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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rule of Oliver Cromwell</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rule_of_Oliver_Cromwell-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rule of Oliver Cromwell subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_Oliver_Cromwell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rule_of_the_Major-Generals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_the_Major-Generals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rule of the Major-Generals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_the_Major-Generals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Isles_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Isles_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>British Isles policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Isles_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Foreign policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oliver_Cromwell's_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oliver_Cromwell's_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Oliver Cromwell's role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oliver_Cromwell's_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_of_Richard_Cromwell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_Richard_Cromwell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rule of Richard Cromwell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_Richard_Cromwell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aftermath and restoration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%A4%D9%86%D9%85%DB%8C" title="پروتکتورا دؤنمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پروتکتورا دؤنمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F" title="প্রটেক্টরেট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রটেক্টরেট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_(%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Протекторат (Англия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Протекторат (Англия)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Protectorat" title="El Protectorat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="El Protectorat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A1nie_v_dob%C4%9B_protektor%C3%A1tu" title="Británie v době protektorátu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Británie v době protektorátu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF_(%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1,_%CE%99%CF%81%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Προτεκτοράτο (Μεγάλη Βρετανία, Ιρλανδία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Προτεκτοράτο (Μεγάλη Βρετανία, Ιρλανδία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Protectorado" title="El Protectorado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="El Protectorado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angla_Protektorato" title="Angla Protektorato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Angla Protektorato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Protectorate" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protektoraat_(Britske_Eilannen)" title="Protektoraat (Britske Eilannen) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Protektoraat (Britske Eilannen)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Chosant%C3%B3ireacht" title="An Chosantóireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Chosantóireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%EA%B5%AD%EA%B2%BD_%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98" title="호국경 정치 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="호국경 정치" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Կրոմվելի պրոտեկտորատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրոմվելի պրոտեկտորատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masa_Protektorat" title="Masa Protektorat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Masa Protektorat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protettorato_(Inghilterra)" title="Protettorato (Inghilterra) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Protettorato (Inghilterra)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%98" title="הפרוטקטורט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפרוטקטורט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protektoratet" title="Protektoratet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Protektoratet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protektorat_Cromwella" title="Protektorat Cromwella – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Protektorat Cromwella" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Protetorado" title="O Protetorado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="O Protetorado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectoratul" title="Protectoratul – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Protectoratul" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Протекторат Кромвеля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Протекторат Кромвеля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="The Protectorate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protektoratet" title="Protektoratet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Protektoratet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2" title="ยุครัฐในอารักขา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุครัฐในอารักขา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protektora_D%C3%B6nemi" title="Protektora Dönemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Protektora Dönemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Протекторат Кромвеля – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Протекторат Кромвеля" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="護國公時期 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="護國公時期" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">British government (1653–1659)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the state that existed from 1653 to 1659. For the time period in British history from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, see <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity, see <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">Protectorate</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1653–1659</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of The Protectorate"><img alt="Flag of The Protectorate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg/125px-Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg/188px-Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg/250px-Flag_of_The_Commonwealth.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_(1658%E2%80%931660).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_English_Interregnum" title="Flags of the English Interregnum">Top: Flag<br />(1653–1658)<br />Bottom: Flag<br />(1658–1659)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_(1653%E2%80%931659).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms (1653–1659) of The Protectorate"><img alt="Coat of arms (1653–1659) of The Protectorate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/225px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/300px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom#Union_of_the_Crowns_and_the_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom"> Coat of arms<br />(1653–1659)</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Pax quaeritur bello</i></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">("Peace is obtained through war")</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The territory of the Commonwealth in 1659"><img alt="The territory of the Commonwealth in 1659" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png/250px-UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png/375px-UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png/500px-UK_of_Britain_%26_Ireland_in_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="1218" data-file-height="1245" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The territory of the Commonwealth in 1659</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> (official)<br /><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">parliamentary republic</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government#Parliamentary_republics_with_an_executive_president" title="List of countries by system of government">with an executive presidency</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector#Cromwellian_Commonwealth" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1653–1658 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1658–1659 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of the Protectorate">Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cromwell%27s_Other_House" title="Cromwell's Other House">Other House</a><br /><small>(1658–59)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(1654–55/1656–58/1659)</span></small></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">16 December 1653</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Tender_of_Union" title="Tender of Union">Tender of Union</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 April 1654</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Humble_Petition_and_Advice" title="Humble Petition and Advice">Humble Petition and Advice</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 May 1657</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">R. Cromwell</a>'s resignation </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 May 1659</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a> (England)<br /><a href="/wiki/Pound_Scots" title="Pound Scots">Pound Scots</a> (Scotland)<br /><a href="/wiki/Irish_pound" title="Irish pound">Irish pound</a> (Ireland)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281649-1651%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England_(1649%E2%80%931653)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England (1649–1653)">Commonwealth of England</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/20px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England_(1659%E2%80%931660)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England (1659–1660)">Commonwealth of England</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Commonwealth_%281658%E2%80%931660%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a><br /><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>The Protectorate</b>, officially the <b>Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland</b>, was the English form of government lasting from 16 December 1653 to 25 May 1659, under which the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a>, with their associated territories were joined together in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>, governed by a <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a>. It began when <a href="/wiki/Barebone%27s_Parliament" title="Barebone's Parliament">Barebone's Parliament</a> was dissolved, and the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Cromwell died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a>. </p><p>Richard resigned in May 1659 due to his inability to control either the Army or <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>. He was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/English_Committee_of_Safety" class="mw-redirect" title="English Committee of Safety">English Committee of Safety</a>, which dissolved the <a href="/wiki/Third_Protectorate_Parliament" title="Third Protectorate Parliament">Third Protectorate Parliament</a>, and reseated the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a> dismissed by his father in April 1653. This marked the end of the Protectorate, with the Rump acting as the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> and the <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">English Council of State</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">English Council of State</a></div> <p>Since 1649 until the Protectorate, England, Ireland and later Scotland had been governed as a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> by the <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Act_declaring_England_to_be_a_Commonwealth" class="extiw" title="wikisource:An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth">Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth</a>, which established England, together with "<i>all the Dominions and Territoryes thereunto belonging</i>", as a republic, had been passed on 19 May 1649, following the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice_for_the_trial_of_Charles_I" class="mw-redirect" title="High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I">trial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in January of that year. All of Ireland came under the same governance after the successful <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> with the appointment of a Parliamentary military governor in Dublin. </p><p>On 20 April 1653, after learning that Parliament was attempting to stay in session despite an agreement to dissolve and having failed to come up with a working constitution, Cromwell, with the backing of the <a href="/wiki/Grandee_(New_Model_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandee (New Model Army)">Grandees</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Army_Council_(1647)" title="Army Council (1647)">Army Council</a>, marched soldiers into the debating chamber and forcibly ended the Rump's session. </p><p>Within a month of the Rump's dismissal, Oliver Cromwell, on the advice of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_(soldier)" title="Thomas Harrison (soldier)">Thomas Harrison</a> and with the support of other officers in the Army, sent a request to Congregational churches in every county to nominate those they considered fit to take part in the new government. On 4 July a Nominated Assembly, nicknamed the "Assembly of Saints" or <a href="/wiki/Barebone%27s_Parliament" title="Barebone's Parliament">Barebone's Parliament</a> after one of its members, took on the role of more traditional English Parliaments. However, it proved just as difficult for the Grandees to control and was in addition a subject of popular ridicule and so on 8 December, MPs who supported Cromwell engineered its end by passing a dissolution motion at a time of day at which the house usually had few members in attendance. Those who refused to recognise the motion were forcibly ejected by soldiers. </p><p>The collapse of the radical consensus that had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the Grandees passing the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a> in the <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a>, which paved the way for the Protectorate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rule_of_Oliver_Cromwell">Rule of Oliver Cromwell</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rule of Oliver Cromwell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a></div> <p>After the dissolution of Barebone's Parliament, <a href="/wiki/John_Lambert_(general)" title="John Lambert (general)">John Lambert</a> put forward a new constitution known as the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government" title="Instrument of Government">Instrument of Government</a>, closely modelled on the <a href="/wiki/Heads_of_Proposals" title="Heads of Proposals">Heads of Proposals</a>. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake "the chief magistracy and the administration of government". He had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of the <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a>. However, Cromwell's power was also buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army, which he had built up during the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">civil wars</a> and subsequently prudently guarded. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_the_Major-Generals">Rule of the Major-Generals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rule of the Major-Generals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_the_Major-Generals" title="Rule of the Major-Generals">Rule of the Major-Generals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/220px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/440px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption>Oliver Cromwell</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Protectorate_Parliament" title="First Protectorate Parliament">First Protectorate Parliament</a> met on 3 September 1654, and after some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, began to work on a moderate programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved it on 22 January 1655. After a royalist uprising, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Penruddock" title="John Penruddock">Sir John Penruddock</a>, Cromwell, influenced by Lambert, divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major-Generals, who answered only to him. The fifteen major generals and deputy major generals, called "godly governors" were central not only to national security but also to Cromwell's moral crusade. The generals supervised militia forces and security commissions, collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English provinces and in Wales. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of the commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous Puritans who welcomed the major-generals, with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared that they threatened their reform efforts and authority. The major-generals' position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the <a href="/wiki/Second_Protectorate_Parliament" title="Second Protectorate Parliament">Second Protectorate Parliament</a>, instated in September 1656, voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men by sacrificing them to his opponents caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurston199818–37_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurston199818–37-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Isles_policy">British Isles policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: British Isles policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the end of 1653, the Protectorate was in the unique position of being the first government in history to be in control of the entirety of the British Isles. The scope of the Instrument of Government extended to the governance of Scotland and Ireland; it provided for representatives from Scotland and Ireland, as well as England and Wales, to sit in Parliament in London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200234-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The regime's policy towards Ireland and Scotland initially had three components: secure the recent conquest of those countries with armies of occupation; punish those who had opposed the English conquest; reshape both countries in the image of England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200234-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barry_Coward" title="Barry Coward">Barry Coward</a> observed that "While there were reforming aspirations and coercion in the Protectorate's British policies, these can hardly said to amount to a 'British vision' designed to create a new British state from the separate kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland. What the regime seems to have intended was the anglicisation of the British Isles".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200235–36_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200235–36-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scotland_under_the_Commonwealth" title="Scotland under the Commonwealth">Scotland under the Commonwealth</a></div> <p>Following the defeat of the Scottish army in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_war_(1650%E2%80%931652)" title="Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)">Anglo-Scottish war of 1650 to 1652</a> the Scottish government was dissolved and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie2009159_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie2009159-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDow197923_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDow197923-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler2002244_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler2002244-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negotiations between commissioners of the English Parliament and the deputies of <a href="/wiki/Shires_of_Scotland" title="Shires of Scotland">Scotland's shires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burghs" class="mw-redirect" title="Burghs">burghs</a> began to formalise the incorporation of Scottish legal and political structures into the new British state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDow197935_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDow197935-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Tender_of_Union" title="Tender of Union">Tender of Union</a>, a declaration of the English Parliament proclaimed in Scotland in 1652, the Scottish Parliament was permanently dissolved and Scotland was given 30 seats in the Westminster Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1654, the Council of State issued an "Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England", which would be called the "Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland". This remained the legal basis of the union until the Ordinance became an Act of Union under the <a href="/wiki/Second_Protectorate_Parliament" title="Second Protectorate Parliament">Second Protectorate Parliament</a> on 26 June 1657.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1991283_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1991283-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, the country was run by eight English commissioners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJørgenRasmussen200739_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJørgenRasmussen200739-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1655 <a href="/wiki/Lord_Broghill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Broghill">Lord Broghill</a> was appointed as President of a new Council for Scotland which was part of an attempt to recast the government along civilian lines and to begin to win over the major landholders to the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1991285_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1991285-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The council was made up of six Englishmen and two Scots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittle200491_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle200491-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland">Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(Ireland)" title="Interregnum (Ireland)">Interregnum (Ireland)</a></div> <p>With the completion of the brutal <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> in 1653, the Protectorate implemented the Rump Parliament's draconian <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a> which directed that large numbers of the Irish population be executed and that most Catholic property owners should lose their lands and be made to relocate to the west of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234-35_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200234-35-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English army of occupation stood at 9,000 in 1657, although it had been reduced significantly from its 1649 complement of 35,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward2002142_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward2002142-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Instrument of Government specified that Ireland was entitled to 30 seats in the Parliament in London, the same number as Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200226_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200226-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the country was ruled on behalf of the Protectorate by Cromwell's son-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fleetwood" title="Charles Fleetwood">Charles Fleetwood</a>, a military governor with the title <a href="/wiki/Lord_Deputy_of_Ireland" title="Lord Deputy of Ireland">Lord Deputy of Ireland</a>, and a group of hard line radical parliamentary commissioners. As in Scotland, a more moderate policy was adopted in 1655. In that year, Cromwell sent his son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cromwell" title="Henry Cromwell">Henry</a>, to Ireland who assumed control over the country and adopted a more conciliatory approach to the country's administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward2002144–145_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward2002144–145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Foreign policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this period, Oliver Cromwell also faced challenges in foreign policy. The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a>, which had broken out in 1652, against the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, was eventually won by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blake_(admiral)" title="Robert Blake (admiral)">Robert Blake</a> in 1654. Having negotiated peace with the Dutch, Cromwell then proceeded to engage the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in warfare through his <a href="/wiki/Western_Design" title="Western Design">Western Design</a>. That involved secret preparations for an attack on the Spanish colonies in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and resulted in the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, which then became an English colony.<sup id="cite_ref-Strong_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strong-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harrington_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrington-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lord Protector became aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. Allied to Cromwell's toleration of private worship of non-Puritans, that led to his <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="Resettlement of the Jews in England">encouragement of Jews to return to England</a>, 350 years after <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">their banishment</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirst1990137_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirst1990137-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1655 a <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">crypto-Jew</a> known as Simón de Casseres proposed to Cromwell a plan to take over <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Spanish-rule Chile</a> with only four ships and a thousand men. However English plans to engage in Chile came into fruition only in 1669, with <a href="/wiki/English_expedition_to_Valdivia" title="English expedition to Valdivia">John Narborough's expedition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Urbina2017_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urbina2017-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">Battle of the Dunes (1658)</a>, the town of <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> was awarded by France to the Protectorate. It would be sold back to France by Charles II in 1662. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oliver_Cromwell's_role"><span id="Oliver_Cromwell.27s_role"></span>Oliver Cromwell's role</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Oliver Cromwell's role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_(1653%E2%80%931659).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/170px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/255px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/340px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Standard of Oliver Cromwell</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1657, Oliver Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement. That presented him with a dilemma since he had been instrumental in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability that it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657, he made it clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jericho" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jericho">Jericho</a> again".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoots1989128_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoots1989128-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially reinstalled as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a>, with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title, at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hall" title="Westminster Hall">Westminster Hall</a>. He sat upon <a href="/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Chair" class="mw-redirect" title="King Edward's Chair">King Edward's Chair</a>, which had been specially moved from <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> for the occasion. The event in part echoed a <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a> by using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice, a <a href="/wiki/Sceptre" title="Sceptre">sceptre</a> and an ermine-lined coronet but not a crown or an orb. However, a crown and an orb were present on the lord protector's seal. However, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the <a href="/wiki/Humble_Petition_and_Advice" title="Humble Petition and Advice">Humble Petition and Advice</a>, a legislative instrument that replaced the Instrument of Government. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role by describing himself as a constable or watchman. However, Cromwell "had never gained the willing consent of the nation", and the Protectorate relied on armed force.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978113_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978113-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rule_of_Richard_Cromwell">Rule of Richard Cromwell</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rule of Richard Cromwell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RichardCromwell.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RichardCromwell.png/180px-RichardCromwell.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RichardCromwell.png/270px-RichardCromwell.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RichardCromwell.png/360px-RichardCromwell.png 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Richard Cromwell</figcaption></figure> <p>After Oliver's death in September 1658, his third son, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a>, succeeded as Lord Protector. The impression of strength and durability of the Protectorate when Richard succeeded proved deceptive; the lack of unity would destroy the Protectorate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978113–119_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978113–119-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard sought to expand the basis for the Protectorate beyond the army to civilians. He summoned a Parliament in 1659, but the republicans engaged in "endless obstruction and filibustering", attacked the "quasi-monarchal" aspects of the Protectorate and "condemned Oliver's rule as a period of tyranny and economic depression".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978117,_118_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978117,_118-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both father and son were seen as leading a tyrannical government of the "Sword", in diametric opposition to a "Civil" government with a free parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three things undermined the Protectorate: the "anxieties of the army, the irresponsibility of the Parliament and the rashness of Richard Cromwell". What ultimately prevented the retention of the Protectorate was the opposition of the "junior officers" and "many of the common soldiers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton2000116–118_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutton2000116–118-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard had proved that he could neither manage the Parliament nor control the army. On 7 May, a <a href="/wiki/English_Committee_of_Safety" class="mw-redirect" title="English Committee of Safety">Committee of Safety</a> was formed on the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a>, displacing the Protector's Council of State, and was in turn replaced by a new <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a> on 19 May 1659. "Richard was never formally deposed or arrested, but allowed to fade away. The Protectorate was treated as having been from the first a mere usurpation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978120_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978120-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_restoration">Aftermath and restoration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aftermath and restoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England_(1659%E2%80%931660)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England (1659–1660)">Commonwealth of England (1659–1660)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Stuart Restoration</a></div> <p>After Richard Cromwell was removed from power by the Grandees of the New Army, the Rump Parliament was instated and soon after was replaced by the Committee of Safety and Council of State under the authority of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fleetwood" title="Charles Fleetwood">Charles Fleetwood</a>. The Committee of Safety then ordered General John Lambert to meet <a href="/wiki/George_Monck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Monck">George Monck</a>, the commander of English forces in Scotland and a royalist sympathizer, to force Monck's submission or defeat. Monck instead marched south. As Lambert's army marched north, his ranks began to dwindle and he was ultimately forced to retreat back to London.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Monck reached London he allowed Presbyterian members, who had been removed by <a href="/wiki/Pride%27s_Purge" title="Pride's Purge">Pride's Purge</a>, to re-enter Parliament on 21 February 1660. On 16 March 1660, the Long Parliament dissolved itself after preparations were made for the <a href="/wiki/Convention_Parliament_(1660)" title="Convention Parliament (1660)">Convention Parliament of 1660</a> to succeed it. On 4 April 1660, Charles II proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Breda" title="Declaration of Breda">Declaration of Breda</a>, which granted a pardon for all crimes committed during the Civil War and the Interregnum to those who recognized him as the lawful king. On 8 May 1660, the Convention Parliament declared Charles II the lawful successor of Charles I and king. The Convention Parliament then began the transition back to monarchy through the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration Settlement">Restoration Settlement</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Derek_Hirst" title="Derek Hirst">Derek Hirst</a>, outside of politics and religion, the 1640s and the 1650s saw a revived economy characterized by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments and the commercialization of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities such as horse racing and bowling. In <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>, important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research and an expansion of publishing. All of those trends were discussed in depth at the newly-established <a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse#England" title="Coffeehouse">coffeehouses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knights,_baronets_and_peers_of_the_Protectorate" title="Knights, baronets and peers of the Protectorate">Knights, baronets and peers of the Protectorate</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reference is to <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a>'s curse upon any man who would rebuild Jericho and to its fulfillment in Hiel the Bethelite, who according to 1 Kings 16:34 "laid the foundation thereof in Abiram his firstborn, and set up the gates thereof in his youngest son Segub".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBucholz2020" class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, R. O. (2020). <i>Early modern England 1485–1714 : a narrative history</i> (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 282–284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5"><bdi>978-1-118-53222-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+modern+England+1485%E2%80%931714+%3A+a+narrative+history&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=282-284&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-53222-5&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=R.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurston199818–37-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurston199818–37_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurston1998">Durston 1998</a>, pp. 18–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200234-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200235–36-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200235–36_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie2009159-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacKenzie2009159_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacKenzie2009">MacKenzie 2009</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDow197923-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDow197923_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDow1979">Dow 1979</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler2002244-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheeler2002244_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheeler2002">Wheeler 2002</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDow197935-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDow197935_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDow1979">Dow 1979</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manganiello, Stephen C. <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland and Ireland 1639-1660</i>, Scarecrow Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5100-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5100-9">978-0-8108-5100-9</a>. pp.9, 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1991283-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1991283_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1991">Lynch 1991</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJørgenRasmussen200739-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJørgenRasmussen200739_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJørgenRasmussen2007">Jørgen & Rasmussen 2007</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1991285-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1991285_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1991">Lynch 1991</a>, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle200491-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittle200491_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLittle2004">Little 2004</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200234-35-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200234-35_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, p. 34-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward2002142-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward2002142_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward200226-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward200226_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward2002144–145-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoward2002144–145_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2002">Coward 2002</a>, pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strong-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Strong_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrong1899" class="citation journal cs1">Strong, Frank (1899). 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The Florida State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Theses%2C+Treatises+and+Dissertations&rft.atitle=%22The+Worke+Wee+May+Doe+in+the+World%22%3A+The+Western+Design+and+the+Anglo-Spanish+Struggle+for+the+Caribbean%2C+1654%E2%80%931655&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Craig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F4248%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirst1990137-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirst1990137_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHirst1990">Hirst 1990</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Urbina2017-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Urbina2017_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrbina_C.2017" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ximena_Urbina" title="Ximena Urbina">Urbina C., María Ximena</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-22442017000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es">"La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares"</a> [John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defence of Valdivia, Indian rumours, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares]. <i><a href="/wiki/Magallania" title="Magallania">Magallania</a></i>. <b>45</b> (2): 11–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-22442017000200011">10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magallania&rft.atitle=La+expedici%C3%B3n+de+John+Narborough+a+Chile%2C+1670%3A+Defensa+de+Valdivia%2C+rumeros+de+indios%2C+informaciones+de+los+prisioneros+y+la+creencia+en+la+Ciudad+de+los+C%C3%A9sares&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=11-36&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4067%2FS0718-22442017000200011&rft.aulast=Urbina+C.&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Ximena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscielo.conicyt.cl%2Fscielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_arttext%26pid%3DS0718-22442017000200011%26lng%3Den%26nrm%3Diso%26tlng%3Des&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoots1989128-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoots1989128_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoots1989">Roots 1989</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978113-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978113_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1978">Jones 1978</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978113–119-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978113–119_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1978">Jones 1978</a>, pp. 113–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978117,_118-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978117,_118_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1978">Jones 1978</a>, pp. 117, 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansfield2021" class="citation journal cs1">Mansfield, Andrew (3 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0018246x21000662">"The First Earl of Shaftesbury's Resolute Conscience and Aristocratic Constitutionalism"</a>. <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>65</b> (4): 969–991. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0018246x21000662">10.1017/s0018246x21000662</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-246X">0018-246X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+First+Earl+of+Shaftesbury%27s+Resolute+Conscience+and+Aristocratic+Constitutionalism&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=969-991&rft.date=2021-09-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0018246x21000662&rft.issn=0018-246X&rft.aulast=Mansfield&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fs0018246x21000662&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutton2000116–118-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton2000116–118_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHutton2000">Hutton 2000</a>, pp. 116–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1978120-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1978120_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1978">Jones 1978</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucholz2020" class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, R. O. (2020). <i>Early modern England 1485–1714 : a narrative history</i> (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5"><bdi>978-1-118-53222-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+modern+England+1485%E2%80%931714+%3A+a+narrative+history&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=285&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-53222-5&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=R.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucholz2020" class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, R. O. (2020). <i>Early modern England 1485–1714 : a narrative history</i> (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-53222-5"><bdi>978-1-118-53222-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+modern+England+1485%E2%80%931714+%3A+a+narrative+history&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=286&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-53222-5&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=R.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirst1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hirst" title="Derek Hirst">Hirst, Derek</a> (July 1996). 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Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4317-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4317-8"><bdi>978-0-7190-4317-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cromwellian+Protectorate&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4317-8&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDow1979" class="citation book cs1">Dow, F. D. (1979). <i>Cromwellian Scotland 1651–1660</i>. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85976-049-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85976-049-2"><bdi>978-0-85976-049-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwellian+Scotland+1651%E2%80%931660&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=John+Donald+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-85976-049-2&rft.aulast=Dow&rft.aufirst=F.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurston1998" class="citation journal cs1">Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals". <i>English Historical Review</i>. <b>113</b> (450): 18–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcxiii.450.18">10.1093/ehr/cxiii.450.18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Fall+of+Cromwell%27s+Major-Generals&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=450&rft.pages=18-37&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcxiii.450.18&rft.issn=0013-8266&rft.aulast=Durston&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirst1990" class="citation book cs1">Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8". In Morrill (ed.). <i>Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution</i>. p. 137. Call Number: DA426 .O45 1990.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lord+Protector%2C+1653%E2%80%938&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pages=137&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Hirst&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton2000" class="citation book cs1">Hutton, Ronald (2000). <i>The British Republic 1649–1660</i> (2nd ed.). Macmillan. pp. 116–118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Republic+1649%E2%80%931660&rft.pages=116-118&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1978" class="citation book cs1">Jones, J.R. (1978). <i>Country and Court: England 1658–1714</i>. Edward Arnold. pp. 113–120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+and+Court%3A+England+1658%E2%80%931714&rft.pages=113-120&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJørgenRasmussen2007" class="citation book cs1">Jørgen, S; Rasmussen, J.R. (2007). <i>Angles on the English-Speaking World vol.7. The State of the Union: Scotland, 1707–2007</i>. Museum Tusculanum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-635-0702-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-635-0702-8"><bdi>978-87-635-0702-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Angles+on+the+English-Speaking+World+vol.7.+The+State+of+the+Union%3A+Scotland%2C+1707%E2%80%932007&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-87-635-0702-8&rft.aulast=J%C3%B8rgen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2004" class="citation book cs1">Little, Patrick (2004). <i>Lord Broghill and the Cromwellian Union With Ireland And Scotland</i>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-099-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-099-3"><bdi>978-1-84383-099-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Broghill+and+the+Cromwellian+Union+With+Ireland+And+Scotland&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-099-3&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1991" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, M. (1991). <i><span></span>'Scotland: a New History</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-7563-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-7563-8"><bdi>978-1-4464-7563-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Scotland%3A+a+New+History&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-4464-7563-8&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie2009" class="citation book cs1">MacKenzie, Kirsteen (2009). "Oliver Cromwell and the Solemn League and Covenant of the Three Kingdoms". In Patrick Little (ed.). <i>Oliver Cromwell: New Perspectives</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57421-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57421-2"><bdi>978-0-230-57421-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+Solemn+League+and+Covenant+of+the+Three+Kingdoms&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-57421-2&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=Kirsteen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoots1989" class="citation book cs1">Roots, Ivan (1989). <i>Speeches of Oliver Cromwell</i>. Everyman classics. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-460-01254-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-460-01254-6"><bdi>978-0-460-01254-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Everyman+classics&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-460-01254-6&rft.aulast=Roots&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2002" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, James Scott (2002). <i>The Irish and British Wars 1637–1654: Triumph, Tragedy and Failure</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22132-0"><bdi>978-0-415-22132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+and+British+Wars+1637%E2%80%931654%3A+Triumph%2C+Tragedy+and+Failure&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-22132-0&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=James+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfe1885" class="citation cs2">Metcalfe, Walter Charles (1885), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookofknightsban00metcuoft"><i>A Book of Knights Banneret, Knights of the Bath, and Knights Bachelor made between the fourth year of King Henry VI and the restoration of King Charles II ...</i></a>, London: Mitchell and Hughes, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/bookofknightsban00metcuoft#page/205/mode/1up">205</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Book+of+Knights+Banneret%2C+Knights+of+the+Bath%2C+and+Knights+Bachelor+made+between+the+fourth+year+of+King+Henry+VI+and+the+restoration+of+King+Charles+II+...&rft.place=London&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Mitchell+and+Hughes&rft.date=1885&rft.aulast=Metcalfe&rft.aufirst=Walter+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookofknightsban00metcuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Protectorate" class="Z3988"></span> – A list of men knighted by the Lord Protectors.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Protectorate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://flagspot.net/flags/gb-inter.html">United Kingdom: Flags of the Interregnum, 1649–1660</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0840301.html">More About the Protectorate</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014225525/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0840301.html">Archived</a> 14 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_England" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks vcard mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" 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href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Economy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England#English_unification_.2810th_century.29" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">English unification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England" title="History of England">Norman period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="England in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">Black Death in England</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">Second World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">Postwar Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">Social history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English overseas possessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">English society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Government in medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_England" title="History of education in England">History of education in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of monarchy in the United Kingdom">History of monarchy in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England#History" title="Economy of England">History of the economy of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England#Political_history" title="Politics of England">History of the politics of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_England" title="List of wars involving England">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_riots_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="England riots (disambiguation)">Riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_England" title="Counties of England">By county</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bedfordshire" title="History of Bedfordshire">Bedfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Berkshire" title="History of Berkshire">Berkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bristol" title="History of Bristol">City of Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buckinghamshire" title="History of Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambridgeshire" title="History of Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cheshire" title="History of Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cornwall" title="History of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cumbria" title="History of Cumbria">Cumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Derbyshire" title="History of Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Devon" title="History of Devon">Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dorset" title="History of Dorset">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Durham" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Durham">Durham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="History of the East Riding of Yorkshire">East Riding of Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Sussex" class="mw-redirect" title="History of East Sussex">East Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Essex" title="History of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gloucestershire" title="History of Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greater_London" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greater London">Greater London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greater_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greater Manchester">Greater Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hampshire" title="History of Hampshire">Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Herefordshire" title="History of Herefordshire">Herefordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hertfordshire" title="History of Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="History of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kent" title="History of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lancashire" title="History of Lancashire">Lancashire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Leicestershire" title="History of Leicestershire">Leicestershire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lincolnshire" title="History of Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_London" title="History of London">City of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Merseyside" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Merseyside">Merseyside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norfolk" title="History of Norfolk">Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northamptonshire" title="History of Northamptonshire">Northamptonshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northumberland" title="History of Northumberland">Northumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nottinghamshire" title="History of Nottinghamshire">Nottinghamshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oxfordshire" title="History of Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rutland" title="History of Rutland">Rutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shropshire" title="History of Shropshire">Shropshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somerset" title="History of Somerset">Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Yorkshire">South Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Staffordshire" title="History of Staffordshire">Staffordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Suffolk" title="History of Suffolk">Suffolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Surrey" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Surrey">Surrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tyne_and_Wear" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tyne and Wear">Tyne and Wear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Warwickshire" title="History of Warwickshire">Warwickshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_West_Midlands" title="History of the West Midlands">West Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Sussex" class="mw-redirect" title="History of West Sussex">West Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of West Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wiltshire" title="History of Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worcestershire" title="History of Worcestershire">Worcestershire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">By city or town</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Birmingham" title="History of Birmingham">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bournemouth" title="History of Bournemouth">Bournemouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brighton" title="History of Brighton">Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bristol" title="History of Bristol">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chester" title="History of Chester">Chester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christchurch,_Dorset" title="History of Christchurch, Dorset">Christchurch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colchester" title="History of Colchester">Colchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Coventry" title="History of Coventry">Coventry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dover" title="History of Dover">Dover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Folkestone" title="History of Folkestone">Folkestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Leeds" title="History of Leeds">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liverpool" title="History of Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_London" title="History of London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maidstone" title="History of Maidstone">Maidstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Manchester" title="History of Manchester">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Margate" title="History of Margate">Margate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Milton_Keynes" title="History of Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="History of Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nottingham" title="History of Nottingham">Nottingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oxford" title="History of Oxford">Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plymouth" title="History of Plymouth">Plymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poole" title="History of Poole">Poole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portsmouth" title="History of Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reading,_Berkshire" title="History of Reading, Berkshire">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rochester,_Kent" title="History of Rochester, Kent">Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sheffield" title="History of Sheffield">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shrewsbury" title="History of Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southampton" title="History of Southampton">Southampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_St_Albans" title="History of St Albans">St Albans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Torquay" title="History of Torquay">Torquay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wetherby" title="History of Wetherby">Wetherby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worcester" title="History of Worcester">Worcester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worthing" title="History of Worthing">Worthing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_York" title="History of York">York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" 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