Radio - Developing Markets, Communication, Technology

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<div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio">radio</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/radio">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref301713"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio#ref301713">Radio’s early years</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref301714"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio">The Golden Age of American radio</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301715">A new commercial medium</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301716">The need for regulation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301717">The role of advertising</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301718">The development of networks and production centres</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301719">Ratings systems</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301720"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form">A new art form</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301721">Radio acting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301722">Sound effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301723"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301723">Radio music</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301724">Golden Age programming</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301725">Origins in vaudeville</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Comedy">Comedy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Comedy#ref301727">Situation comedy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows">Variety shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301729">Anthology shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301730">Film-based anthology shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301731">Police and detective dramas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns">Westerns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301733">Horror and suspense</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301734">Science fiction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301735">Soap operas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series">Juvenile action and adventure series</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series#ref301737">Sports</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301738"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series#ref301738">News</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/American-radio-goes-to-war">American radio goes to war</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/American-radio-goes-to-war#ref301740">The end of American radio’s Golden Age</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301741"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world">The Golden Age around the world</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world#ref301742">Canada</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world#ref301743">Great Britain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe">Continental Europe</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301745">Luxembourg</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301746"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301746">Germany</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301747">France</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301748">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301749">Asia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301750">China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301751"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301751">India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301752">Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301753">Latin America</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301754">Brazil</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301755">Mexico</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301756"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60">Reinventing radio, 1945–60</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301757">Postwar rebuilding</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301758"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301758">Growth of the BBC</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301759">Economic and political concerns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio">The rise of Top 40 radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio#ref301761">The FM phenomenon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301762"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio#ref301762">Radio in developing countries</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301763"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80">New initiatives, 1960–80</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80#ref301764">FM growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80#ref301765">Pirates and public-service radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets">Radio in developing markets</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301767"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets#ref301767">Radio since 1980</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets#ref301768">Pressures on public-service radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio">The changing sound of radio</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301770"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301770">In Europe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301771">In the United States</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301772">In Latin America</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301773">In Asia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/radio-and-television-broadcasting" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Canadian Encyclopedia - Radio and Television Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Orange_Coast_College/The_Introduction_to_Mass_Communication_Book/06%3A_Radio" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Social Science LibreTexts - Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/radio" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Case Western Reserve University - Encyclopedia of Cleveland History - Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.fcc.gov/sites/default/files/a-short-history-of-radio.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Federal Communications Commission - A Short History of Radio (PDF)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pressbooks.wtamu.edu/mediacommunication2e/chapter/the-evolution-of-radio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">West Texas A&M University Pressbooks - Media Communication, Convergence and Literacy, Second Edition - The Evolution of Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/326834486.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">CORE - Digital Transformation of Radio Broadcasting: An Exploratory Analysis of Challenges and Solutions for New Digital Radio Services</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Elon University - Imagining the Internet - 1890s – 1930s: Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://uen.pressbooks.pub/writingforelectronicmedia/chapter/radio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">UEN Digital Press with Pressbooks - Radio</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Christopher-H-Sterling/5658" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Christopher H. Sterling</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Media and Public Affairs and of Public Policy and Public Administration, George Washington Unversity, Washington, D.C.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Christopher H. Sterling</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Randy-Skretvedt/5492" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Randy Skretvedt</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Radio producer, writer, and scholar of 20th-century show business. Author of <em>Laurel & Hardy: The Magic Behind the Movies</em>.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Randy Skretvedt</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Orson-Welles" topicid="639348">Orson Welles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Dylan-Thomas" topicid="592795">Dylan Thomas</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Bob-Hope" topicid="271454">Bob Hope</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Rupert-Murdoch" topicid="398054">Rupert Murdoch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Reginald-Aubrey-Fessenden" topicid="205416">Reginald Aubrey Fessenden</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/technology/broadcasting" topicid="80543">broadcasting</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/radio-technology" topicid="1262240">radio technology</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/mass-communication" topicid="2220027">mass communication</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/public-service-radio" topicid="1805106">public-service radio</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/program-broadcasting" topicid="734752">program</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/radio"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref301766"> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref1124147"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Latin America</a> continued to differ from other developing regions in that most of its radio stations were privately owned, competitive, and supported by the sale of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/advertising" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">advertising</a> time. Most Latin American countries also had government-run stations, although these were dominant only in Peru, and most also had stations run by religious organizations or universities (usually Roman Catholic). Many stations operated on a 24-hour basis. After 1960 several Andean nations began to broadcast in various native languages at least a few hours a week. The number of inexpensive receivers in use greatly increased, thanks in part to growing use of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">transistor</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">technology</a>. The rapid expansion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/television-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">television</a> in the 1960s and ’1970s, however, changed radio in Latin America much as it did in other parts of the world, shifting the aural service to a secondary position in major cities. As a result, radio became more music-centred than ever before—making up two-thirds of all radio programming in <span id="ref1124150"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Mexico" class="md-crosslink ">Mexico</a>, for example—as news increasingly became a service associated with television.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Asian radio continued to be a largely government-operated enterprise, paid for with license fees assessed on receivers and state subsidies. Korea, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hong-Kong" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hong Kong</a>, and Singapore joined Japan and the Philippines in operating parallel government and private radio systems. But the quality of service, let alone its availability, varied hugely from very <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="rudimentary" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rudimentary" data-type="MW">rudimentary</a> radio operations in a few cities in Afghanistan, for example, to highly sophisticated systems in Japan and Singapore. Taken as a whole, most programming was devoted to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">music</a> or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/light" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">light</a> entertainment, with government stations providing more news and cultural content. Organized school services were available in about a dozen countries, including India, Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Although controlled by the national government, <span id="ref1124148"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-India-Radio" class="md-crosslink ">All India Radio</a> (AIR) introduced advertising in 1967 to help meet some of its operating expenses; government funds made up the annual deficit.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">African radio systems—nearly all government-operated, supported in part by revenue from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/receiver" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">receiver</a> license fees—often reflected national <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> and the political regime in power, taking on a more nationalistic tone as the majority of that continent’s countries threw off most remnants of colonialism. While often used for programs providing news or aiding agriculture or education, radio could also serve political ends, providing a ready-made platform for long-winded speeches and other government <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">propaganda</a>. Not surprisingly, however, former French colonies often adopted many aspects of French radio, just as former British colonies copied features of the BBC in developing their new national systems. Most radio broadcasts were national, since few countries provided local or regional services—with the exceptions of Nigeria and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Africa</a>. Given the tropical conditions, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/shortwave-radio" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">shortwave radio</a> was widely used to avoid the static commonly found in medium-wave AM service, though it often did not cover the whole country. Throughout the continent, receivers remained scarce (fewer than 5 per 100 people), especially outside large cities.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section></section><span class="marker h7"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref301767"><h2 class="h1">Radio since 1980</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Radio in the last two decades of the 20th century was a thriving and growing industry of ever more stations and often narrower program formats. Many new stations appeared on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/frequency-modulation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">FM</a> (or VHF), which grew to dominate radio <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/broadcasting" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">broadcasting</a> in many regions of the world. In Europe FM continued to expand as low-cost receivers and transmitters encouraged the rise of small stations that could serve discrete <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a> or regions without causing interference to other stations or nearby countries. In some countries, including Britain, <span id="ref1124053"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/amplitude-modulation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">AM</a> (or medium-wave) transmitters declined in number as FM expanded. But as FM was restricted to line-of-sight range even when higher-powered transmitters were used, the newer service required more stations and frequencies to cover what market areas could be reached by a relative handful of stations in AM.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">FM listening dominated radio in the United States as well, expanding its national audience share to three-quarters, increasing its proportion of advertising revenue, and by the late 1990s accounting for nearly 60 percent of all stations. Because <span id="ref1124054"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/amplitude-modulation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">AM</a> stations were declining, broadcasters and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Federal-Communications-Commission" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) tried to create a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="viable" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/viable" data-type="EB">viable</a> system of AM stereo to allow the older service to compete more effectively. This experiment was doomed by disagreement on technical standards and an ill-conceived deregulatory move to let “the marketplace” decide which system was best. Talk and news formats soon dominated AM, while music of all kinds generally shifted to FM. All stations increasingly focused their programming to retain even a tiny fraction of the audience.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="2" id="ref301768"><h2 class="h2">Pressures on <span id="ref1124264"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-service-radio" class="md-crosslink ">public-service radio</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Beginning in the 1980s and accelerating through the 1990s, economic pressures on industrial countries’ traditional public-service radio operations had a telling and growing impact. While the government-supported national systems saw themselves as protectors and disseminators of a high-quality vision of national culture and pride, their survival was threatened by the growing number of commercial competitors for audiences. As public-service radio’s budgets declined, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="creative" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/creative" data-type="EB">creative</a> cultural and dramatic programs diminished as well, sometimes all but disappearing. Indeed, critics argued that the public-service stations were sounding more and more like their commercial counterparts, sometimes even accepting advertising to make up budget shortfalls. The competition was not always national: listeners in many European countries reported in growing numbers that their local stations were far more important than any national service. Nor were the changes restricted to Europe. By the 1990s <span id="ref1123748"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Canada" class="md-crosslink ">Canada</a>’s government had severely cut funding for the <span id="ref1124152"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Canadian-Broadcasting-Corporation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a> (CBC), thereby weakening the role of that network and making commercial stations with their advertiser-supported music formats more important to Canadian listeners.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref1124154"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/British-Broadcasting-Corporation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">British Broadcasting Corporation</a> (BBC) went through a series of managerial crises, shake-ups, and reorganizations after 1980 as it faced a progressively more competitive marketplace. Most notable among the changes was an expansion from three to six radio services, which by the early 1990s consisted of:</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <ul><li><div>Radio 1, which offered <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="contemporary" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/contemporary" data-type="EB">contemporary</a> music</div></li><li><div>Radio 2, with a “middle-of-the-road” (MOR) format that mixed various features and music</div></li><li><div>Radio 3, which continued the Third Programme tradition of classical music and related cultural features</div></li><li><div>Radio 4, the “intelligent speech” station, with a host of news, talk, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/theatre-art" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">drama</a>, and documentary programs</div></li><li><div>Radio 5 (renamed Five Live in 1994), with a live news and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/sports" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sports</a> format</div></li><li><div>Radio 6, a second more traditional <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/popular-music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">popular music</a> channel</div></li></ul> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Competitive pressures also affected public and commercial radio in the <span id="ref1123735"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-United-States" class="md-crosslink ">United States</a>. As more new stations (nearly always FM) went on the air, a growing number were either losing money or making very little. Outside the largest markets, radio was often a narrow-margin business. In response to pressure by struggling station owners, commercial radio was largely deregulated by the <span id="ref1124156"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Federal-Communications-Commission" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">FCC</a> in the late 1970s, and public stations were deregulated in the mid-1980s. Licenses grew longer (to eight years in 1996 legislation), owners could control more stations, and the few remaining guidelines concerning station programs and operations were swept away.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1987 the FCC abandoned its long-controversial “<span id="ref1124158"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fairness-Doctrine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fairness doctrine</a>.” Originating from a 1949 decision that allowed stations to editorialize, the doctrine had offered two guidelines to radio and television stations: that they should cover issues of local public controversy as part of their public-interest obligation and that they should air varied points of view on those issues. Over the years, the doctrine grew increasingly controversial. Broadcasters felt it was an infringement of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> right to free speech; no such “fairness” requirement existed for the press. Industry critics countered that the doctrine was a small price to pay, given that stations got “free” use of the radio-frequency spectrum and could select both the issues covered and the spokespersons aired.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">With the end of the fairness doctrine, stations felt freer to air politically oriented and often controversial programs without fear of a government policy calling for fairness in airing conflicting points of view. Within a very few years, great chunks of AM (and some FM) station time were given over to “<span id="ref1201447"></span>talk” programs featuring a host and telephone calls from listeners. The majority of these were politically <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative" data-type="MW">conservative</a>, making radio sound far more right-wing than the country at large. Even so, conservative radio figures (such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rush-Limbaugh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rush Limbaugh</a>) earned huge returns for the stations from advertisers eager to reach the millions who tuned in. Critics even suggested that radio’s one-sided sound may have affected some local and statewide election results. In any case, serving the “public interest” in an era of deregulation no longer required balanced programming.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span></section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":14,"pagesTotal":16,"pageId":488788,"pageLength":1345,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":14,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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