalibera1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ralibera, Daniel (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GOeAT76TGN0C">Madagascar et le christianisme</a> (in French). Paris: Editions Karthala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9028-211-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9028-211-2"><bdi>978-92-9028-211-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221351/https://books.google.com/books?id=GOeAT76TGN0C">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar+et+le+christianisme&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Editions+Karthala&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-92-9028-211-2&rft.aulast=Ralibera&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGOeAT76TGN0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandier2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Randier, Jean (2006). La Royale: L'histoire illustrée de la Marine nationale française (in French). Maîtres du Vent – La Falaise: Babouji. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35261-022-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35261-022-9"><bdi>978-2-35261-022-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Royale%3A+L%27histoire+illustr%C3%A9e+de+la+Marine+nationale+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.place=Ma%C3%AEtres+du+Vent+%E2%80%93+La+Falaise&rft.pub=Babouji&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-2-35261-022-9&rft.aulast=Randier&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandrianary2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Randrianary, Victor (2001). Madagascar: les chants d'une île (in French). Paris: Actes Sud. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7427-3556-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7427-3556-3"><bdi>978-2-7427-3556-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madagascar%3A+les+chants+d%27une+%C3%AEle&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Actes+Sud&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-7427-3556-3&rft.aulast=Randrianary&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatsimbaharison2017" class="citation book cs1">Ratsimbaharison, Adrien (2017). The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar: A Case Study of Conflict and Conflict Mediation. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7235-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7235-4"><bdi>978-1-4422-7235-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Crisis+of+March+2009+in+Madagascar%3A+A+Case+Study+of+Conflict+and+Conflict+Mediation&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Boulder%2C+New+York%2C+London&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-7235-4&rft.aulast=Ratsimbaharison&rft.aufirst=Adrien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatsimbazafy2010" class="citation book cs1">Ratsimbazafy, Ernest (2010). "Moraingy". In Green, Thomas; Svinth, Joseph (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P-Nv_LUi6KgC">Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, Volume 2</a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-243-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-243-2"><bdi>978-1-59884-243-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308220952/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-Nv_LUi6KgC">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moraingy&rft.btitle=Martial+Arts+of+the+World%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+History+and+Innovation%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC+CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-243-2&rft.aulast=Ratsimbazafy&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP-Nv_LUi6KgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegnier2015" class="citation journal cs1">Regnier, Denis (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU">"Clean people, unclean people: the essentialisation of 'slaves' among the southern Betsileo of Madagascar"</a>. Social Anthropology. 23 (2): 152–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-8676.12107">10.1111/1469-8676.12107</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181025070918/https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Clean+people%2C+unclean+people%3A+the+essentialisation+of+%27slaves%27+among+the+southern+Betsileo+of+Madagascar&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E152-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1469-8676.12107&rft.aulast=Regnier&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FREGCPU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinsch1905" class="citation book cs1">Reinsch, Paul Samuel (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colonialadminis00reingoog">Colonial Administration</a>. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Administration&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Reinsch&rft.aufirst=Paul+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcolonialadminis00reingoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoddStackhouse2008" class="citation book cs1">Rodd, Tony; Stackhouse, Jennifer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpsc2hsYk1YC">Trees: A Visual Guide</a>. Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25650-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25650-7"><bdi>978-0-520-25650-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034513/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpsc2hsYk1YC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trees%3A+A+Visual+Guide&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25650-7&rft.aulast=Rodd&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft.au=Stackhouse%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMpsc2hsYk1YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoom2006" class="citation book cs1">Room, Adrian (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C">Placenames of the world: origins and meanings of the names for 6,600 countries, cities, territories, natural features, and historic sites</a>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2248-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2248-7"><bdi>978-0-7864-2248-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329060933/https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Placenames+of+the+world%3A+origins+and+meanings+of+the+names+for+6%2C600+countries%2C+cities%2C+territories%2C+natural+features%2C+and+historic+sites&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7&rft.aulast=Room&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM1JIPAN-eJ4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharp2002" class="citation book cs1">Sharp, Leslie (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5IFbKsKxYQYC">The Sacrificed Generation: Youth, History, and the Colonized Mind in Madagascar</a>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22951-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22951-8"><bdi>978-0-520-22951-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200714114457/https://books.google.com/books?id=5IFbKsKxYQYC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacrificed+Generation%3A+Youth%2C+History%2C+and+the+Colonized+Mind+in+Madagascar&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22951-8&rft.aulast=Sharp&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5IFbKsKxYQYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2005" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. New York: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-453-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-453-5"><bdi>978-1-57958-453-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-453-5&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrakes2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Strakes, Jason (2006). "Armed Forces of the People". In Leonard, Thomas M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC">Encyclopedia of the developing world</a>. Vol. 1. New York: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-388-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-388-0"><bdi>978-1-57958-388-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150519041852/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Armed+Forces+of+the+People&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+developing+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-388-0&rft.aulast=Strakes&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mE04D9PMpAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonAdloff1965" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Virginia; Adloff, Richard (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/malagasyrepublic0000thom">The Malagasy Republic: Madagascar today</a>. San Francisco, CA: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0279-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0279-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-0279-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Malagasy+Republic%3A+Madagascar+today&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0279-9&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rft.au=Adloff%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmalagasyrepublic0000thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUwechue1981" class="citation book cs1">Uwechue, Raph (1981). Makers of modern Africa: profiles in history, Volume 1. Dearborne, MI: Africa Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-903274-14-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-903274-14-2"><bdi>978-0-903274-14-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+modern+Africa%3A+profiles+in+history%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=Dearborne%2C+MI&rft.pub=Africa+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-903274-14-2&rft.aulast=Uwechue&rft.aufirst=Raph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Den_Boogaerde2008" class="citation book cs1">Van Den Boogaerde, Pierre (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I_S1D8cnTiEC&pg=PT19">Shipwrecks of Madagascar</a>. New York: AEG Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60693-494-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60693-494-4"><bdi>978-1-60693-494-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200802074021/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_S1D8cnTiEC&pg=PT19">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shipwrecks+of+Madagascar&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AEG+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60693-494-4&rft.aulast=Van+Den+Boogaerde&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI_S1D8cnTiEC%26pg%3DPT19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWink2004" class="citation book cs1">Wink, André (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C">Volume 3 of Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Indo-Islamic society, 14th–15th centuries</a>. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13561-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13561-1"><bdi>978-90-04-13561-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529144236/https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volume+3+of+Al-Hind%3A+The+Making+of+the+Indo-Islamic+World%3A+Indo-Islamic+society%2C+14th%E2%80%9315th+centuries&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13561-1&rft.aulast=Wink&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnyYslywJUE8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMadagascar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Madagascar at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Madagascar" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Madagascar">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Madagasikara_/_Madagascar" class="extiw" title="c:Madagasikara / Madagascar">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Madagascar" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Madagascar">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Madagascar_(country)" class="extiw" title="q:Madagascar (country)">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Madagascar" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Madagascar">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Madagascar" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Madagascar">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Madagascar" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Madagascar">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Madagascar" class="extiw" title="voy:Madagascar">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1019" class="extiw" title="d:Q1019">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861843">Country Profile</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729052321/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861843">Archived</a> 29 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/">Madagascar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210214064652/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/">Archived</a> 14 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120829212249/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/madagascar.htm">Madagascar</a> from UCB Libraries GovPubs</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/16px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/24px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/32px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Madagascar" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of Madagascar">Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MG">Key Development Forecasts for Madagascar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201119105615/http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MG">Archived</a> 19 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from <a href="/wiki/International_Futures" title="International Futures">International Futures</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/16px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/24px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/32px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /> Geographic data related to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/447325">Madagascar</a> at <a href="/wiki/OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002492934/NLI#$FL13737163">Map of Madagascar, 1666</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131355/https://www.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002492934/NLI#$FL13737163">Archived</a> 3 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (in French). Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Madagascar_articles607" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Madagascar_topics" title="Template:Madagascar topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Madagascar_topics" title="Template talk:Madagascar topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Madagascar_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Madagascar topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Madagascar_articles607" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Madagascar</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Madagascar-related_articles" title="Index of Madagascar-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Merina Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Imerina_monarchs" title="List of Imerina monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertatia" title="Libertatia">Libertatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Hova_Wars" title="Franco-Hova Wars">Franco-Hova Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Protectorate" title="Malagasy Protectorate">Malagasy Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Madagascar" title="List of colonial governors of Madagascar">Colonial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Malagasy_constitutional_referendum" title="1958 Malagasy constitutional referendum">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Republic" title="Malagasy Republic">Malagasy Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Democratic Republic of Madagascar">Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Third Republic of Madagascar">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Malagasy_political_crisis" title="2009 Malagasy political crisis">2009 political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Transitional_Authority" title="High Transitional Authority">Transitional Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Madagascar_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="2021–2022 Madagascar famine">2021–2022 famine</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Madagascar" title="Coat of arms of Madagascar"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/100px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/150px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Seal_of_Madagascar.svg/200px-Seal_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biosphere_reserves_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biosphere reserves in Madagascar">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Madagascar" title="List of cities in Madagascar">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Madagascar" title="Districts of Madagascar">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregions_of_Madagascar" title="Ecoregions of Madagascar">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Madagascar" title="List of islands of Madagascar">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Madagascar" title="Protected areas of Madagascar">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Madagascar" title="Provinces of Madagascar">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Madagascar" title="Regions of Madagascar">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Madagascar" title="List of rivers of Madagascar">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Madagascar" title="List of volcanoes in Madagascar">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Madagascar" title="Wildlife of Madagascar">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Madagascar" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Madagascar" title="Politics of Madagascar">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Madagascar" title="Constitution of Madagascar">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Madagascar" title="Elections in Madagascar">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Madagascar" title="Foreign relations of Madagascar">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Madagascar" title="Human rights in Madagascar">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Madagascar" title="Law enforcement in Madagascar">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_People%27s_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Madagascar People's Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Madagascar" title="Parliament of Madagascar">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Madagascar)" title="National Assembly (Madagascar)">National Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_(Madagascar)" title="Senate (Madagascar)">Senate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Madagascar" title="List of political parties in Madagascar">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Madagascar" title="List of presidents of Madagascar">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Madagascar" title="Prime Minister of Madagascar">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Madagascar" title="Subdivisions of Madagascar">Subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madagascar" title="Economy of Madagascar">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Madagascar" title="Agriculture in Madagascar">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_ariary" title="Malagasy ariary">Ariary (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Madagascar" title="Central Bank of Madagascar">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Madagascar" title="List of companies of Madagascar">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_security_in_Madagascar" title="Food security in Madagascar">Food security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging_in_Madagascar" title="Illegal logging in Madagascar">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Madagascar" title="Tourism in Madagascar">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Madagascar" title="Transport in Madagascar">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_Madagascar" title="Driving in Madagascar">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Madagascar" title="Rail transport in Madagascar">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Madagascar" title="Category:Society of Madagascar">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Madagascar" title="Abortion in Madagascar">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry_Tanindrazanay_malala_%C3%B4!" title="Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_Madagascar" title="Seal of Madagascar">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Madagascar" title="Architecture of Madagascar">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Madagascar" title="Culture of Madagascar">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_cuisine" title="Malagasy cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Madagascar" title="Demographics of Madagascar">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Madagascar">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Madagascar" title="Flag of Madagascar">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Madagascar" title="Languages of Madagascar">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Madagascar">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Madagascar" title="Communications in Madagascar">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Madagascar" title="List of newspapers in Madagascar">newspapers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Madagascar" title="Music of Madagascar">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Madagascar" title="Public holidays in Madagascar">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sport_in_Madagascar" title="Category:Sport in Madagascar">Sports</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Madagascar" title="Outline of Madagascar">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Madagascar-related_articles" title="Index of Madagascar-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Madagascar" title="Category:Madagascar">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Madagascar" title="Portal:Madagascar">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Related_articles83" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Related_articles83" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_of_Africa699" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_of_Africa" title="Template:Countries of Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_of_Africa" title="Template talk:Countries of Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_of_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries of Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_territories_of_Africa699" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa">Countries and territories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (partly in Asia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Territorial_dispute" title="Territorial dispute">unclear sovereignty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent territories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Îles Éparses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">African territories fully part of non-African states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagie_Islands" title="Pelagie Islands">Pelagie Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savage_Islands" title="Savage Islands">Savage Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa" title="Plazas de soberanía">Plazas de soberanía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Yemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_plate73" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_Plate" title="Template:Countries and regions in the Somali Plate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_Plate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Countries and regions in the Somali Plate (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_Plate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and regions in the Somali Plate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_plate73" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and regions in the <a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Somali plate</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal" title="KwaZulu-Natal">KwaZulu-Natal</a> (South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a> (Yemen)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Region" title="Somali Region">Somali Region</a> (Ethiopia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean71" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean71" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and territories bordering the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Ocean.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Indian Ocean"><img alt="Map of the Indian Ocean" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Indian_Ocean.svg/100px-Indian_Ocean.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Indian_Ocean.svg/150px-Indian_Ocean.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Indian_Ocean.svg/200px-Indian_Ocean.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="440" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands" title="Heard Island and McDonald Islands">Heard Island and McDonald Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1266661725"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World&#039;s_largest_islands193" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World%27s_largest_islands" title="Template:World's largest islands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World%27s_largest_islands" title="Template talk:World's largest islands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World%27s_largest_islands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World's largest islands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World&#039;s_largest_islands193" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_by_area" title="List of islands by area">World's largest islands</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">100,000 km2 (38,610 sq mi) and greater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Greenland" title="Geography of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baffin_Island" title="Baffin Island">Baffin Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Island" title="Victoria Island">Victoria Island</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellesmere_Island" title="Ellesmere Island">Ellesmere Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Cuba" title="Geography of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iceland" title="Geography of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg/28px-Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg/42px-Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg/56px-Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islands" title="Portal:Islands">Islands portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20,000–99,999 km2 (7,722–38,610 sq mi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banks_Island" title="Banks Island">Banks Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Geography of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Tasmania" title="Geography of Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Island" title="Devon Island">Devon Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Island" title="Alexander Island">Alexander Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severny_Island" title="Severny Island">Severny Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isla_Grande_de_Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego">Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_Heiberg_Island" title="Axel Heiberg Island">Axel Heiberg Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Island_(Northwest_Territories_and_Nunavut)" title="Melville Island (Northwest Territories and Nunavut)">Melville Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southampton_Island" title="Southampton Island">Southampton Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraj%C3%B3" title="Marajó">Marajó</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spitsbergen" title="Spitsbergen">Spitsbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyushu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Britain" title="New Britain">New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales_Island_(Nunavut)" title="Prince of Wales Island (Nunavut)">Prince of Wales Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuzhny_Island" title="Yuzhny Island">Yuzhny Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan#Geography" title="Hainan">Hainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timor" title="Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily#Geography" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somerset_Island_(Nunavut)" title="Somerset Island (Nunavut)">Somerset Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotelny_Island" title="Kotelny Island">Kotelny Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Geography" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bananal_Island" title="Bananal Island">Bananal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1019#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2754" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1019#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2754" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1019#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1209332/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJw4FYPqmtpTrHb9wvMgKd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4074425-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80087494">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119323881">France</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15325769w">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119323881">BnF data</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15325769w">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567376">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge129928&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX451573">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90874253">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/b8nqpj0v0dx7q1v">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007552494505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/area/f3a30678-3d23-3f42-8056-d32ebe58c66d">MusicBrainz area</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/b93313b8-ab7c-4321-a8f7-9bd7982fe7fe">KulturNav</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.parliament.uk/KWZWMakt">UK Parliament</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list 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