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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Left_lung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Left lung </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Left_lung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illustrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illustrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Illustrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illustrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Microanatomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Connective_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connective_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Connective tissue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connective_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiratory_epithelium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiratory_epithelium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2 Respiratory epithelium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiratory_epithelium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronchial_airways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronchial_airways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.3 Bronchial airways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronchial_airways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiratory_zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiratory_zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.4 Respiratory zone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiratory_zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alveoli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alveoli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.5 Alveoli </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alveoli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbiota" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbiota"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.6 Microbiota </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbiota-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiratory_tract" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiratory_tract"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Respiratory tract </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiratory_tract-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Blood supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerve_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerve_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Nerve supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerve_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Variation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vitamin_A_deficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitamin_A_deficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Vitamin A deficiency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitamin_A_deficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_birth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_birth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 After birth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_birth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Function </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Function subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gas_exchange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_exchange"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Gas exchange </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_exchange-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Protection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_and_protein_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Gene and protein expression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Clinical significance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Clinical significance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inflammation_and_infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflammation_and_infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Inflammation and infection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inflammation_and_infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood-supply_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood-supply_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Blood-supply changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood-supply_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obstructive_lung_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obstructive_lung_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Obstructive lung diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obstructive_lung_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restrictive_lung_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restrictive_lung_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Restrictive lung diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restrictive_lung_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Cancers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congenital_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congenital_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Congenital disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congenital_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pleural_space_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleural_space_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Pleural space pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleural_space_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Examination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Function testing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culinary_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culinary_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culinary uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culinary_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Other animals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other animals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Birds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reptiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Reptiles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amphibians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amphibians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Amphibians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphibians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Fish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Invertebrates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Evolutionary origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Lung</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 170 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-170" aria-hidden="true" > 170 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%27ueb" title="S'ueb – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="S'ueb" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long" title="Long – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Long" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge" title="Lunge – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Lunge" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%88%9D%E1%89%A3" title="ሳምባ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳምባ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D8%A9" title="رئة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رئة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polm%C3%B3n" title="Polmón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Polmón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AA%DC%90%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܪܐܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܪܐܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plimunu" title="Plimunu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Plimunu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%93" title="হাঁওফাঁও – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হাঁওফাঁও" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulm%C3%B3n" title="Pulmón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pulmón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opan" title="Opan – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Opan" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Atikamekw</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%C3%A3vev%C3%BAi" title="Ñe'ãvevúi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ãvevúi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Гьуърул – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Гьуърул" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuyma" title="Chuyma – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Chuyma" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C4%9Fciy%C9%99r" title="Ağciyər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ağciyər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%BA%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="آغ‌جییر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آغ‌جییر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8" title="ফুসফুস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফুসফুস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AC_(kh%C3%AC-koan)" title="Hì (khì-koan) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hì (khì-koan)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paru-paru" title="Paru-paru – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Paru-paru" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BF%D0%BA%D3%99" title="Үпкә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Үпкә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B3%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Лёгкія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лёгкія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B3%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Лёгкія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лёгкія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baga_(anatomiya)" title="Baga (anatomiya) – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Baga (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8F%D0%BB_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1" title="Бял дроб – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бял дроб" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8D" title="གློ་བ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གློ་བ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plu%C4%87a" title="Pluća – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pluća" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skevent" title="Skevent – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skevent" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%83%D1%88%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Уушхан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Уушхан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulm%C3%B3" title="Pulmó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pulmó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%B2%D0%BF%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Ӳпке – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ӳпке" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baga_(anatomiya)" title="Baga (anatomiya) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Baga (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADce" title="Plíce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plíce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapapu" title="Mapapu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mapapu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ysgyfaint" title="Ysgyfaint – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ysgyfaint" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapu%C9%A3u" title="Sapuɣu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Sapuɣu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge_(bredere_betydning)" title="Lunge (bredere betydning) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lunge (bredere betydning)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geahpp%C3%A1t" title="Geahppát – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Geahppát" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge" title="Lunge – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lunge" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%AA%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%95%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%AD" title="ފުއްޕާމޭ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފުއްޕާމޭ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopsud" title="Kopsud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kopsud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Πνεύμονας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πνεύμονας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%C3%B2%E1%B9%85" title="Palmòṅ – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Palmòṅ" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2" title="Тевеляв – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Тевеляв" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulm%C3%B3n" title="Pulmón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pulmón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmo" title="Pulmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pulmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birika" title="Birika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Birika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B4" title="شش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poumon" title="Poumon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Poumon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long" title="Long – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Long" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scamh%C3%B3g" title="Scamhóg – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Scamhóg" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgamhan" title="Sgamhan – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sgamhan" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulm%C3%B3n" title="Pulmón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pulmón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Пехкаш – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Пехкаш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AB%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%82" title="ફેફસાં – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ફેફસાં" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi" title="Hi – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B3" title="Оошг – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Оошг" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%97%88%ED%8C%8C" title="허파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="허파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huhu" title="Huhu – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Huhu" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Թոքեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թոքեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8" title="फुप्फुस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फुप्फुस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plu%C4%87a" title="Pluća – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pluća" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmono" title="Pulmono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pulmono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bara" title="Bara – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Bara" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paru-paru" title="Paru-paru – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paru-paru" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmones" title="Pulmones – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pulmones" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmon" title="Pulmon – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Pulmon" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puvak" title="Puvak – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Puvak" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imiphunga" title="Imiphunga – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Imiphunga" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunga" title="Lunga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lunga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polmone" title="Polmone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Polmone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%94" title="ריאה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריאה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paru-paru" title="Paru-paru – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Paru-paru" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%CA%8Bz%CA%8B%CA%8B" title="Hʋzʋʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hʋzʋʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B6" title="ಶ್ವಾಸಕೋಶ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶ್ವಾಸಕೋಶ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baga" title="Baga – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Baga" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ფილტვები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილტვები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%97%D8%B4" title="شوٗش – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="شوٗش" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BA%D0%BF%D0%B5" title="Өкпе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өкпе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapafu" title="Mapafu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mapafu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poumon" title="Poumon – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Poumon" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BF%D0%BA%D3%A9" title="Өпкө – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өпкө" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Шоды – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Шоды" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83" title="Гьутру – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Гьутру" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%94" title="ປອດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປອດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmo" title="Pulmo – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pulmo" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plau%C5%A1as" title="Plaušas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plaušas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long" title="Long – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Long" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Жигер – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Жигер" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plau%C4%8Diai" title="Plaučiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plaučiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3nge" title="Lónge – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Lónge" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip%C3%BAl%C3%BAl%C3%BA" title="Lipúlúlú – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lipúlúlú" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmon" title="Pulmon – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Pulmon" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/fepri" title="fepri – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="fepri" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCd%C5%91" title="Tüdő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tüdő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Бели дробови – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бели дробови" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havokavoka" title="Havokavoka – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Havokavoka" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ശ്വാസകോശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശ്വാസകോശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmun" title="Pulmun – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Pulmun" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8" title="फुफ्फुस – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फुफ्फुस" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9F%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="ფიჟვი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფიჟვი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%A9" title="پک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paru-paru" title="Paru-paru – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Paru-paru" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%A9_(k%C3%A9-gu%C4%83ng)" title="Hié (ké-guăng) – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hié (ké-guăng)" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Тевлафне – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Тевлафне" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Уушги – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Уушги" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%86%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="အဆုတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အဆုတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yatevuso" title="Yatevuso – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Yatevuso" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_(orgaan)" title="Long (orgaan) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Long (orgaan)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B" title="फोक्सो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फोक्सो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%99" title="लुङ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="लुङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%82%BA" title="肺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="肺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge" title="Lunge – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lunge" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge" title="Lunge – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lunge" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmon" title="Palmon – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Palmon" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBpka" title="Oʻpka – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻpka" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%9C%E0%A8%BE" title="ਫੇਫੜਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫੇਫੜਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bala" title="Bala – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Bala" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%BE%DA%BE%DA%91%DB%92" title="پھپھڑے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پھپھڑے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmon" title="Pulmon – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Pulmon" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%96%D9%8A" title="سږي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سږي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long" title="Long – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Long" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%82uco" title="Płuco – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Płuco" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulm%C3%A3o" title="Pulmão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pulmão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%83m%C3%A2n" title="Plămân – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plămân" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surq%27an" title="Surq'an – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Surq'an" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B3%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Лёгкие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лёгкие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D2%A5%D0%B0" title="Тыҥа – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тыҥа" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/bala%27" title="bala' – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="bala'" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="फुफ्फुसः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="फुफ्फुसः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prumone" title="Prumone – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Prumone" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffs" title="Buffs – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Buffs" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushk%C3%ABria" title="Mushkëria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mushkëria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purmuna" title="Purmuna – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Purmuna" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" title="Lung – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Lung" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A6%DA%A6%DA%99" title="ڦڦڙ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڦڦڙ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%BE%C3%BAca" title="Pľúca – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pľúca" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plju%C4%8Da" title="Pljuča – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pljuča" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambab" title="Sambab – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Sambab" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C_(%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="سی (ئەندام) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سی (ئەندام)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%9B%D0%B0" title="Плућа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Плућа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plu%C4%87a" title="Pluća – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pluća" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayah" title="Bayah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Bayah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keuhkot" title="Keuhkot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keuhkot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunga" title="Lunga – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lunga" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baga_(anatomiya)" title="Baga (anatomiya) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Baga (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நுரையீரல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நுரையீரல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin" title="Turin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Turin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BF%D0%BA%D3%99" title="Үпкә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Үпкә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8A%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="ఊపిరితిత్తులు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఊపిరితిత్తులు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94" title="ปอด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปอด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%88" title="Шуш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Шуш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%9B%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%99%E1%8F%97" title="ᏗᏛᎵᏗᏍᏙᏗ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏗᏛᎵᏗᏍᏙᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akci%C4%9Fer" title="Akciğer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Akciğer" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Легені – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Легені" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%BE%DA%BE%DA%91%DB%92" title="پھیپھڑے – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پھیپھڑے" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_lobe_of_right_lung&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle lobe of right lung">Middle lobe of right lung</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Primary organ of the respiratory system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lung_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lung (disambiguation)">Lung (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article uses <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terminology</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Lung</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg/250px-Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg/375px-Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg/500px-Lungs_diagram_detailed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="652" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Diagram of the human lungs with the respiratory tract visible, and different colours for each lobe</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Heart-and-lungs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Heart-and-lungs.jpg/250px-Heart-and-lungs.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Heart-and-lungs.jpg/375px-Heart-and-lungs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Heart-and-lungs.jpg/500px-Heart-and-lungs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="585" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The human lungs flank the heart and great vessels in the chest cavity.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_Artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary Artery">Pulmonary Artery</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_Vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary Vein">Pulmonary Vein</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">pulmo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th><td class="infobox-data">πνεύμων (pneumon)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008168">D008168</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/06.5.01.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A06.5.01.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=3265">3265</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7886" class="extiw" title="d:Q7886">edit on Wikidata</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The lungs are the main <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a> in many <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial animals</a>, including all <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapod</a> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> and a small number of <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_fish" title="Amphibious fish">amphibious fish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">bichirs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Pulmonate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonate">pulmonate</a> <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a> (<a href="/wiki/Land_snail" title="Land snail">land snails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a>, which have <a href="/wiki/Analogy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogy (biology)">analogous</a> <a href="/wiki/Pallial_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallial lung">pallial lungs</a>), and some <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tetrapulmonate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapulmonate">tetrapulmonates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">scorpions</a>, which have <a href="/wiki/Book_lung" title="Book lung">book lungs</a>). Their function is to conduct <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> by extracting <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Bloodstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodstream">bloodstream</a> via <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> directly across the humidified <a href="/wiki/Airway" class="mw-redirect" title="Airway">airway</a> <a href="/wiki/Epithelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelia">epithelia</a>, and to release <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the bloodstream out into the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">atmosphere</a>, a process also known as <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>. This article is primarily concerned with the lungs of tetrapods (particularly those of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>), which are paired and located on either side of the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, occupying most of the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cavity" title="Thoracic cavity">thoracic cavity</a>, and are <a href="/wiki/Homolog" class="mw-redirect" title="Homolog">homologous</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladders</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ray-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray-finned fish">ray-finned fish</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Air_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Air flow">movement of air</a> in and out of the lungs is called <a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(physiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventilation (physiology)">ventilation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a>, which is driven by different <a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">muscular systems</a> in different species. <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">Amniotes</a> like <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> use different dedicated <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory muscle">respiratory muscles</a> to facilitate breathing, while in primitive tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_muscles" title="Pharyngeal muscles">pharyngeal muscles</a> via <a href="/wiki/Buccal_pumping" title="Buccal pumping">buccal pumping</a>, a mechanism still seen in <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>. In humans, the main <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration" title="Muscles of respiration">muscles of respiration</a> that drive <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intercostal_muscles" title="Intercostal muscles">intercostal muscles</a>, while other <a href="/wiki/Core_(anatomy)" title="Core (anatomy)">core</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limb</a> muscles might also be recruited as <a href="/wiki/Accessory_muscles_of_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory muscles of respiration">accessory muscles</a> in situations of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_distress" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory distress">respiratory distress</a>. The lungs also provide airflow that makes <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication#Auditory" title="Animal communication">vocalization</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a>) possible. Human lungs, like other tetrapods, are paired with one on the left and one on the right. Due to the leftward rotation of the heart, the right lung is bigger and heavier than the left, and the two lungs together weigh approximately 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb). The lungs are part of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower respiratory tract">lower respiratory tract</a> that begins at the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> and branches into the <a href="/wiki/Bronchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronchi">bronchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronchiole" title="Bronchiole">bronchioles</a>, which receive fresh air <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhaled</a> (breathed in) via the <a href="/wiki/Conducting_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Conducting zone">conducting zone</a>. The conducting zone ends at the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_bronchioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal bronchioles">terminal bronchioles</a>, which divide into the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_bronchioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory bronchioles">respiratory bronchioles</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Structure" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory zone</a> and further divide into <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar duct">alveolar ducts</a> that give rise to the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_sac" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar sac">alveolar sacs</a> that contain the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a>, where the majority of gas exchange takes place. Alveoli are also sparsely present on the walls of the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts. Together, the lungs contain approximately 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. Each lung is enveloped by <a href="/wiki/Serous_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Serous membranes">serous membranes</a> called <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_pleurae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary pleurae">pleurae</a>, which also overlay the inside surface of the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a>; the two membranes (called the visceral and parietal pleurae, respectively) form an enclosing sac known as the <a href="/wiki/Pleural_cavity" title="Pleural cavity">pleural cavity</a>, which contains a lubricating film of <a href="/wiki/Serous_fluid" title="Serous fluid">serous fluid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pleural_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleural fluid">pleural fluid</a>) that separates the two pleurae and reduces the <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sliding_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sliding movement">sliding movements</a> between them, allowing for easier expansion of the lungs during breathing. The visceral pleura also invaginates into each lung as <a href="#Fissures">fissures</a>, which divide the lung into independent sections called <a href="#Lobes">lobes</a>. The right lung typically has three lobes, and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into <a href="/wiki/Bronchopulmonary_segment" title="Bronchopulmonary segment">bronchopulmonary segments</a> and <a href="#Microanatomy">pulmonary lobules</a>. The lungs have two unique blood supplies: the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>, which receives deoxygenated blood from the <a href="/wiki/Right_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Right heart">right heart</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary arteries">pulmonary arteries</a>, exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide across the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar%E2%80%93capillary_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar–capillary barrier">alveolar–capillary barrier</a>, before returning the re-oxygenated blood to the <a href="/wiki/Left_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Left heart">left heart</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_vein" title="Pulmonary vein">pulmonary veins</a> for pumping to the rest of the body; and the <a href="/wiki/Bronchial_circulation" title="Bronchial circulation">bronchial circulation</a>, which is part of the <a href="/wiki/Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a> that provides a separate supply of oxygenated blood to the <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma#Lung_parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">tissue of the lungs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>   The lung can be affected by a number of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory diseases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_fibrosis" title="Pulmonary fibrosis">pulmonary fibrosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> includes <a href="/wiki/Chronic_bronchitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic bronchitis">chronic bronchitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emphysema" title="Emphysema">emphysema</a>, and is commonly related to <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a> or exposure to <a href="/wiki/Air_pollutant" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pollutant">air pollutants</a>. A number of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_lung_disease" title="Occupational lung disease">occupational lung diseases</a> can be caused by substances such as <a href="/wiki/Coal_dust" title="Coal dust">coal dust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> fibres and <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a> dust. Diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Acute_bronchitis" title="Acute bronchitis">acute bronchitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> can also affect <a href="/wiki/Lung_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung function">lung function</a>, although such conditions are technically <a href="/wiki/Airway" class="mw-redirect" title="Airway">airway</a> diseases rather than lung diseases. Medical terms related to the lung often begin with pulmo-, from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> pulmonarius (meaning "of the lungs") as in <a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">pulmonology</a>, or with pneumo- (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> πνεύμων, meaning "lung") as in <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic development">embryonic development</a>, the lungs begin to develop as an outpouching of the <a href="/wiki/Foregut" title="Foregut">foregut</a>, a tube which goes on to form the upper part of the <a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">digestive system</a>. When the lungs are formed the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> is held in the <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">fluid-filled</a> <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">amniotic sac</a> and so they are not used to breathe. Blood is also diverted from the lungs through the <a href="/wiki/Ductus_arteriosus" title="Ductus arteriosus">ductus arteriosus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life#Breathing_and_circulation" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">At birth</a>, air begins to pass through the lungs, and the diversionary duct closes, so that the lungs can begin to respire. The lungs only fully develop in early childhood. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anatomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg/330px-Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg/495px-Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> In humans the lungs are located in the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cavity" title="Thoracic cavity">chest</a> on either side of the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a>. They are conical in shape with a narrow rounded apex at the top, and a broad concave base that rests on the convex surface of the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a> The apex of the lung extends into the root of the neck, reaching shortly above the level of the <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternal</a> end of the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage#Bones" title="Rib cage">first rib</a>. The lungs stretch from close to the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">backbone</a> in the rib cage to the front of the <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">chest</a> and downwards from the lower part of the trachea to the diaphragm.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a> The left lung shares space with the heart, and has an indentation in its border called the cardiac notch of the left lung to accommodate this.<a href="#cite_note-Betts-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> The front and outer sides of the lungs face the ribs, which make light indentations on their surfaces. The medial surfaces of the lungs face towards the centre of the chest, and lie against the heart, <a href="/wiki/Great_vessels" title="Great vessels">great vessels</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carina_of_trachea" title="Carina of trachea">carina</a> where the trachea divides into the two main bronchi.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> The cardiac impression is an indentation formed on the surfaces of the lungs where they rest against the heart. Both lungs have a central recession called the <a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">hilum</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">airways</a> pass into the lungs making up the <a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">root of the lung</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moore_K-6">[6]</a> There are also <a href="/wiki/Tracheobronchial_lymph_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheobronchial lymph node">bronchopulmonary lymph nodes</a> on the hilum.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> The lungs are surrounded by the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_pleurae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary pleurae">pulmonary pleurae</a>. The pleurae are two <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous membranes</a>; the outer <a href="/wiki/Parietal_pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal pleura">parietal pleura</a> lines the inner wall of the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a> and the inner <a href="/wiki/Visceral_pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Visceral pleura">visceral pleura</a> directly lines the surface of the lungs. Between the pleurae is a <a href="/wiki/Potential_space" title="Potential space">potential space</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Pleural_cavity" title="Pleural cavity">pleural cavity</a> containing a thin layer of lubricating <a href="/wiki/Pleural_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleural fluid">pleural fluid</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lobes">Lobes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Lobes">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right;margin-left:10px"> <caption>Lobes and bronchopulmonary segments<a href="#cite_note-pmid1-7">[7]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Right lung</th> <th>Left lung </th></tr> <tr> <td>Upper <ul><li>Apical</li> <li>Posterior</li> <li>Anterior</li></ul> Middle <ul><li>Lateral</li> <li>Medial</li></ul> Lower <ul><li>Superior</li> <li>Medial</li> <li>Anterior</li> <li>Lateral</li> <li>Posterior</li></ul> </td> <td>Upper <ul><li>Apicoposterior</li> <li>Anterior</li></ul> Lingula <ul><li>Superior</li> <li>Inferior</li></ul> Lower <ul><li>Superior</li> <li>Anteriomedial</li> <li>Lateral</li> <li>Posterior</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> Each lung is divided into sections called lobes by the infoldings of the visceral pleura as fissures. Lobes are divided into segments, and segments have further divisions as lobules. There are three lobes in the right lung and two lobes in the left lung. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fissures">Fissures</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fissures">edit</a>]</div> The fissures are formed in early <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">prenatal development</a> by invaginations of the visceral pleura that divide the lobar bronchi, and section the lungs into lobes that helps in their expansion.<a href="#cite_note-Koster-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lung_fissures-9">[9]</a> The right lung is divided into three lobes by a horizontal fissure, and an oblique fissure. The left lung is divided into two lobes by an oblique fissure which is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the right lung. In the right lung the upper horizontal fissure, separates the upper (superior) lobe from the middle lobe. The lower, oblique fissure separates the lower lobe from the middle and upper lobes.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lung_fissures-9">[9]</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Variation">Variations</a> in the fissures are fairly common being either incompletely formed or present as an extra fissure as in the <a href="/wiki/Azygos_lobe" title="Azygos lobe">azygos fissure</a>, or absent. Incomplete fissures are responsible for <a href="/wiki/Collateral_ventilation" title="Collateral ventilation">interlobar collateral ventilation</a>, airflow between lobes which is unwanted in some <a href="/wiki/Lung_volume_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung volume reduction">lung volume reduction</a> procedures.<a href="#cite_note-Koster-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Segments">Segments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Segments">edit</a>]</div> The main or primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum and initially branch into <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">secondary bronchi</a> also known as lobar bronchi that supply air to each lobe of the lung. The lobar bronchi branch into <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">tertiary bronchi</a> also known as segmental bronchi and these supply air to the further divisions of the lobes known as <a href="/wiki/Bronchopulmonary_segment" title="Bronchopulmonary segment">bronchopulmonary segments</a>. Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own (segmental) bronchus and <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arterial supply</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Segments for the left and right lung are shown in the table.<a href="#cite_note-pmid1-7">[7]</a> The segmental anatomy is useful clinically for localising disease processes in the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-pmid1-7">[7]</a> A segment is a discrete unit that can be surgically removed without seriously affecting surrounding tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Harper-11">[11]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:472px;max-width:472px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:238px;max-width:238px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:233px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray973.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The left lung" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Gray973.png/236px-Gray973.png" decoding="async" width="236" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Gray973.png/354px-Gray973.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Gray973.png/472px-Gray973.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="496" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:230px;max-width:230px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:233px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray972.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The right lung" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gray972.png/228px-Gray972.png" decoding="async" width="228" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gray972.png/342px-Gray972.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Gray972.png/456px-Gray972.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The left lung (left) and right lung (right). The lobes of the lungs can be seen, and the central <a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">root of the lung</a> is also present.</div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_lung">Right lung</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Right lung">edit</a>]</div> The right lung has both more lobes and segments than the left. It is divided into three lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower lobe by two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal.<a href="#cite_note-Chaudhry-12">[12]</a> The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the upper from the middle lobe. It begins in the lower oblique fissure near the posterior border of the lung, and, running horizontally forward, cuts the anterior border on a level with the <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternal</a> end of the fourth <a href="/wiki/Costal_cartilage" title="Costal cartilage">costal cartilage</a>; on the <a href="/wiki/Mediastinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediastinal">mediastinal</a> surface it may be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">hilum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a> The lower, oblique fissure, separates the lower from the middle and upper lobes and is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the left lung.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lung_fissures-9">[9]</a> The mediastinal surface of the right lung is indented by a number of nearby structures. The heart sits in an impression called the cardiac impression. Above the hilum of the lung is an arched groove for the <a href="/wiki/Azygos_vein" title="Azygos vein">azygos vein</a>, and above this is a wide groove for the <a href="/wiki/Superior_vena_cava" title="Superior vena cava">superior vena cava</a> and right <a href="/wiki/Brachiocephalic_vein" title="Brachiocephalic vein">brachiocephalic vein</a>; behind this, and close to the top of the lung is a groove for the <a href="/wiki/Brachiocephalic_artery" title="Brachiocephalic artery">brachiocephalic artery</a>. There is a groove for the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> behind the hilum and the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_ligament" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary ligament">pulmonary ligament</a>, and near the lower part of the esophageal groove is a deeper groove for the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_vena_cava" title="Inferior vena cava">inferior vena cava</a> before it enters the heart.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> The weight of the right lung varies between individuals, with a standard <a href="/wiki/Reference_range" title="Reference range">reference range</a> in men of 155–720 g (0.342–1.587 lb)<a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2012-13">[13]</a> and in women of 100–590 g (0.22–1.30 lb).<a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2015-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Left_lung">Left lung</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Left lung">edit</a>]</div> The left lung is divided into two lobes, an upper and a lower lobe, by the oblique fissure, which extends from the <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">costal</a> to the mediastinal surface of the lung both above and below the <a href="/wiki/Hilum_of_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilum of lung">hilum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a> The left lung, unlike the right, does not have a middle lobe, though it does have a <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> feature, a projection of the upper lobe termed the lingula. Its name means "little tongue". The lingula on the left lung serves as an anatomic parallel to the middle lobe on the right lung, with both areas being predisposed to similar infections and anatomic complications.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> There are two <a href="/wiki/Bronchopulmonary_segment" title="Bronchopulmonary segment">bronchopulmonary segments</a> of the lingula: superior and inferior.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS-3">[3]</a> The mediastinal surface of the left lung has a large cardiac impression where the heart sits. This is deeper and larger than that on the right lung, at which level the heart projects to the left.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for the <a href="/wiki/Aortic_arch" title="Aortic arch">aortic arch</a>, and a groove below it for the <a href="/wiki/Descending_aorta" title="Descending aorta">descending aorta</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Subclavian_artery" title="Subclavian artery">left subclavian artery</a>, a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the left <a href="/wiki/Brachiocephalic_vein" title="Brachiocephalic vein">brachiocephalic vein</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> By standard <a href="/wiki/Reference_range" title="Reference range">reference range</a>, the weight of the left lung is 110–675 g (0.243–1.488 lb)<a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2012-13">[13]</a> in men and 105–515 g (0.231–1.135 lb) in women.<a href="#cite_note-MolinaDiMaio2015-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illustrations">Illustrations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Illustrations">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chest CT (axial lung window)"><img alt="Chest CT (axial lung window)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg/120px-CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg/180px-CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg/240px-CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f-Lungs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chest CT (axial lung window)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chest CT (coronal lung window)"><img alt="Chest CT (coronal lung window)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg/120px-COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg/180px-COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg/240px-COR-2-STND-CHEST-LUNGS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1173" data-file-height="895" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chest CT (coronal lung window)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/120px--CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="13" data-mwtitle="CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg/CT-Thorax-5.0-B70f.ogg.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chest CT (axial lung window)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/120px--COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="85" data-durationhint="46" data-mwtitle="COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="676" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1012" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1260" data-height="896" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="202" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="338" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="506" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg/COR-2-STND-CHEST.ogg.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="506" data-height="360" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chest CT (coronal lung window)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/120px--Meet_the_lungs.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="576" data-mwtitle="Meet_the_lungs.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Meet_the_lungs.webm/Meet_the_lungs.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Meet the lungs" from <a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/120px--MP1_Pulmonology.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="302" data-mwtitle="MP1_Pulmonology.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/MP1_Pulmonology.webm/MP1_Pulmonology.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pulmonology video</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><video id="mwe_player_4" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/120px--Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="234" data-mwtitle="Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b2/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv/Lobes_of_the_Lung.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALobes_of_the_Lung.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></div> <div class="gallerytext">3D anatomy of the lung lobes and fissures.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microanatomy">Microanatomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Microanatomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lung_structure_normal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lung_structure_normal.jpg/280px-Lung_structure_normal.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lung_structure_normal.jpg/420px-Lung_structure_normal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Lung_structure_normal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Cross-sectional detail of the lung</figcaption></figure> The lungs are part of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower respiratory tract">lower respiratory tract</a>, and accommodate the bronchial airways when they branch from the trachea. The bronchial airways terminate in <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a> which make up the functional tissue (<a href="/wiki/Lung_parenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung parenchyma">parenchyma</a>) of the lung, and veins, arteries, nerves, and <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">lymphatic vessels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The trachea and bronchi have plexuses of <a href="/wiki/Lymph_capillary" title="Lymph capillary">lymph capillaries</a> in their mucosa and submucosa. The smaller bronchi have a single layer of lymph capillaries, and they are absent in the alveoli.<a href="#cite_note-Theodora-18">[18]</a> The lungs are supplied with the largest lymphatic drainage system of any other organ in the body.<a href="#cite_note-Saladin-19">[19]</a> Each lung is surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous membrane</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_pleurae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary pleurae">visceral pleura</a>, which has an underlying layer of <a href="/wiki/Loose_connective_tissue" title="Loose connective tissue">loose connective tissue</a> attached to the substance of the lung.<a href="#cite_note-Dorlands1077-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Connective_tissue">Connective tissue</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Connective tissue">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png/220px-STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png/330px-STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png/440px-STD_190219_SWITCH_Tissue_2_93x_CMLE_20SNR_50IT_Elastin.png 2x" data-file-width="2456" data-file-height="2456" /></a><figcaption>Thick <a href="/wiki/Elastic_fibres" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastic fibres">elastic fibres</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Visceral_pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Visceral pleura">visceral pleura</a> (outer lining) of lung</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg/220px-Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg/330px-Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg/440px-Fibers_of_Collagen_Type_I_-_TEM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">TEM</a> image of <a href="/wiki/Collagen_fibres" class="mw-redirect" title="Collagen fibres">collagen fibres</a> in a cross sectional slice of mammalian lung tissue</figcaption></figure> The connective tissue of the lungs is made up of <a href="/wiki/Elastic_fiber" title="Elastic fiber">elastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collagen_fibres" class="mw-redirect" title="Collagen fibres">collagen fibres </a> that are interspersed between the capillaries and the alveolar walls. <a href="/wiki/Elastin" title="Elastin">Elastin</a> is the key <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> and is the main component of the <a href="/wiki/Elastic_fibres" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastic fibres">elastic fibres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mithieux-21">[21]</a> Elastin gives the necessary elasticity and resilience required for the persistent stretching involved in breathing, known as <a href="/wiki/Lung_compliance" title="Lung compliance">lung compliance</a>. It is also responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Elastic_recoil" title="Elastic recoil">elastic recoil</a> needed. Elastin is more concentrated in areas of high stress such as the openings of the alveoli, and alveolar junctions.<a href="#cite_note-Mithieux-21">[21]</a> The connective tissue links all the alveoli to form the lung parenchyma which has a sponge-like appearance. The alveoli have interconnecting air passages in their walls known as the <a href="/wiki/Pores_of_Kohn" title="Pores of Kohn">pores of Kohn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pocock-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Respiratory_epithelium">Respiratory epithelium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Respiratory epithelium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium" title="Respiratory epithelium">Respiratory epithelium</a></div> All of the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is lined with <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium" title="Respiratory epithelium">respiratory epithelium</a>. This is a <a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">ciliated</a> epithelium interspersed with <a href="/wiki/Goblet_cell" title="Goblet cell">goblet cells</a> which produce <a href="/wiki/Mucin" title="Mucin">mucin</a> the main component of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, ciliated cells, <a href="/wiki/Airway_basal_cell" title="Airway basal cell">basal cells</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_bronchiole" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal bronchiole">terminal bronchioles</a>–<a href="/wiki/Club_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Club cells">club cells</a> with actions similar to basal cells, and <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>. The epithelial cells, and the <a href="/wiki/Submucosal_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Submucosal gland">submucosal glands</a> throughout the respiratory tract secrete <a href="/wiki/Mucus#Respiratory_system" title="Mucus">airway surface liquid</a> (ASL), the composition of which is tightly regulated and determines how well <a href="/wiki/Mucociliary_clearance" title="Mucociliary clearance">mucociliary clearance</a> works.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine_cell#Pulmonary_neuroendocrine_cells" title="Neuroendocrine cell">Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells</a> are found throughout the respiratory epithelium including the alveolar epithelium,<a href="#cite_note-Van_Lommel-24">[24]</a> though they only account for around 0.5 percent of the total epithelial population.<a href="#cite_note-Garg-25">[25]</a> PNECs are innervated airway epithelial cells that are particularly focused at airway junction points.<a href="#cite_note-Garg-25">[25]</a> These cells can produce serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, as well as polypeptide products. Cytoplasmic processes from the pulmonary neuroendocrine cells extend into the airway lumen where they may sense the composition of inspired gas.<a href="#cite_note-Weinberger-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bronchial_airways">Bronchial airways</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bronchial airways">edit</a>]</div> In the bronchi there are incomplete <a href="/wiki/Trachea#Structure" title="Trachea">tracheal rings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a> and smaller plates of cartilage that keep them open.<a href="#cite_note-GuytonHall-27">[27]</a>: 472  Bronchioles are too narrow to support cartilage and their walls are of <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a>, and this is largely absent in the narrower <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_bronchiole" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory bronchiole">respiratory bronchioles</a> which are mainly just of epithelium.<a href="#cite_note-GuytonHall-27">[27]</a>: 472  The absence of cartilage in the terminal bronchioles gives them an alternative name of membranous bronchioles.<a href="#cite_note-Abbott-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg/220px-Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg/330px-Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg/440px-Secondary-pulmonary-lobule-illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A lobule of the lung enclosed in septa and supplied by a terminal bronchiole that branches into the respiratory bronchioles. Each respiratory bronchiole supplies the alveoli held in each acinus accompanied by a pulmonary artery branch.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Respiratory_zone">Respiratory zone</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Respiratory zone">edit</a>]</div> The conducting zone of the respiratory tract ends at the terminal bronchioles when they branch into the respiratory bronchioles. This marks the beginning of the terminal respiratory unit called the acinus which includes the respiratory bronchioles, the alveolar ducts, <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_sac" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar sac">alveolar sacs</a>, and alveoli.<a href="#cite_note-Weinberger2-29">[29]</a> An acinus measures up to 10 mm in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-Hochhegger-30">[30]</a> A primary pulmonary lobule is the part of the lung distal to the respiratory bronchiole.<a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-2021-31">[31]</a> Thus, it includes the alveolar ducts, sacs, and alveoli but not the respiratory bronchioles.<a href="#cite_note-Goel-32">[32]</a> The unit described as the secondary pulmonary lobule is the lobule most referred to as the pulmonary lobule or respiratory lobule.<a href="#cite_note-GuytonHall-27">[27]</a>: 489 <a href="#cite_note-Gaillard-33">[33]</a> This lobule is a discrete unit that is the smallest component of the lung that can be seen without aid.<a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-2021-31">[31]</a> The secondary pulmonary lobule is likely to be made up of between 30 and 50 primary lobules.<a href="#cite_note-Goel-32">[32]</a> The lobule is supplied by a terminal bronchiole that branches into respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles supply the alveoli in each acinus and is accompanied by a <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a> branch. Each lobule is enclosed by an interlobular septum. Each acinus is incompletely separated by an intralobular septum.<a href="#cite_note-Hochhegger-30">[30]</a> The respiratory bronchiole gives rise to the alveolar ducts that lead to the alveolar sacs, which contain two or more alveoli.<a href="#cite_note-Pocock-22">[22]</a> The walls of the alveoli are extremely thin allowing a fast rate of <a href="/wiki/Diffusion#Diffusion_vs._bulk_flow" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>. The alveoli have interconnecting small air passages in their walls known as the <a href="/wiki/Pores_of_Kohn" title="Pores of Kohn">pores of Kohn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pocock-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alveoli">Alveoli</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Alveoli">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">Pulmonary alveolus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alveolus_diagram.svg/220px-Alveolus_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alveolus_diagram.svg/330px-Alveolus_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Alveolus_diagram.svg/440px-Alveolus_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Alveoli and their capillary networks</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A 3D Medical illustration showing different terminating ends of Bronchial airways connected to alveoili, lung parenchyma & lymphatic vessels." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg/220px-3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg/330px-3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg/440px-3D_Medical_Animation_Bronchial_Airways_terminating_ends.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>3D Medical illustration showing different terminating ends of bronchioles</figcaption></figure> Alveoli consist of two types of <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cell">alveolar cell</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage" title="Alveolar macrophage">alveolar macrophage</a>. The two types of cell are known as <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus#Type_I_cells" title="Pulmonary alveolus">type I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus#Type_II_cells" title="Pulmonary alveolus">type II cells</a><a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> (also known as pneumocytes).<a href="#cite_note-GRAYS40TH-5">[5]</a> Types I and II make up the walls and <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_septum" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar septum">alveolar septa</a>. Type I cells provide 95% of the surface area of each alveoli and are flat ("<a href="/wiki/Squamous_epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous epithelial cell">squamous</a>"), and Type II cells generally cluster in the corners of the alveoli and have a cuboidal shape.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> Despite this, cells occur in a roughly equal ratio of 1:1 or 6:4.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> Type I are <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">squamous epithelial cells</a> that make up the alveolar wall structure. They have extremely thin walls that enable an easy gas exchange.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> These type I cells also make up the alveolar septa which separate each alveolus. The septa consist of an epithelial lining and associated <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membranes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> Type I cells are not able to divide, and consequently rely on <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a> from Type II cells.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> Type II are larger and they line the alveoli and produce and secrete epithelial lining fluid, and <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_surfactant" title="Pulmonary surfactant">lung surfactant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26475269-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> Type II cells are able to divide and differentiate to Type I cells.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage" title="Alveolar macrophage">alveolar macrophages</a> have an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. They remove substances which deposit in the alveoli including loose red blood cells that have been forced out from blood vessels.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Microbiota">Microbiota</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Microbiota">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">Lung microbiota</a></div> There is a large presence of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> in the lungs known as the <a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">lung microbiota</a> that interacts with the airway epithelial cells; an interaction of probable importance in maintaining homeostasis. The <a href="/wiki/Microbiota#Humans" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a> is complex and dynamic in healthy people, and altered in diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/COPD" class="mw-redirect" title="COPD">COPD</a>. For example significant changes can take place in COPD following infection with <a href="/wiki/Rhinovirus" title="Rhinovirus">rhinovirus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hiemstra-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> that are commonly found as <a href="/wiki/Mycobiota" title="Mycobiota">mycobiota</a> in the microbiota include <a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malassezia" title="Malassezia">Malassezia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cui-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respiratory_tract">Respiratory tract</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Respiratory tract">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Respiratory tract</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_conducting_passages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Illu_conducting_passages.svg/170px-Illu_conducting_passages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Illu_conducting_passages.svg/255px-Illu_conducting_passages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Illu_conducting_passages.svg/340px-Illu_conducting_passages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>The lungs as main part of respiratory tract</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">lower respiratory tract</a> is part of the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, and consists of the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> and the structures below this including the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> The trachea receives air from the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a> and travels down to a place where it splits (the <a href="/wiki/Carina_of_trachea" title="Carina of trachea">carina</a>) into a right and left primary <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">bronchus</a>. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_bronchiole" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory bronchiole">respiratory bronchioles</a>. These in turn supply air through <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar duct">alveolar ducts</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">exchange of gases</a> take place.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> Oxygen <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">breathed in</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion#Biology" title="Molecular diffusion">diffuses</a> through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pocock-22">[22]</a> and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs to be <a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">breathed out</a>. Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 50 to 75 square metres (540 to 810 sq ft);<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> although this is often quoted in textbooks and the media being "the size of a tennis court",<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> it is actually less than half the size of a <a href="/wiki/Tennis_court" title="Tennis court">singles court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The bronchi in the <a href="/wiki/Conducting_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Conducting zone">conducting zone</a> are reinforced with <a href="/wiki/Hyaline_cartilage" title="Hyaline cartilage">hyaline cartilage</a> in order to hold open the airways. The bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded instead by <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth muscle tissue">smooth muscle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> Air is warmed to 37 °C (99 °F), <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidified</a> and cleansed by the conducting zone. <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particles</a> from the air being removed by the <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium" title="Respiratory epithelium">respiratory epithelium</a> lining the passageways,<a href="#cite_note-Ahmadi2013-43">[43]</a> in a process called <a href="/wiki/Mucociliary_clearance" title="Mucociliary clearance">mucociliary clearance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_stretch_receptors" title="Pulmonary stretch receptors">Pulmonary stretch receptors</a> in the smooth muscle of the airways initiate a <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflex</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Hering%E2%80%93Breuer_reflex" title="Hering–Breuer reflex">Hering–Breuer reflex</a> that prevents the lungs from over-inflation, during forceful inspiration. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_supply">Blood supply</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Blood supply">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">Pulmonary circulation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_CT_of_thorax,_annotated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg/330px-3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg/495px-3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg/660px-3D_CT_of_thorax%2C_annotated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1544" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/3D_rendering" title="3D rendering">3D rendering</a> of a <a href="/wiki/High-resolution_computed_tomography" title="High-resolution computed tomography">high-resolution CT scan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">thorax</a>. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the <a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">root of the lung</a> have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>.</figcaption></figure> The lungs have a dual blood supply provided by a <a href="/wiki/Bronchial_circulation" title="Bronchial circulation">bronchial</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moore_K-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bronchial_circulation" title="Bronchial circulation">bronchial circulation</a> supplies oxygenated blood to the airways of the lungs, through the <a href="/wiki/Bronchial_artery" title="Bronchial artery">bronchial arteries</a> that leave the <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>. There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body.<a href="#cite_note-BERNELEVY-34">[34]</a> The blood volume of the lungs is about 450 millilitres on average, about 9% of the total blood volume of the entire circulatory system. This quantity can easily fluctuate from between one-half and twice the normal volume. Also, in the event of blood loss through hemorrhage, blood from the lungs can partially compensate by automatically transferring to the systemic circulation.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nerve_supply">Nerve supply</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nerve supply">edit</a>]</div> The lungs are supplied by nerves of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>. Input from the <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous system</a> occurs via the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moore_K-6">[6]</a> When stimulated by <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a>, this causes constriction of the smooth muscle lining the bronchus and bronchioles, and increases the secretions from glands.<a href="#cite_note-Levitzky2013_2-45">[45]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The lungs also have a sympathetic tone from <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> acting on the <a href="/wiki/Beta-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Beta-2 adrenergic receptor">beta 2 adrenoceptors</a> in the respiratory tract, which causes <a href="/wiki/Bronchodilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronchodilation">bronchodilation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-46">[46]</a> The action of breathing takes place because of nerve signals sent by the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_center" title="Respiratory center">respiratory center</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, along the <a href="/wiki/Phrenic_nerve" title="Phrenic nerve">phrenic nerve</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Cervical_plexus" title="Cervical plexus">cervical plexus</a> to the diaphragm.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variation">Variation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Variation">edit</a>]</div> The lobes of the lung are subject to <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">anatomical variations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2-48">[48]</a> A horizontal interlobar fissure was found to be incomplete in 25% of right lungs, or even absent in 11% of all cases. An accessory fissure was also found in 14% and 22% of left and right lungs, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> An oblique fissure was found to be incomplete in 21% to 47% of left lungs.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In some cases a fissure is absent, or extra, resulting in a right lung with only two lobes, or a left lung with three lobes.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2-48">[48]</a> A variation in the airway branching structure has been found specifically in the central airway branching. This variation is associated with the development of <a href="/wiki/COPD" class="mw-redirect" title="COPD">COPD</a> in adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sonic_hedgehog#Lung_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonic hedgehog">Sonic hedgehog § Lung development</a></div> The development of the human lungs arise from the <a href="/wiki/Laryngotracheal_groove" title="Laryngotracheal groove">laryngotracheal groove</a> and develop to maturity over several weeks in the foetus and for several years following birth.<a href="#cite_note-Sadler-52">[52]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">bronchi</a> and lungs that make up the respiratory tract, begin to form during the fourth week of <a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a><a href="#cite_note-Moore_2002-53">[53]</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Lung_bud" title="Lung bud">lung bud</a> which appears ventrally to the caudal portion of the <a href="/wiki/Foregut" title="Foregut">foregut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray949.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gray949.png/220px-Gray949.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Gray949.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="207" /></a><figcaption>Lungs during development, showing the early branching of the primitive bronchial buds</figcaption></figure> The respiratory tract has a branching structure, and is also known as the respiratory tree.<a href="#cite_note-Miura-55">[55]</a> In the embryo this structure is developed in the process of <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis#Branching_morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">branching morphogenesis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ochoa-Espinosa-56">[56]</a> and is generated by the repeated splitting of the tip of the branch. In the development of the lungs (as in some other organs) the epithelium forms branching tubes. The lung has a left-right symmetry and each bud known as a <a href="/wiki/Lung_bud" title="Lung bud">bronchial bud</a> grows out as a tubular epithelium that becomes a bronchus. Each bronchus branches into bronchioles.<a href="#cite_note-Wolpert-57">[57]</a> The branching is a result of the tip of each tube bifurcating.<a href="#cite_note-Miura-55">[55]</a> The branching process forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately the alveoli.<a href="#cite_note-Miura-55">[55]</a> The four genes mostly associated with branching morphogenesis in the lung are the <a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_signaling_pathway" title="Hedgehog signaling pathway">intercellular signalling protein</a> – <a href="/wiki/Sonic_hedgehog" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonic hedgehog">sonic hedgehog</a> (SHH), <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor" title="Fibroblast growth factor">fibroblast growth factors</a> <a href="/wiki/FGF10" title="FGF10">FGF10</a> and FGFR2b, and <a href="/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein" title="Bone morphogenetic protein">bone morphogenetic protein</a> <a href="/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein_4" title="Bone morphogenetic protein 4">BMP4</a>. FGF10 is seen to have the most prominent role. FGF10 is a <a href="/wiki/Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">paracrine signalling</a> molecule needed for epithelial branching, and SHH inhibits FGF10.<a href="#cite_note-Miura-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wolpert-57">[57]</a> The development of the alveoli is influenced by a different mechanism whereby continued bifurcation is stopped and the distal tips become dilated to form the alveoli. At the end of the fourth week the lung bud divides into two, the right and left <a href="/wiki/Lung_bud" title="Lung bud">primary bronchial buds</a> on each side of the trachea.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larsen2001-59">[59]</a> During the fifth week the right bud branches into three secondary bronchial buds and the left branches into two secondary bronchial buds. These give rise to the lobes of the lungs, three on the right and two on the left. Over the following week, the secondary buds branch into tertiary buds, about ten on each side.<a href="#cite_note-Larsen2001-59">[59]</a> From the sixth week to the sixteenth week, the major elements of the lungs appear except the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7817-5309-0-60">[60]</a> From week 16 to week 26, the bronchi enlarge and lung tissue becomes highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop. By week 26 the terminal bronchioles have formed which branch into two respiratory bronchioles.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> During the period covering the 26th week until birth the important <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93air_barrier" title="Blood–air barrier">blood–air barrier</a> is established. Specialised <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cells">type I alveolar cells</a> where <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> will take place, together with the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cells">type II alveolar cells</a> that secrete <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_surfactant" title="Pulmonary surfactant">pulmonary surfactant</a>, appear. The surfactant reduces the <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> at the air-alveolar surface which allows expansion of the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs contain the primitive alveoli that form at the end of the alveolar ducts,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.<a href="#cite_note-Sadler-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vitamin_A_deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vitamin A deficiency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</a></div> The developing lung is particularly vulnerable to changes in the levels of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</a> has been linked to changes in the epithelial lining of the lung and in the lung parenchyma. This can disrupt the normal physiology of the lung and predispose to respiratory diseases. Severe nutritional deficiency in vitamin A results in a reduction in the formation of the alveolar walls (septa) and to notable changes in the respiratory epithelium; alterations are noted in the extracellular matrix and in the protein content of the basement membrane. The extracellular matrix maintains lung elasticity; the basement membrane is associated with alveolar epithelium and is important in the blood-air barrier. The deficiency is associated with functional defects and disease states. Vitamin A is crucial in the development of the alveoli which continues for several years after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Timoneda-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_birth">After birth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: After birth">edit</a>]</div> At <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">birth</a>, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life#Breathing_and_circulation" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">After birth</a> the infant's <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery.<a href="#cite_note-Medline2015-64">[64]</a> Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The <a href="/wiki/Vascular_resistance" title="Vascular resistance">resistance</a> in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">other changes</a> which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.<a href="#cite_note-Medline2015-64">[64]</a> At birth the lungs are very undeveloped with only around one sixth of the alveoli of the adult lung present.<a href="#cite_note-Sadler-52">[52]</a> The alveoli continue to form into early adulthood, and their ability to form when necessary is seen in the regeneration of the lung.<a href="#cite_note-Schittny-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-SchittnyJC-67">[67]</a> Alveolar septa have a double <a href="/wiki/Capillary#Structure" title="Capillary">capillary network</a> instead of the single network of the developed lung. Only after the maturation of the capillary network can the lung enter a normal phase of growth. Following the early growth in numbers of alveoli there is another stage of the alveoli being enlarged.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Function">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">Gas exchange</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_exchange">Gas exchange</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gas exchange">edit</a>]</div> The major function of the lungs is <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> between the lungs and the blood.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveolar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary capillary</a> gases equilibrate across the thin <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93air_barrier" title="Blood–air barrier">blood–air barrier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26475269-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-grays-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-s-cool-71">[71]</a> This thin membrane (about 0.5 –2 μm thick) is folded into about 300 million alveoli, providing an extremely large surface area (estimates varying between 70 and 145 m2) for gas exchange to occur.<a href="#cite_note-grays-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg/220px-Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg/330px-Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg/440px-Ribcage_during_inhalation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3003" data-file-height="2380" /></a><figcaption>The effect of the <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration" title="Muscles of respiration">respiratory muscles</a> in expanding the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a></figcaption></figure> The lungs are not capable of expanding to <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathe</a> on their own, and will only do so when there is an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.<a href="#cite_note-Levitzky2013_1-73">[73]</a> This is achieved by the <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration" title="Muscles of respiration">muscles of respiration</a>, through the contraction of the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Intercostal_muscles" title="Intercostal muscles">intercostal muscles</a> which pull the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a> upwards as shown in the diagram.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> During <a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">breathing out</a> the muscles relax, returning the lungs to their resting position.<a href="#cite_note-tortora1-75">[75]</a> At this point the lungs contain the <a href="/wiki/Functional_residual_capacity" title="Functional residual capacity">functional residual capacity</a> (FRC) of air, which, in the adult human, has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 litres.<a href="#cite_note-tortora1-75">[75]</a> During <a href="/wiki/Hyperpnoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperpnoea">heavy breathing</a> as in <a href="/wiki/Exertion" title="Exertion">exertion</a>, a large number of <a href="/wiki/Muscles_of_respiration#Accessory_muscles" title="Muscles of respiration">accessory muscles</a> in the neck and abdomen are recruited, that during exhalation pull the ribcage down, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.<a href="#cite_note-tortora1-75">[75]</a> The FRC is now decreased, but since the lungs cannot be emptied completely there is still about a litre of residual air left.<a href="#cite_note-tortora1-75">[75]</a> <a href="#Function_testing">Lung function testing</a> is carried out to evaluate <a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">lung volumes</a> and capacities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection">Protection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Protection">edit</a>]</div> The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium" title="Respiratory epithelium">respiratory epithelium</a> or respiratory mucosa, with hair-like projections called <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> that beat rhythmically and carry <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Mucociliary_clearance" title="Mucociliary clearance">mucociliary clearance</a> is an important defence system against air-borne infection.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26475269-36">[36]</a> The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia.<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a>: 661–730  The lining of the lung also secretes <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A" title="Immunoglobulin A">immunoglobulin A</a> which protects against respiratory infections;<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Goblet_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Goblet cells">goblet cells</a> secrete mucus<a href="#cite_note-PAWLINA-35">[35]</a> which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Defensin" title="Defensin">defensins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antiprotease" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotease">antiproteases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> A rare type of specialised cell called a pulmonary ionocyte that is suggested may regulate mucus viscosity has been described.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-CFN-79">[79]</a> In addition, the lining of the lung also contains <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a> which present antigens to activate components of the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a> such as <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> The size of the respiratory tract and the flow of air also protect the lungs from larger particles. Smaller particles deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">mouth</a> and behind the mouth in the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Oropharynx" title="Pharynx">oropharynx</a>, and larger particles are trapped in <a href="/wiki/Nasal_hair" title="Nasal hair">nasal hair</a> after inhalation.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs have a number of other functions. They are involved in maintaining <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>, helping in the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">renin–angiotensin system</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">inner lining</a> of the blood vessels secretes <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin-converting_enzyme" title="Angiotensin-converting enzyme">angiotensin-converting enzyme</a> (ACE) an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> that <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyses</a> the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin I">angiotensin I</a> to <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiotensin II">angiotensin II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-boron-80">[80]</a> The lungs are involved in the blood's <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_homeostasis" title="Acid–base homeostasis">acid–base homeostasis</a> by expelling <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> when breathing.<a href="#cite_note-Levitzky2013_1-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-PatientInfo-81">[81]</a> The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leukotrienes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukotrienes">leukotrienes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">bradykinin</a>, are excreted through the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-boron-80">[80]</a> Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-Levitzky2013_1-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smyth-82">[82]</a> The lungs filter out small <a href="/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">blood clots</a> from <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a> and prevent them from entering <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a> and causing <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PatientInfo-81">[81]</a> The lungs also play a pivotal role in <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> by providing air and airflow for the creation of vocal sounds,<a href="#cite_note-Levitzky2013_1-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">paralanguage</a> <a href="/wiki/Paralanguage#Specific_forms_of_paralinguistic_respiration" title="Paralanguage">communications</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sighing" class="mw-redirect" title="Sighing">sighs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasp">gasps</a>. Research suggests a role of the lungs in the production of blood platelets.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gene_and_protein_expression">Gene and protein expression</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Gene and protein expression">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics#Gene_and_protein_expression" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression</a></div> About 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Human_genome#Coding_sequences_(protein-coding_genes)" title="Human genome">protein coding genes</a> are expressed in human cells and almost 75% of these genes are expressed in the normal lung.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> A little less than 200 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the lung with less than 20 genes being highly lung specific. The highest expression of lung specific proteins are different <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> proteins,<a href="#cite_note-pmid26475269-36">[36]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Surfactant_protein_A1" title="Surfactant protein A1">SFTPA1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surfactant_protein_B" title="Surfactant protein B">SFTPB</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surfactant_protein_C" title="Surfactant protein C">SFTPC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/NAPSA" title="NAPSA">napsin</a>, expressed in type II pneumocytes. Other proteins with elevated expression in the lung are the <a href="/wiki/Dynein" title="Dynein">dynein</a> protein <a href="/wiki/DNAH5" title="DNAH5">DNAH5</a> in ciliated cells, and the secreted <a href="/wiki/Uteroglobin" title="Uteroglobin">SCGB1A1</a> protein in mucus-secreting <a href="/wiki/Goblet_cell" title="Goblet cell">goblet cells</a> of the airway mucosa.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Clinical significance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">Respiratory disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></div> Lungs can be affected by a number of diseases and disorders. <a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">medical speciality</a> that deals with <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory diseases</a> involving the lungs and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ACP-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a> deals with <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> of the lungs including <a href="/wiki/Lung_volume_reduction_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung volume reduction surgery">lung volume reduction surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lobectomy" title="Lobectomy">lobectomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumectomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumectomy">pneumectomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_transplantation" title="Lung transplantation">lung transplantation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inflammation_and_infection">Inflammation and infection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Inflammation and infection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ghon_focus" title="Ghon focus">Ghon focus</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammatory</a> conditions of the lung tissue are <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, of the respiratory tract are <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronchiolitis" title="Bronchiolitis">bronchiolitis</a>, and of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_pleurae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary pleurae">pleurae</a> surrounding the lungs <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">pleurisy</a>. Inflammation is usually caused by <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. When the lung tissue is inflamed due to other causes it is called <a href="/wiki/Pneumonitis" title="Pneumonitis">pneumonitis</a>. One major cause of <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_pneumonia" title="Bacterial pneumonia">bacterial pneumonia</a> is <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">Chronic</a> infections often occur in those with <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a> and can include a <a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">fungal infection</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_fumigatus" title="Aspergillus fumigatus">Aspergillus fumigatus</a> that can lead to an <a href="/wiki/Aspergilloma" title="Aspergilloma">aspergilloma</a> forming in the lung.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In the US certain species of rat can transmit a <a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">hantavirus</a> to humans that can cause untreatable <a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_pulmonary_syndrome" title="Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome">hantavirus pulmonary syndrome</a> with a similar presentation to that of <a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Acute respiratory distress syndrome">acute respiratory distress syndrome</a> (ARDS).<a href="#cite_note-CDC1-91">[91]</a> Alcohol affects the lungs and can cause inflammatory <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_lung_disease" title="Alcoholic lung disease">alcoholic lung disease</a>. Acute exposure to alcohol stimulates the beating of <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> in the respiratory epithelium. However, chronic exposure has the effect of desensitising the ciliary response which reduces <a href="/wiki/Mucociliary_clearance" title="Mucociliary clearance">mucociliary clearance</a> (MCC). MCC is an innate defense system protecting against pollutants and pathogens, and when this is disrupted the numbers of <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage" title="Alveolar macrophage">alveolar macrophages</a> are decreased. A subsequent inflammatory response is the release of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>. Another consequence is the susceptibility to infection.<a href="#cite_note-Arvers-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slovinsky-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood-supply_changes">Blood-supply changes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Blood-supply changes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG/220px-InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG/330px-InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG/440px-InfarctPandLbasilarsegmentsPE.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Infarction" title="Infarction">Tissue death</a> of the lung due to a <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a></figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a> is a blood clot that becomes lodged in the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary arteries">pulmonary arteries</a>. The majority of emboli arise because of <a href="/wiki/Deep_vein_thrombosis" title="Deep vein thrombosis">deep vein thrombosis</a> in the legs. Pulmonary emboli may be investigated using a <a href="/wiki/Ventilation/perfusion_scan" title="Ventilation/perfusion scan">ventilation/perfusion scan</a>, <a href="/wiki/CT_pulmonary_angiography" class="mw-redirect" title="CT pulmonary angiography">a CT scan of the arteries of the lung</a>, or blood tests such as the <a href="/wiki/D-dimer" title="D-dimer">D-dimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_hypertension" title="Pulmonary hypertension">Pulmonary hypertension</a> describes an increased pressure at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a> that has a large number of differing causes.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> Other rarer conditions may also affect the blood supply of the lung, such as <a href="/wiki/Granulomatosis_with_polyangiitis" title="Granulomatosis with polyangiitis">granulomatosis with polyangiitis</a>, which causes inflammation of the small blood vessels of the lungs and kidneys.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_contusion" title="Pulmonary contusion">lung contusion</a> is a bruise caused by chest trauma. It results in hemorrhage of the alveoli causing a build-up of fluid which can impair breathing, and this can be either mild or severe. The function of the lungs can also be affected by compression from fluid in the pleural cavity <a href="/wiki/Pleural_effusion" title="Pleural effusion">pleural effusion</a>, or other substances such as air (<a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a>), blood (<a href="/wiki/Hemothorax" title="Hemothorax">hemothorax</a>), or rarer causes. These may be investigated using a <a href="/wiki/Chest_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest X-ray">chest X-ray</a> or <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a>, and may require the insertion of a <a href="/wiki/Surgical_drain" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical drain">surgical drain</a> until the underlying cause is identified and treated.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obstructive_lung_diseases">Obstructive lung diseases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Obstructive lung diseases">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Respiratory_tract.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Respiratory_tract.jpg/220px-Respiratory_tract.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Respiratory_tract.jpg/330px-Respiratory_tract.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Respiratory_tract.jpg/440px-Respiratory_tract.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>3D still image of constricted airways as in bronchial asthma</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg/220px-Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg/330px-Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg/440px-Emphysema_H_and_E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Lung tissue affected by emphysema using <a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">Asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronchiectasis" title="Bronchiectasis">bronchiectasis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD) that includes <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis#Chronic_bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">chronic bronchitis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emphysema" title="Emphysema">emphysema</a>, are all <a href="/wiki/Obstructive_lung_disease" title="Obstructive lung disease">obstructive lung diseases</a> characterised by <a href="/wiki/Airway_obstruction" title="Airway obstruction">airway obstruction</a>. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_function_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary function tests">pulmonary function tests</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Spirometry" title="Spirometry">spirometry</a>. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as <a href="/wiki/Dust_mite" class="mw-redirect" title="Dust mite">dust mites</a> or <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a>), with symptom control such as <a href="/wiki/Bronchodilator" title="Bronchodilator">bronchodilators</a>, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroids</a>) in severe cases. A common cause of chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, is smoking; and common causes of <a href="/wiki/Bronchiectasis" title="Bronchiectasis">bronchiectasis</a> include severe infections and <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>. The definitive cause of <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> is not yet known, but it has been linked to other atopic diseases.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The breakdown of alveolar tissue, often as a result of tobacco-smoking leads to emphysema, which can become severe enough to develop into COPD. <a href="/wiki/Elastase" title="Elastase">Elastase</a> breaks down the <a href="/wiki/Elastin" title="Elastin">elastin</a> in the lung's connective tissue that can also result in emphysema. Elastase is inhibited by the <a href="/wiki/Acute-phase_protein" title="Acute-phase protein">acute-phase protein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha-1_antitrypsin" title="Alpha-1 antitrypsin">alpha-1 antitrypsin</a>, and when there is a <a href="/wiki/Alpha-1_antitrypsin_deficiency" title="Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency">deficiency</a> in this, emphysema can develop. With persistent stress from smoking, the <a href="/wiki/Airway_basal_cell" title="Airway basal cell">airway basal cells</a> become disarranged and lose their regenerative ability needed to repair the epithelial barrier. The disorganised basal cells are seen to be responsible for the major airway changes that are characteristic of <a href="/wiki/COPD" class="mw-redirect" title="COPD">COPD</a>, and with continued stress can undergo a malignant transformation. Studies have shown that the initial development of emphysema is centred on the early changes in the airway epithelium of the small airways.<a href="#cite_note-Crystal-95">[95]</a> Basal cells become further deranged in a smoker's transition to clinically defined COPD.<a href="#cite_note-Crystal-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restrictive_lung_diseases">Restrictive lung diseases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Restrictive lung diseases">edit</a>]</div> Some types of chronic lung diseases are classified as <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_lung_disease" title="Restrictive lung disease">restrictive lung disease</a>, because of a restriction in the amount of lung tissue involved in respiration. These include <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_fibrosis" title="Pulmonary fibrosis">pulmonary fibrosis</a> which can occur when the lung is inflamed for a long period of time. <a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">Fibrosis</a> in the lung replaces functioning lung tissue with <a href="/wiki/Fibrous_connective_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrous connective tissue">fibrous connective tissue</a>. This can be due to a large variety of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_lung_disease" title="Occupational lung disease">occupational lung diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Coalworker%27s_pneumoconiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalworker's pneumoconiosis">Coalworker's pneumoconiosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune diseases</a> or more rarely to a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> Severe respiratory disorders, where spontaneous breathing is not enough to maintain life, may need the use of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" title="Mechanical ventilation">mechanical ventilation</a> to ensure an adequate supply of air. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancers">Cancers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Cancers">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a> can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasis</a> from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either <a href="/wiki/Small-cell_lung_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-cell lung carcinoma">small-cell</a> or <a href="/wiki/Non-small-cell_lung_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-small-cell lung carcinoma">non-small-cell lung carcinomas</a>. The major risk factor for cancer is <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a>. Once a cancer is identified it is <a href="/wiki/Tumour_staging" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumour staging">staged</a> using scans such as a <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> and a sample of tissue from a <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a> is taken. Cancers may be treated surgically by removing the tumour, the use of <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> or a combination, or with the aim of <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">symptom control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer_screening" title="Lung cancer screening">Lung cancer screening</a> is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital_disorders">Congenital disorders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Congenital disorders">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">Congenital disorders</a> include <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_hypoplasia" title="Pulmonary hypoplasia">pulmonary hypoplasia</a> (an incomplete development of the lungs)<a href="#cite_note-Cadichon-97">[97]</a><a href="/wiki/Congenital_diaphragmatic_hernia" title="Congenital diaphragmatic hernia">congenital diaphragmatic hernia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">infant respiratory distress syndrome</a> caused by a deficiency in lung surfactant. An <a href="/wiki/Azygos_lobe" title="Azygos lobe">azygos lobe</a> is a congenital <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">anatomical variation</a> which though usually without effect can cause problems in <a href="/wiki/Thoracoscopy" title="Thoracoscopy">thoracoscopic</a> procedures.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pleural_space_pressure">Pleural space pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pleural space pressure">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a> (collapsed lung) is an abnormal collection of air in the <a href="/wiki/Pleural_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleural space">pleural space</a> that causes an uncoupling of the lung from the <a href="/wiki/Chest_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest wall">chest wall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BMJ2014-99">[99]</a> The lung cannot expand against the air pressure inside the pleural space. An easy to understand example is a traumatic pneumothorax, where air enters the pleural space from outside the body, as occurs with puncture to the chest wall. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba diver">scuba divers</a> ascending while holding their breath with their lungs fully inflated can cause air sacs (<a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a>) to burst and leak high pressure air into the pleural space. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examination">Examination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Examination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_examination" title="Respiratory examination">Respiratory examination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_sounds" title="Respiratory sounds">Respiratory sounds</a></div> As part of a <a href="/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a> in response to respiratory symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">shortness of breath</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">cough</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_examination" title="Respiratory examination">lung examination</a> may be carried out. This exam includes <a href="/wiki/Palpation" title="Palpation">palpation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auscultation" title="Auscultation">auscultation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The areas of the lungs that can be <a href="/wiki/Auscultation" title="Auscultation">listened to</a> using a stethoscope are called the <a href="/wiki/Lung_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung fields">lung fields</a>, and these are the posterior, lateral, and anterior lung fields. The posterior fields can be listened to from the back and include: the lower lobes (taking up three quarters of the posterior fields); the anterior fields taking up the other quarter; and the lateral fields under the <a href="/wiki/Axilla" title="Axilla">axillae</a>, the left axilla for the lingual, the right axilla for the middle right lobe. The anterior fields can also be auscultated from the front.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> An area known as the <a href="/wiki/Triangle_of_auscultation" title="Triangle of auscultation">triangle of auscultation</a> is an area of thinner musculature on the back which allows improved listening.<a href="#cite_note-Malik-102">[102]</a> Abnormal <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_sounds" title="Respiratory sounds">breathing sounds</a> heard during a lung exam can indicate the presence of a lung condition; <a href="/wiki/Wheezing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheezing">wheezing</a> for example is commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/COPD" class="mw-redirect" title="COPD">COPD</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Function_testing">Function testing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Function testing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_function_testing" title="Pulmonary function testing">Pulmonary function testing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">Lung volumes</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:592px;max-width:592px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:397px;max-width:397px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:LungVolume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/LungVolume.jpg/395px-LungVolume.jpg" decoding="async" width="395" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/LungVolume.jpg/593px-LungVolume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/LungVolume.jpg/790px-LungVolume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="935" data-file-height="323" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">Lung volumes</a> as described in the text</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:DoingSpirometry.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/DoingSpirometry.JPG/189px-DoingSpirometry.JPG" decoding="async" width="189" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/DoingSpirometry.JPG/284px-DoingSpirometry.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/DoingSpirometry.JPG/378px-DoingSpirometry.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1508" data-file-height="1092" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A person doing a <a href="/wiki/Spirometry" title="Spirometry">spirometry</a> test</div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_function_testing" title="Pulmonary function testing">Lung function testing</a> is carried out by evaluating a person's capacity to inhale and exhale in different circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Ganong2012_34-103">[103]</a> The volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a person at rest is the <a href="/wiki/Tidal_volume" title="Tidal volume">tidal volume</a> (normally 500–750 mL); the <a href="/wiki/Inspiratory_reserve_volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Inspiratory reserve volume">inspiratory reserve volume</a> and <a href="/wiki/Expiratory_reserve_volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Expiratory reserve volume">expiratory reserve volume</a> are the additional amounts a person is able to forcibly inhale and exhale respectively. The summed total of forced inspiration and expiration is a person's <a href="/wiki/Vital_capacity" title="Vital capacity">vital capacity</a>. Not all air is expelled from the lungs even after a forced breath out; the remainder of the air is called the <a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">residual volume</a>. Together these terms are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">lung volumes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ganong2012_34-103">[103]</a> Pulmonary <a href="/wiki/Plethysmograph" title="Plethysmograph">plethysmographs</a> are used to measure <a href="/wiki/Functional_residual_capacity" title="Functional residual capacity">functional residual capacity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Functional residual capacity cannot be measured by tests that rely on breathing out, as a person is only able to breathe a maximum of 80% of their total functional capacity.<a href="#cite_note-Applegate2014-105">[105]</a> The total lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, and sex, and normally ranges between 4 and 6 litres.<a href="#cite_note-Ganong2012_34-103">[103]</a> Females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity than shorter people. <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Smokers</a> have a lower capacity than nonsmokers. Thinner persons tend to have a larger capacity. Lung capacity can be increased by physical training as much as 40% but the effect may be modified by exposure to air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-Applegate2014-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laeremans_et_al._2018-106">[106]</a> Other lung function tests include <a href="/wiki/Spirometry" title="Spirometry">spirometry</a>, measuring the amount (volume) and flow of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. The maximum volume of breath that can be exhaled is called the <a href="/wiki/Vital_capacity" title="Vital capacity">vital capacity</a>. In particular, how much a person is able to exhale in one second (called <a href="/wiki/Spirometry#Parameters" title="Spirometry">forced expiratory volume</a> (FEV1)) as a proportion of how much they are able to exhale in total (FEV). This ratio, the FEV1/FEV ratio, is important to distinguish whether a lung disease is <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_lung_disease" title="Restrictive lung disease">restrictive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Obstructive_lung_disease" title="Obstructive lung disease">obstructive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2014-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ganong2012_34-103">[103]</a> Another test is that of the lung's <a href="/wiki/Diffusing_capacity" title="Diffusing capacity">diffusing capacity</a> – this is a measure of the transfer of gas from air to the blood in the lung capillaries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culinary_uses">Culinary uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Culinary uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_(20230923195242).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg/180px-%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg/270px-%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg/360px-%C3%96pke-h%C3%A9sip_at_Ancient_City_of_Kashi_%2820230923195242%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2688" /></a><figcaption>Öpke-hésip, a Chinese dish made with <a href="/wiki/Mutton" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutton">lamb</a> lung and <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> sausage</figcaption></figure> Mammal lung is one of the main types of <a href="/wiki/Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>, or pluck, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a>, and is consumed as a foodstuff around the world in dishes such as Scottish <a href="/wiki/Haggis" title="Haggis">haggis</a>. The United States <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> legally prohibits the sale of animal lungs due to concerns such as <a href="/wiki/Fungal_spore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungal spore">fungal spores</a> or cross-contamination with other organs, although this has been criticised as unfounded.<a href="#cite_note-IllegalLungs-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Other animals">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds">Birds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Birds">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Respiratory_system" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy § Respiratory system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BirdRespiration.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/BirdRespiration.svg/220px-BirdRespiration.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/BirdRespiration.svg/330px-BirdRespiration.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/BirdRespiration.svg/440px-BirdRespiration.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2803" data-file-height="3395" /></a><figcaption>On inhalation, air travels to air sacs near the back of a bird. The air then passes through the lungs to air sacs near the front of the bird, from where the air is exhaled.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cross-current_exchanger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cross-current_exchanger.jpg/220px-Cross-current_exchanger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cross-current_exchanger.jpg/330px-Cross-current_exchanger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Cross-current_exchanger.jpg/440px-Cross-current_exchanger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>The cross-current respiratory gas exchanger in the lungs of birds. Air is forced from the air sacs unidirectionally (from left to right in the diagram) through the parabronchi. The pulmonary capillaries surround the parabronchi in the manner shown (blood flowing from below the parabronchus to above it in the diagram).<a href="#cite_note-AvResp-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-graham-109">[109]</a> Blood or air with a high oxygen content is shown in red; oxygen-poor air or blood is shown in various shades of purple-blue.</figcaption></figure> The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8 or 9 <a href="/wiki/Air_sacs" class="mw-redirect" title="Air sacs">air sacs</a> that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. On inhalation, air travels through the trachea of a bird into the air sacs. Air then travels continuously from the air sacs at the back, through the lungs, which are relatively fixed in size, to the air sacs at the front. From here, the air is exhaled. These fixed size lungs are called "circulatory lungs", as distinct from the "bellows-type lungs" found in most other animals.<a href="#cite_note-AvResp-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maina2005-110">[110]</a> The lungs of birds contain millions of tiny parallel passages called <a href="/wiki/Parabronchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabronchi">parabronchi</a>. Small sacs called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages; these, like the alveoli in other lungs, are the site of <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> by simple diffusion.<a href="#cite_note-Maina2005-110">[110]</a> The blood flow around the parabronchi and their atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).<a href="#cite_note-AvResp-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-graham-109">[109]</a> The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> Parabronchi in which the air flow is unidirectional are called paleopulmonic parabronchi and are found in all birds. Some birds, however, have, in addition, a lung structure where the air flow in the parabronchi is bidirectional. These are termed neopulmonic parabronchi.<a href="#cite_note-Maina2005-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reptiles">Reptiles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Reptiles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reptile_anatomy#Respiratory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptile anatomy">Reptile anatomy § Respiratory system</a></div> The lungs of most reptiles have a single bronchus running down the centre, from which numerous branches reach out to individual pockets throughout the lungs. These pockets are similar to alveoli in mammals, but much larger and fewer in number. These give the lung a sponge-like texture. In <a href="/wiki/Tuatara" title="Tuatara">tuataras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a>, the lungs are simpler in structure, similar to that of typical amphibians.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> Snakes and limbless lizards typically possess only the right lung as a major respiratory organ; the left lung is greatly reduced, or even absent. <a href="/wiki/Amphisbaenian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphisbaenian">Amphisbaenians</a>, however, have the opposite arrangement, with a major left lung, and a reduced or absent right lung.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Crocodylia" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodylia">crocodilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monitor_Lizard" class="mw-redirect" title="Monitor Lizard">monitor lizards</a> have lungs similar to those of birds, providing a unidirectional airflow and even possessing air sacs.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The now extinct <a href="/wiki/Pterosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterosauria">pterosaurs</a> have seemingly even further refined this type of lung, extending the airsacs into the wing membranes and, in the case of <a href="/wiki/Lonchodectidae" title="Lonchodectidae">lonchodectids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupuxuara" title="Tupuxuara">Tupuxuara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azhdarchoidea" title="Azhdarchoidea">azhdarchoids</a>, the hindlimbs.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptilian</a> lungs typically receive air via expansion and contraction of the ribs driven by <a href="/wiki/Axial_skeleton" title="Axial skeleton">axial muscles</a> and buccal pumping. <a href="/wiki/Crocodilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodilian">Crocodilians</a> also rely on the <a href="/wiki/Hepatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatic">hepatic</a> piston method, in which the liver is pulled back by a muscle anchored to the <a href="/wiki/Pubis_(bone)" title="Pubis (bone)">pubic bone</a> (part of the pelvis) called the diaphragmaticus,<a href="#cite_note-Munns-114">[114]</a> which in turn creates negative pressure in the crocodile's thoracic cavity, allowing air to be moved into the lungs by <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">Turtles</a>, which are unable to move their ribs, instead use their forelimbs and <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral girdle">pectoral girdle</a> to force air in and out of the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amphibians">Amphibians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Amphibians">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Frog#Respiration_and_circulation" title="Frog">Frog § Respiration and circulation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axolotl_ganz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Axolotl" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Axolotl_ganz.jpg/220px-Axolotl_ganz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Axolotl_ganz.jpg/330px-Axolotl_ganz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Axolotl_ganz.jpg/440px-Axolotl_ganz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2178" data-file-height="1215" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Axolotl" title="Axolotl">axolotl</a> (Ambystoma mexicanum) retains its larval form with gills into adulthood.</figcaption></figure> The lungs of most <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frogs</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> are simple and balloon-like, with gas exchange limited to the outer surface of the lung. This is not very efficient, but amphibians have low metabolic demands and can also quickly dispose of carbon dioxide by diffusion across their skin in water, and supplement their oxygen supply by the same method. Amphibians employ a <a href="/wiki/Positive_pressure" title="Positive pressure">positive pressure</a> system to get air to their lungs, forcing air down into the lungs by <a href="/wiki/Buccal_pumping" title="Buccal pumping">buccal pumping</a>. This is distinct from most higher vertebrates, who use a breathing system driven by <a href="/wiki/Negative_room_pressure" title="Negative room pressure">negative pressure</a> where the lungs are inflated by expanding the rib cage.<a href="#cite_note-Breathing-115">[115]</a> In buccal pumping, the floor of the mouth is lowered, filling the mouth cavity with air. The throat muscles then presses the throat against the underside of the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a>, forcing the air into the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-review-116">[116]</a> Due to the possibility of respiration across the skin combined with small size, all known lungless <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> are amphibians. The majority of salamander species are <a href="/wiki/Lungless_salamander" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungless salamander">lungless salamanders</a>, which respirate through their skin and tissues lining their mouth. This necessarily restricts their size: all are small and rather thread-like in appearance, maximising skin surface relative to body volume.<a href="#cite_note-Duellman&Trueb-117">[117]</a> Other known lungless tetrapods are the <a href="/wiki/Bornean_flat-headed_frog" title="Bornean flat-headed frog">Bornean flat-headed frog</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atretochoana_eiselti" class="mw-redirect" title="Atretochoana eiselti">Atretochoana eiselti</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Caecilian" title="Caecilian">caecilian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The lungs of amphibians typically have a few narrow internal walls (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/septum" class="extiw" title="wikt:septum">septa</a>) of soft tissue around the outer walls, increasing the respiratory surface area and giving the lung a honeycomb appearance. In some salamanders even these are lacking, and the lung has a smooth wall. In caecilians, as in snakes, only the right lung attains any size or development.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Fish">edit</a>]</div> Lungs are found in three groups of fish; the <a href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">coelacanths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">bichirs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</a>. Like in tetrapods, but unlike fish with swim bladder, the opening is at the ventral side of the esophagus. The coelacanth has a nonfunctional and unpaired vestigial lung surrounded by a fatty organ.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Bichirs, the only group of <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned fish</a> with lungs, have a pair which are hollow unchambered sacs, where the gas-exchange occurs on very flat folds that increase their inner surface area. The lungs of <a href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfish</a> show more resemblance to tetrapod lungs. There is an elaborate network of parenchymal septa, dividing them into numerous respiration chambers.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Australian_lungfish" title="Australian lungfish">Australian lungfish</a>, there is only a single lung, albeit divided into two lobes. Other lungfish, however, have traditionally been considered having two lungs, but newer research defines paired lungs as bilateral lung buds that arise simultaneously and are both connected directly to the foregut, which is only seen in tetrapods.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> In all lungfish, including the Australian, the lungs are located in the upper dorsal part of the body, with the connecting duct curving around and above the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>. The blood supply also twists around the esophagus, suggesting that the lungs originally evolved in the ventral part of the body, as in other vertebrates.<a href="#cite_note-VB-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Invertebrates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system_of_gastropods" title="Respiratory system of gastropods">Respiratory system of gastropods</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/220px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/330px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg/440px-Spider_internal_anatomy-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Book_lung" title="Book lung">Book lungs</a> of a female spider (shown in pink)</figcaption></figure> A number of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> have lung-like structures that serve a similar respiratory purpose to true vertebrate lungs, but are not evolutionarily related and only arise out of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">scorpions</a>, have structures called <a href="/wiki/Book_lung" title="Book lung">book lungs</a> used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Scorpions have <a href="/wiki/Spiracle_(arthropods)" title="Spiracle (arthropods)">spiracles</a> on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Coconut_crab" title="Coconut crab">coconut crab</a> is terrestrial and uses structures called <a href="/wiki/Branchiostegal_lung" title="Branchiostegal lung">branchiostegal lungs</a> to breathe air.<a href="#cite_note-Farrelly2005-126">[126]</a> Juveniles are released into the ocean, however adults cannot swim and possess an only rudimentary set of gills. The adult crabs can breathe on land and hold their breath underwater.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The branchiostegal lungs are seen as a developmental adaptive stage from water-living to enable land-living, or from fish to amphibian.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pulmonates" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonates">Pulmonates</a> are mostly <a href="/wiki/Land_snail" title="Land snail">land snails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a> that have developed a simple lung from the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantle cavity">mantle cavity</a>. An externally located opening called the <a href="/wiki/Pneumostome" title="Pneumostome">pneumostome</a> allows air to be taken into the mantle cavity lung.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_origins">Evolutionary origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Evolutionary origins">edit</a>]</div> The lungs of today's terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gas_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas bladder">gas bladders</a> of today's <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> are believed to have evolved from simple sacs, as outpocketings of the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>, that allowed early fish to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions.<a href="#cite_note-farmer-131">[131]</a> These outpocketings first arose in the <a href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">bony fish</a>. In most of the <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned fish</a> the sacs evolved into closed off gas bladders, while a number of <a href="/wiki/Carp" title="Carp">carp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trout" title="Trout">trout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">catfish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a> have retained the <a href="/wiki/Physostome" title="Physostome">physostome</a> condition with the sac being open to the esophagus. In more basal bony fish, such as the <a href="/wiki/Gar" title="Gar">gar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bichir" title="Bichir">bichir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bowfin" title="Bowfin">bowfin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">lobe-finned fish</a>, the bladders have evolved to primarily function as lungs.<a href="#cite_note-farmer-131">[131]</a> The lobe-finned fish gave rise to the land-based <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>. Thus, the lungs of vertebrates are <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> to the gas bladders of fish (but not to their <a href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</a>).<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atelectasis" title="Atelectasis">Atelectasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_lung_disease" title="Interstitial lung disease">Interstitial lung disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_breathing" title="Liquid breathing">Liquid breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_abscess" title="Lung abscess">Lung abscess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung-on-a-chip" title="Lung-on-a-chip">Lung-on-a-chip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secarecytosis" title="Secarecytosis">Secarecytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_terms_of_lung_size_and_activity" title="List of terms of lung size and activity">List of terms of lung size and activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung_Poisoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lung Poisoning (page does not exist)">Lung Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaping" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaping">Vaping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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The Anatomical Record. 290 (9): 1166–1177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Far.20576">10.1002/ar.20576</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17722050">17722050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anatomical+Record&rft.atitle=Innervation+and+Neurotransmitter+Localization+in+the+Lung+of+the+Nile+bichir+Polypterus+bichir+bichir&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1166-1177&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Far.20576&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17722050&rft.aulast=Zaccone&rft.aufirst=Giacomo&rft.au=Mauceri%2C+Angela&rft.au=Maisano%2C+Maria&rft.au=Giannetto%2C+Alessia&rft.au=Parrino%2C+Vincenzo&rft.au=Fasulo%2C+Salvatore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1002%2Far.20576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Camila Cupello, Tatsuya Hirasawa, Norifumi Tatsumi, Yoshitaka Yabumoto, Pierre Gueriau, Sumio Isogai, Ryoko Matsumoto, Toshiro Saruwatari, Andrew King, Masato Hoshino, Kentaro Uesugi, Masataka Okabe, Paulo M Brito (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/77156">Lung evolution in vertebrates and the water-to-land transition</a>, <a href="/wiki/ELife" title="ELife">eLife</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/book-lung">"book lung | anatomy"</a>. 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Retrieved 2016-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=spiracle+%7C+anatomy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fspiracle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farrelly2005-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Farrelly2005_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrellyGreenaway2005" class="citation journal cs1">Farrelly CA, Greenaway P (2005). "The morphology and vasculature of the respiratory organs of terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita and Birgus): gills, branchiostegal lungs and abdominal lungs". Arthropod Structure & Development. 34 (1): 63–87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ArtSD..34...63F">2005ArtSD..34...63F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.asd.2004.11.002">10.1016/j.asd.2004.11.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arthropod+Structure+%26+Development&rft.atitle=The+morphology+and+vasculature+of+the+respiratory+organs+of+terrestrial+hermit+crabs+%28Coenobita+and+Birgus%29%3A+gills%2C+branchiostegal+lungs+and+abdominal+lungs&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-87&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.asd.2004.11.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005ArtSD..34...63F&rft.aulast=Farrelly&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Greenaway%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurggrenMcMahon1988" class="citation book cs1">Burggren, Warren W.; McMahon, Brian R. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RR09AAAAIAAJ">Biology of the Land Crabs</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30690-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30690-4"><bdi>978-0-521-30690-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+Land+Crabs&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30690-4&rft.aulast=Burggren&rft.aufirst=Warren+W.&rft.au=McMahon%2C+Brian+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRR09AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurggrenMcMahon1988" class="citation book cs1">Burggren, Warren W.; McMahon, Brian R. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RR09AAAAIAAJ">Biology of the Land Crabs</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30690-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30690-4"><bdi>978-0-521-30690-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+Land+Crabs&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30690-4&rft.aulast=Burggren&rft.aufirst=Warren+W.&rft.au=McMahon%2C+Brian+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRR09AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Land Snails (& other Air-Breathers in Pulmonata Subclass & Sorbeconcha Clade). at Washington State University Tri-Cities Natural History Museum. Accessed 25 February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://shells.tricity.wsu.edu/ArcherdShellCollection/Gastropoda/Pulmonates.html">http://shells.tricity.wsu.edu/ArcherdShellCollection/Gastropoda/Pulmonates.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181109010506/http://shells.tricity.wsu.edu/ArcherdShellCollection/Gastropoda/Pulmonates.html">Archived</a> 2018-11-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochachka2014" class="citation book cs1">Hochachka, Peter W. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7UyeBQAAQBAJ">Mollusca: Metabolic Biochemistry and Molecular Biomechanics</a>. 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Paleobiology. 23 (3): 358–372. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Pbio...23..358F">1997Pbio...23..358F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0094837300019734">10.1017/S0094837300019734</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87285937">87285937</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.utah.edu/farmer/publications%20pdf/1997%20Paleobiology23.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-06-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Did+lungs+and+the+intracardiac+shunt+evolve+to+oxygenate+the+heart+in+vertebrates&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=358-372&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87285937%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0094837300019734&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Pbio...23..358F&rft.au=Colleen+Farmer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.utah.edu%2Ffarmer%2Fpublications%2520pdf%2F1997%2520Paleobiology23.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongoRiccioMcCune2013" class="citation journal cs1">Longo, Sarah; Riccio, Mark; <a href="/wiki/Amy_McCune" title="Amy McCune">McCune, Amy R</a> (June 2013). "Homology of lungs and gas bladders: Insights from arterial vasculature". Journal of Morphology. 274 (6): 687–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.20128">10.1002/jmor.20128</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23378277">23378277</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29995935">29995935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Morphology&rft.atitle=Homology+of+lungs+and+gas+bladders%3A+Insights+from+arterial+vasculature&rft.volume=274&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=687-703&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29995935%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23378277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjmor.20128&rft.aulast=Longo&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Riccio%2C+Mark&rft.au=McCune%2C+Amy+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALung" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy7.html">Dr D.R. Johnson: Introductory anatomy, respiratory system</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124061952/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy7.html">Archived</a> 2009-11-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, leeds.ac.uk</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020208190531/http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/respiration.html">Franlink Institute Online: The Respiratory System</a>, sln.fi.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdrespiration.html">Avian lungs and respiration</a>, people.eku.edu</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lung&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lungs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lungs">lungs</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proteinatlas.org/humanproteome/lung">Lung at the Human Protein Atlas</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template talk:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_systems_and_organs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>peripheral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>primary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li>secondary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li>CNS equivalent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li>upper GI <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li>lower GI <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_lower_respiratory_tract" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lower_respiratory_system_anatomy" title="Template:Lower respiratory system anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lower_respiratory_system_anatomy" title="Template talk:Lower respiratory system anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lower_respiratory_system_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lower respiratory system anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_lower_respiratory_tract" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">lower respiratory tract</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Respiratory_tree" title="Respiratory tract">Respiratory tree</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tracheal_rings" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheal rings">Tracheal rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Annular ligaments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carina_of_trachea" title="Carina of trachea">Carina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Main <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus#Structure" title="Bronchus">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Secondary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eparterial_bronchus" title="Eparterial bronchus">eparterial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus#Structure" title="Bronchus">Tertiary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Human lung">Lungs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Landmarks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_of_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Base of lung">Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apex_of_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Apex of lung">Apex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_of_the_lung" title="Root of the lung">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilum_of_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilum of lung">Hilum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fissures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_fissure_of_right_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal fissure of right lung">Horizontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblique_fissure" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblique fissure">Oblique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior lobe">Superior lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingula_of_left_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingula of left lung">Lingula of left lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_lobe_of_right_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle lobe of right lung">Middle lobe of right lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_lung#Lobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Left lung">Inferior lobe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronchopulmonary_segment" title="Bronchopulmonary segment">BP segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronchiole" title="Bronchiole">Bronchiole</a>: <a href="/wiki/Conducting_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Conducting zone">Conducting zone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Terminal_bronchiole" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal bronchiole">Terminal bronchiole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory zone">Respiratory zone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Respiratory_bronchiole" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory bronchiole">Respiratory bronchiole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar duct">Alveolar duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">Alveolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood-air_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-air barrier">Blood-air barrier</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cells">Alveolar cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cells">Type I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar cells">Type II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_cell" title="Club cell">Club cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goblet_cell" title="Goblet cell">Goblet cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Respiratory_physiology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Respiratory_physiology" title="Template:Respiratory physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Respiratory_physiology" title="Template talk:Respiratory physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Respiratory_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Respiratory physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Respiratory_physiology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory physiology">Respiratory physiology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Respiration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breath" class="mw-redirect" title="Breath">breath</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">exhalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligate_nasal_breathing" title="Obligate nasal breathing">obligate nasal breathing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_rate" title="Respiratory rate">respiratory rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respirometer" title="Respirometer">respirometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_surfactant" title="Pulmonary surfactant">pulmonary surfactant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_compliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary compliance">compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_recoil" title="Elastic recoil">elastic recoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysteresivity" title="Hysteresivity">hysteresivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airway_resistance" title="Airway resistance">airway resistance</a></li> <li>bronchial <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronchial_hyperresponsiveness" title="Bronchial hyperresponsiveness">hyperresponsiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchoconstriction" title="Bronchoconstriction">constriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchodilatation" title="Bronchodilatation">dilatation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" title="Mechanical ventilation">mechanical ventilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_ventilation" title="Control of ventilation">Control</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pneumotaxic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumotaxic center">pneumotaxic center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apneustic_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Apneustic center">apneustic center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_respiratory_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal respiratory group">dorsal respiratory group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_respiratory_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral respiratory group">ventral respiratory group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">chemoreceptors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_chemoreceptors" title="Central chemoreceptors">central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_chemoreceptors" title="Peripheral chemoreceptors">peripheral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_stretch_receptors" title="Pulmonary stretch receptors">pulmonary stretch receptors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hering%E2%80%93Breuer_reflex" title="Hering–Breuer reflex">Hering–Breuer reflex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" title="Lung volumes">Lung volumes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_capacity" title="Vital capacity">VC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_residual_capacity" title="Functional residual capacity">FRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_volume" title="Tidal volume">Vt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)" title="Dead space (physiology)">dead space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closing_capacity" title="Closing capacity">CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_expiratory_flow" title="Peak expiratory flow">PEF</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>calculations</dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_minute_volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory minute volume">respiratory minute volume</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/FEV1/FVC_ratio" title="FEV1/FVC ratio">FEV1/FVC ratio</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Lung_function_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung function test">Lung function tests</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Spirometry" title="Spirometry">spirometry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Body_plethysmography" class="mw-redirect" title="Body plethysmography">body plethysmography</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peak_flow_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak flow meter">peak flow meter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_washout" title="Nitrogen washout">nitrogen washout</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Circulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxic_pulmonary_vasoconstriction" title="Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction">hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_shunt" title="Pulmonary shunt">pulmonary shunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interactions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(physiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventilation (physiology)">ventilation (V)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">Perfusion</a> (Q) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation/perfusion_ratio" title="Ventilation/perfusion ratio">Ventilation/perfusion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation/perfusion_scan" title="Ventilation/perfusion scan">V/Q scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zones_of_the_lung" title="Zones of the lung">zones of the lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_gas_pressures" title="Pulmonary gas pressures">pulmonary gas pressures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_gas_equation" title="Alveolar gas equation">alveolar gas equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar%E2%80%93arterial_gradient" title="Alveolar–arterial gradient">alveolar–arterial gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen%E2%80%93hemoglobin_dissociation_curve" title="Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve">oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">Oxygen saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,3-Bisphosphoglyceric_acid" title="2,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid">2,3-BPG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohr_effect" title="Bohr effect">Bohr effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane_effect" title="Haldane effect">Haldane effect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chloride_shift" title="Chloride shift">chloride shift</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyhemoglobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyhemoglobin">oxyhemoglobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_quotient" title="Respiratory quotient">respiratory quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arterial_blood_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial blood gas">arterial blood gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion capacity">diffusion capacity</a> (<a href="/wiki/DLCO" class="mw-redirect" title="DLCO">DLCO</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insufficiency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans" title="Effects of high altitude on humans">high altitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_zone" title="Death zone">death zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7886#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7886#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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