Radio - Broadcasting, Technology, Music

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data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio">radio</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/radio">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref301713"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio#ref301713">Radio’s early years</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref301714"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio">The Golden Age of American radio</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301715">A new commercial medium</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301716">The need for regulation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301717">The role of advertising</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301718">The development of networks and production centres</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-of-American-radio#ref301719">Ratings systems</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301720"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form">A new art form</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301721">Radio acting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301722">Sound effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301723"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301723">Radio music</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301724">Golden Age programming</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/A-new-art-form#ref301725">Origins in vaudeville</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Comedy">Comedy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Comedy#ref301727">Situation comedy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows">Variety shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301729">Anthology shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301730">Film-based anthology shows</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Variety-shows#ref301731">Police and detective dramas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns">Westerns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301733">Horror and suspense</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301734">Science fiction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Westerns#ref301735">Soap operas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series">Juvenile action and adventure series</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series#ref301737">Sports</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301738"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Juvenile-action-and-adventure-series#ref301738">News</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/American-radio-goes-to-war">American radio goes to war</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/American-radio-goes-to-war#ref301740">The end of American radio’s Golden Age</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301741"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world">The Golden Age around the world</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world#ref301742">Canada</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-Golden-Age-around-the-world#ref301743">Great Britain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe">Continental Europe</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301745">Luxembourg</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301746"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301746">Germany</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301747">France</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301748">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301749">Asia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301750">China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301751"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301751">India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301752">Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301753">Latin America</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301754">Brazil</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref301755">Mexico</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301756"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60">Reinventing radio, 1945–60</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301757">Postwar rebuilding</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301758"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301758">Growth of the BBC</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Reinventing-radio-1945-60#ref301759">Economic and political concerns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio">The rise of Top 40 radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio#ref301761">The FM phenomenon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301762"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-rise-of-Top-40-radio#ref301762">Radio in developing countries</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301763"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80">New initiatives, 1960–80</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80#ref301764">FM growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80#ref301765">Pirates and public-service radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets">Radio in developing markets</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301767"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets#ref301767">Radio since 1980</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radio-in-developing-markets#ref301768">Pressures on public-service radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio">The changing sound of radio</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301770"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301770">In Europe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301771">In the United States</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301772">In Latin America</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301773">In Asia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301774">In Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301775"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/The-changing-sound-of-radio#ref301775">The global sound of radio</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/radio/Radios-digital-future">Radio’s digital future</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/radio">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/95459-050-2C61EC63/family-radio-console.jpg" data-href="/media/1/488788/154155" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/95459-004-B551E8C9/family-radio-console.jpg" alt="radio" 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/radio-and-television-broadcasting" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Canadian Encyclopedia - Radio and Television Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Orange_Coast_College/The_Introduction_to_Mass_Communication_Book/06%3A_Radio" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Social Science LibreTexts - Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/radio" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Case Western Reserve University - Encyclopedia of Cleveland History - Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/7-2-evolution-of-radio-broadcasting/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University of Minnesota Libraries - Evolution of Radio Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/documents/short_history.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Federal Communications Commission - A Short History of Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pressbooks.wtamu.edu/mediacommunication2e/chapter/the-evolution-of-radio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">West Texas A&M University Pressbooks - Media Communication, Convergence and Literacy, Second Edition - The Evolution of Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/326834486.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">CORE - Digital Transformation of Radio Broadcasting: An Exploratory Analysis of Challenges and Solutions for New Digital Radio Services</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Elon University - Imagining the Internet - 1890s – 1930s: Radio</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://uen.pressbooks.pub/writingforelectronicmedia/chapter/radio/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">UEN Digital Press with Pressbooks - Radio</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Christopher-H-Sterling/5658" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Christopher H. Sterling</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Media and Public Affairs and of Public Policy and Public Administration, George Washington Unversity, Washington, D.C.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Christopher H. Sterling</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Randy-Skretvedt/5492" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Randy Skretvedt</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Radio producer, writer, and scholar of 20th-century show business. Author of <em>Laurel & Hardy: The Magic Behind the Movies</em>.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Randy Skretvedt</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Orson-Welles" topicid="639348">Orson Welles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Dylan-Thomas" topicid="592795">Dylan Thomas</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Bob-Hope" topicid="271454">Bob Hope</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Rupert-Murdoch" topicid="398054">Rupert Murdoch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Reginald-Aubrey-Fessenden" topicid="205416">Reginald Aubrey Fessenden</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/technology/broadcasting" topicid="80543">broadcasting</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/radio-technology" topicid="1262240">radio technology</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/mass-communication" topicid="2220027">mass communication</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/public-service-radio" topicid="1805106">public-service radio</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/program-broadcasting" topicid="734752">program</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/" target="_blank">Elon University - Imagining the Internet - 1890s – 1930s: Radio</a> (Nov. 21, 2024)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/radio"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref301769"> <section data-level="3" id="ref301770"><h2 class="h3">In <span id="ref1124163"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Perhaps the sharpest change in radio programming took place after 1991, when the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-bloc" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Soviet bloc</a> collapsed and was replaced by a very different Russia and numerous independent states. Stations in Russia soon sounded much like those in the rest of Europe, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characterized" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characterized" data-type="EB">characterized</a> by a strong emphasis on advertiser-supported <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/popular-music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">popular music</a> formats. There was greater language variance, especially in outlying regions away from major cities. Some smaller stations operated in cooperation with local <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/cable-television" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">cable television</a> systems and carried a variety of services, including programs from other countries—a practice once unheard of.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">With the reunification of Germany in 1990, the radio system consisted of state-run networks that offered four or five program services each as well as newer private stations that relied heavily upon popular music formats. Some of the same <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">music</a> format splintering evident in the United States occurred in Germany and in other former Eastern bloc states, including Poland, Hungary, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Czech-Republic" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Czech Republic</a>. Educational broadcasts remained a strong part of most public-service systems, many of which provided in-school programs for primary and secondary classroom use.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref301771"><h2 class="h3">In the <span id="ref1123736"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-United-States" class="md-crosslink ">United States</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the last two decades of the 20th century, American radio was presenting two seemingly opposite trends to listeners. Program variety appeared to increase as more stations competed for listeners and each strove to sound different while seeking to retain its existing audience. At the same time, however, a number of radio formats declined or vanished entirely. Classical music and arts programming virtually disappeared from commercial (and many public) stations, as did such “minority” musical fare as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/folk-music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">folk music</a> and jazz, while educational broadcasts were restricted to noncommercial stations operating on reserved frequencies. Former regional differences also diminished, making American radio sound much the same no matter where one listened. Critics attributed such lack of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diversity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity" data-type="MW">diversity</a> to the trend toward station-ownership consolidation.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Religious-format stations (which had existed since the early days of radio) also greatly expanded in number, with hundreds of evangelical broadcasters becoming a major economic force in the radio industry by the 1980s. By the turn of the 21st century, more than 2,500 stations offered some form of religious programming, 65 percent of them <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/broadcasting" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">broadcasting</a> one of more than a dozen varieties of generally <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative" data-type="MW">conservative</a> or evangelical Christian music.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A growing number of stations (especially AM) focused on news and talk programs. Although all-news formats were expensive (far more so than merely playing recorded music), such stations did extremely well in large markets after the first ones aired in the mid-1960s. Stations often mixed constantly updated newscasts with various “call-in” talk shows. At the same time, a growing number of stations dropped news and public-affairs programming entirely, devoting themselves exclusively to music or talk formats. In large cities, most listeners could tune elsewhere for news, but some smaller markets offering fewer choices suffered.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">“<span id="ref1124165"></span>Drive-time” radio had become important after 1960 as morning and evening <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="commutes" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/commutes" data-type="EB">commutes</a> in most urban areas grew longer, and it continued to be a mainstay, attracting the medium’s largest audiences. Such programs continued to thrive despite decades of competition from broadcast <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/television-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">television</a> and increasing competition from cable TV and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Internet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Internet</a>. New York-based “shock jock” <span id="ref1124167"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Howard-Stern" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Howard Stern</a>’s morning program was widely rebroadcast across the country, and in 1996 talk-show host <span id="ref1124168"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Don-Imus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Don Imus</a>’s popular show <em>Imus in the Morning</em>, also originating in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-City" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">New York City</a>, began to be simulcast on the 24-hour cable television news channel MSNBC. Such syndication of popular national figures surged as cost-cutting diminished the variance that once characterized small- and medium-market morning programs. Increasingly, radio stations in all but the smallest markets operated 24 hours a day, at least some of the time on an automated basis—in which live announcers are replaced by scripted recorded chat and song introductions—to match the changing lifestyles of their listeners.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Provisions" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Provisions" data-type="EB">Provisions</a> of the <span id="ref1124171"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Telecommunications-Act" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Telecommunications Act</a> of 1996 caused more dramatic changes, chiefly by allowing the growth of huge chains of stations. For many years a “group” owner was limited to owning no more than seven AM and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/frequency-modulation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">FM</a> stations in the country; by 2001 the largest American radio stations controlled more than 1,200 outlets (of more than 12,000 AM and FM stations on the air). Additionally, single owners could, after years of being forbidden to do so, own up to six or eight stations in larger markets, often programmed to appeal to different audience groups. This led to a trend in the industry known as “<span id="ref1124173"></span>splintering,” in which one programming <span id="ref1124175"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/format" class="md-crosslink ">format</a> (such as rock music) “splinters” into at least two more narrowly focused kinds of music (such as hip-hop or classic rock), in an effort to appeal to specific audiences with carefully defined <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="demographic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demographic" data-type="MW">demographic</a> and psychographic profiles. About a dozen formats were recognized in radio in 1980; the number had increased threefold, if not more, by the turn of the 21st century.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The once-dominant <span id="ref1123922"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Top-40" class="md-crosslink ">Top 40</a> format, for instance, splintered into as many as 30 subformats. These included “<span id="ref1124177"></span>contemporary hit radio” (CHR), which emphasized less talk, more focused music playlists, more valuable promotional giveaways, and greater consideration of listeners’ lifestyles in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/advertising" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">advertising</a> and feature presentations. Another splinter became the “urban” format (itself an outgrowth of the earlier disco music format), which began making inroads into the CHR audience and later attempted to subsume it into a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="hybrid" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/hybrid" data-type="EB">hybrid</a> format called “churban,” which incorporated Top 40 tunes with a dance-club beat along with rap and hip-hop hits. Meanwhile “hot adult contemporary” stations challenged the ratings of CHR/Top 40 outlets by all but mirroring their playlists, without the harder rock-music sounds. Only “<span id="ref1124178"></span>golden oldies” stations—which allowed aging baby boomers to relive their younger years with music of the 1950s through the ’70s—resembled the Top 40 programming approach of yesteryear.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Dramatic radio was rare, although it had sporadic revivals, notably with <em>The CBS Radio Mystery Theatre</em> (1974–82), <em>Sears Radio Theatre</em> (1979–80), and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Salvation-Army" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Salvation Army’s</a> durable <em>Heartbeat Theatre</em>, begun in 1956 and continuing into the 1990s. Radio’s traditions of comedy and variety continued in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Garrison-Keillor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Garrison Keillor</a>’s <em>A Prairie Home Companion</em>, which first aired on Minnesota Public Radio in 1974.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref301772"><h2 class="h3">In <span id="ref1123924"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Latin America</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the late 20th century, Latin American radio continued to expand its offerings. <span id="ref1124181"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Argentina" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Argentine</a> radio, for example, broadcast mostly music and news, with a “top 100 hits” format rating among the most popular. Although formatting was similar to that in stations in the United States, tango and other Latin music was common.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Across the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Andes-Mountains" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Andes Mountains</a>, Chilean radio networks included the government-operated Radio Nacional; Radio Chilean, run by the Roman Catholic Church; Radio Mineria, which took its name from mining interests but was a reliable news source; Radio Agricultura, which focused on news and programs for farmers; and Radio Tierra, established in 1983, which claimed to be the first all-female radio station in the Americas (although one such station had operated in the United States two decades earlier).</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref1124182"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Brazil" class="md-crosslink ">Brazilian</a> AM radio was widely available across <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-America" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South America’s</a> largest country, with music and formats that appealed to less-affluent audiences, such as Brazilian country or popular music, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/sports" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sports</a>, and talk. FM was largely based in cities and played imported music as well as a great deal of Brazilian popular music. Large cities supported 20 to 30 stations, again with many formats resembling U.S. radio. Three government-sponsored news or cultural programs, however, had to be carried by all stations.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref301773"><h2 class="h3">In Asia</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the end of the 20th century, Asian countries especially faced the problem of providing radio service to listeners who spoke a host of languages. <span id="ref1124183"></span>Radio Pakistan, for example, offered regional services tailored to specific language populations instead of national stations. India, conversely, offered only one main service (save for a few local stations created in the 1990s): <span id="ref1124184"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-India-Radio" class="md-crosslink ">All India Radio</a> (AIR) broadcast in 24 languages and 146 <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dialects" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dialects" data-type="MW">dialects</a> to reach 98 percent of its burgeoning population. In addition to hundreds of daily news bulletins, AIR developed special bulletins on sports, youth, and other major events. Some 80 stations by the late 1990s were broadcasting <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/theatre-art" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">drama</a> in various languages, although about 40 percent of all AIR broadcast time was devoted to various types of music—especially <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/motion-picture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">film</a> scores, reflecting India’s status as a major producer of motion pictures.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref301774"><h2 class="h3">In <span id="ref1123925"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Africa</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">African radio underwent something of a revolution in the 1980s as more privately owned stations appeared in several countries. In 1981 <span id="ref1124185"></span>Africa No. 1 began service from Libreville in Gabon (Central Africa), intending to be a pan-African service using both FM and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/shortwave-radio" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">shortwave radio</a>. It soon developed local transmitters in many other countries, including France. By 1987 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Africa</a>, The Gambia, Swaziland, Liberia, and one or two other small countries had commercially supported outlets. A private FM station in the capital city of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Burkina-Faso" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Burkina Faso</a> (initially unauthorized) helped signal the change to more liberal licensing. Nevertheless, while commercial rather than government-operated stations became more common, in many cases licenses went to close allies of the party in power.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="154156" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/128822-050-5DF5AFEA/Students-girls-primary-school-lesson-satellite-radio-2002.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/488788/154156"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/128822-050-5DF5AFEA/Students-girls-primary-school-lesson-satellite-radio-2002.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/128822-050-5DF5AFEA/Students-girls-primary-school-lesson-satellite-radio-2002.jpg?w=300" alt="girls primary school in Mandera, Kenya" data-width="1600" data-height="1066" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/128822-050-5DF5AFEA/Students-girls-primary-school-lesson-satellite-radio-2002.jpg" data-href="/media/1/488788/154156">girls primary school in Mandera, Kenya</a><span>Students at a girls primary school in Mandera, Kenya, listening to an English lesson broadcast on WorldSpace satellite radio, 2002.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">By the turn of the 21st century, there were more than 450 private stations in all of Africa, some purely commercial and relying on recorded music (some of which was of local origin), a few operated by religious organizations, some volunteer-based and serving local <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a>, and a handful with more overtly political voices. In Ghana, Nigeria, and Uganda, for example, thriving commercial stations attracted most of the audience from the often duller state-controlled radio stations. Almost all private stations were located in cities and served local regions rather than the whole country. In 1999 a satellite service called <span id="ref1124186"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/WorldSpace" class="md-crosslink ">WorldSpace</a> began operating several channels across most of Africa, providing yet another listening <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alternative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alternative" data-type="MW">alternative</a>, before it closed down in 2008 for lack of sufficient commercial support. The chief limitations on African radio early in the 21st century were primarily financial and in some cases political.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span></section></section> <section data-level="2" id="ref301775"><h2 class="h2">The global sound of radio</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">At the turn of the 21st century, radio was so widely accepted around the world that it often became part of the cultural background—always present, though not always noticed. As mentioned above, commercially supported service had become the norm, even in countries where <span id="ref1124265"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-service-radio" class="md-crosslink ">public-service radio</a> long held sway. (There remained exceptions, of course, especially in states with strongman governments—e.g., Iraq, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Korea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North Korea</a>, Libya—that still used radio primarily as a means of propagandizing their listeners, with entertainment playing a distinctly secondary function.) This general move to commercial radio was driven in part by the need to lower government expenditure, by advertiser demand for access to the service (and a willingness to pay its costs), and by the increasing homogenization of radio’s sound. The language of radio changed from country to country, but the popular music heard around the world sounded very much the same.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD17 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Some countries made determined efforts to resist the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="globalization" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/globalization" data-type="MW">globalization</a> of radio and to retain local <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> on the air. For example, the <span id="ref1123749"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Canada" class="md-crosslink ">Canadian government</a>, building upon a history of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/regulation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">regulation</a>, passed broadcasting acts in 1991 that required a certain percentage of programming to be exclusively Canadian and in turn restricted the importation of foreign (usually meaning American) radio programming. Designed as part of a larger process of limiting imports in order to promote Canadian cultural enterprises, the regulations revived a vibrant Canadian popular music business. France and Australia also sought to restrict cheap American programming imports by limiting the proportion of the broadcast day or week than can feature foreign programs. At least 40 percent of the music broadcast by French music radio stations had to be French, and half of that had to be dedicated to “new” French artists.</p><span class="marker MOD17 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD18 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For the most part, however, at the turn of the 21st century, a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/global-music" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">global music</a> industry and global radio business enjoyed a symbiotic relationship, and radio increasingly took on a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="benign" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benign" data-type="MW">benign</a> role as a part of the world’s cultural landscape.</p><span class="marker MOD18 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":15,"pagesTotal":16,"pageId":488788,"pageLength":1978,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":15,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Radio - Broadcasting, Technology, Music | Britannica