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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Medieval period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Medieval Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_China_and_medieval_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_China_and_medieval_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medieval China and medieval India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_China_and_medieval_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early modern period</span> </div> </a> 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Sub-Saharan Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hawaii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawaii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Hawaii</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawaii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ المشروبات الكحولية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ المشروبات الكحولية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="অ্যালকোহলীয় পানীয়ের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যালকোহলীয় পানীয়ের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_del_consum_d%27alcohol" title="Història del consum d'alcohol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història del consum d'alcohol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%A0%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="술의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="술의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B9%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ալկոհոլային խմիչքների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալկոհոլային խմիչքների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkogolli_ichimliklar_tarixi" title="Alkogolli ichimliklar tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Alkogolli ichimliklar tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_consumo_de_bebidas_alco%C3%B3licas" title="História do consumo de bebidas alcoólicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do consumo de bebidas alcoólicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="История алкогольных напитков – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История алкогольных напитков" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkoholdryckernas_historia" title="Alkoholdryckernas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alkoholdryckernas historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_th%E1%BB%A9c_u%E1%BB%91ng_c%C3%B3_c%E1%BB%93n" title="Lịch sử thức uống có cồn 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"History of alcohol" redirects here. For the history of the chemical substance, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_ethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ethanol">History of ethanol</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>Purposeful production of <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">alcoholic drinks</a> is common and often reflects cultural and religious peculiarities as much as geographical and sociological conditions. </p><p>Discovery of late <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> jugs suggest that intentionally <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermented</a> beverages existed at least as early as the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period (c. 10,000 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_record">Archaeological record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Archaeological record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/History of alcoholic drinks">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ability to metabolize alcohol likely predates humanity with primates eating fermenting fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest verifiable <a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">brewery</a> has been found in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have proposed that alcoholic drinks predated agriculture and it was the desire for alcoholic drinks that led to agriculture and civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 7000 BC, chemical analysis of jars from the Neolithic village <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> province of northern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> revealed traces of a mixed <a href="/wiki/Fermented_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermented beverage">fermented beverage</a>. According to a study published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Fermented_beverages_of_pre-_and_proto-historic_China_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fermented_beverages_of_pre-_and_proto-historic_China-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in December 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a <a href="/wiki/Fermented_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermented drink">fermented drink</a> made of grapes, hawthorn berries, honey, and rice was being produced in 7000–6650 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is approximately the time when barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. </p><p>Evidence of alcoholic beverages has also been found dating from 5400 to 5000 BC in <a href="/wiki/Hajji_Firuz_Tepe" title="Hajji Firuz Tepe">Hajji Firuz Tepe</a> in Iran,<sup id="cite_ref-Guinness.OldestWine_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guinness.OldestWine-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 3150 BC in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cavalieri_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavalieri-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 3000 BC in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2000 BC in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Mexico" title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">pre-Hispanic Mexico</a><sup id="cite_ref-FAO_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1500 BC in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dirar_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dirar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness</a>, the earliest firm evidence of wine production dates back to 6000 BC in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guinness.OldestWine_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guinness.OldestWine-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alulu_Beer_Receipt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Alulu_Beer_Receipt.jpg/220px-Alulu_Beer_Receipt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Alulu_Beer_Receipt.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>Sumerian tablet from 2050 BC, a dated and signed receipt written by a scribe called Ur-Amma for the delivery of beer, by a brewer named Alulu. The text translates as "Ur-Amma acknowledges receiving from his brewer, Alulu, 5 sila (about 4 1/2 liters) of the 'best' beer."</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicinal</a> use of alcohol was mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> texts dating from about 2100 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs" title="Book of Proverbs">Proverbs</a> 31:6–7). </p><p>In 55 BC, the Romans took notice of an alcoholic <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">cider</a> being made in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> using native apples. It quickly became popular and was imported back to the continent where it spread rapidly. People in Northern Spain were making cider around the same time period.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celtic people were known to have been making types of alcoholic cider as early as 3000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wine <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">was consumed in Classical Greece</a> at breakfast or at <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposia</a>, and in the 1st century BC it was part of the diet of most <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> citizens. Both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank diluted wine (the strength varying from 1 part wine and 1 part water, to 1 part wine and 4 parts water). <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, beer, often of very <a href="/wiki/Small_beer" title="Small beer">low strength</a>, was an everyday drink for all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a> having an allowance of six pints of ale each day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">Cider</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomace_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomace wine">pomace wine</a> were also widely available; grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the time the Europeans reached the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in the 15th century, several <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">native</a> civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-conquest <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> document, consumption of the local "wine" (<i><a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">pulque</a></i>) was generally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely allowed to those who were older than 70 years.<sup id="cite_ref-DiCesare_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiCesare-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The natives of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> produced a beer-like beverage from <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a> or <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> into <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> (beverages of this kind are known today as <i><a href="/wiki/Cauim" title="Cauim">cauim</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">chicha</a></i>). This chewing technique was also used in ancient <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">sake</a> from <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and other starchy crops.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_period">Ancient period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_alcohol_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcohol in China">History of alcohol in China</a></div> <p>The earliest evidence of wine was found in what is now <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, where jars from <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> which date to about 7000 BC were discovered. This early <a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">rice wine</a> was produced by fermenting rice, honey, and fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What later developed into Chinese civilization grew up along the more northerly <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> and fermented a kind of <a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">huangjiu</a> from <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> attached great importance to alcohol and ascribed the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">mandate of Heaven</a> by the earlier <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> as largely due to their dissolute and alcoholic emperors. An edict ascribed to <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1116</span> BC makes it clear that the use of alcohol in moderation was believed to be prescribed by heaven. </p><p>Unlike the traditions in Europe and the Middle East, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> abandoned the production of <a href="/wiki/Wine_in_China" title="Wine in China">grape wine</a> before the advent of writing and, under the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a>, abandoned <a href="/wiki/Beer_in_China" title="Beer in China">beer</a> in favor of <a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">huangjiu</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">rice wine</a>. These naturally fermented to a strength of about 20% <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_by_volume" title="Alcohol by volume">ABV</a>; they were usually consumed warmed and frequently flavored with additives as part of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>. They considered it spiritual food and extensive documentary evidence attests to the important role it played in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">religious life</a>. "In ancient times people always drank when holding a memorial ceremony, offering sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution before going into battle, celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an oath of allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures, death, and festival banquets."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s 14th century record indicates grain and rice wine were drunk daily and were one of the treasury's biggest sources of income. </p><p>Alcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, were used as a source of inspiration, were important for hospitality, were considered an antidote for fatigue, and were sometimes misused. Laws against making wine were enacted and repealed forty-one times between 1100 BC and AD 1400. However, a commentator writing around 650 BC asserted that people "will not do without beer. To prohibit it and secure total <a href="/wiki/Abstinence" title="Abstinence">abstinence</a> from it is beyond the power even of sages. Hence, therefore, we have warnings on the abuse of it."<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> may have independently developed the process of <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> in the early centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a> dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Persia_(or_Ancient_Iran)"><span id="Ancient_Persia_.28or_Ancient_Iran.29"></span>Ancient Persia (or Ancient Iran)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Persia (or Ancient Iran)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major step forward in our understanding of Neolithic winemaking came from the analysis of a yellowish residue excavated by Mary M. Voigt at the site of <a href="/wiki/Hajji_Firuz_Tepe" title="Hajji Firuz Tepe">Hajji Firuz Tepe</a> in the northern <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> of Iran. The jar that once contained wine, with a volume of about 9 liters (2.5 gallons) was found together with five similar jars embedded in the earthen floor along one wall of a "kitchen" of a Neolithic mudbrick building, dated to c. 5400–5000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In such communities, winemaking was the best technology they had for storing highly perishable grapes, although whether the resulting beverage was intended for intoxication as well as nourishment is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing</a> dates from the beginning of civilization in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, and alcoholic beverages were very important at that time. Egyptian brewing began in the city of <a href="/wiki/Nekhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nekhen">Hierakonpolis</a> around 3400 BC; its ruins contain the remains of the world's oldest brewery, which was capable of producing up to three hundred gallons (1,136 liters) per day of beer.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symbolic of this is the fact that while many gods were local or familial, <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a> was worshiped throughout the entire country. Osiris was believed to be the god of the dead, of life, of vegetable regeneration, and of wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both beer and wine were deified and offered to gods. Cellars and wine presses even had a god whose <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyph</a> was a winepress. The ancient Egyptians made at least 17 types of beer and at least 24 varieties of wine. The most common type of beer was known as hqt. Beer was the drink of common laborers; financial accounts report that the Giza pyramid builders were allotted a daily beer ration of one and one-third gallons.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcoholic beverages were used for pleasure, nutrition, medicine, ritual, remuneration, and funerary purposes. The latter involved storing the beverages in tombs of the deceased for their use in the after-life. </p><p>Numerous accounts of the period stressed the importance of moderation, and these norms were both secular and religious. While Egyptians did not generally appear to define drunkenness as a problem, they warned against <a href="/wiki/Taverns" class="mw-redirect" title="Taverns">taverns</a> (which were often houses of <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>) and excessive drinking. After reviewing extensive evidence regarding the widespread but generally moderate use of alcoholic beverages, the nutritional biochemist and historian <a href="/wiki/William_J._Darby" title="William J. Darby">William J. Darby</a> makes a most important observation: all these accounts are warped by the fact that moderate users "were overshadowed by their more boisterous counterparts who added 'color' to history." Thus, the intemperate use of alcohol throughout history receives a disproportionate amount of attention. Those who <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">excessively use alcohol</a> cause problems, draw attention to themselves, are highly visible and cause legislation to be enacted. The vast majority of drinkers, who neither experience nor cause difficulties, are not noteworthy. Consequently, observers and writers largely ignore moderation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence of <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> comes from <a href="/wiki/Alchemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemists">alchemists</a> working in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria, Egypt">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, in the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes1970_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes1970-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Distilled_water" title="Distilled water">Distilled water</a> has been known since at least c. 200 AD, when <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a> described the process.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Babylon">Ancient Babylon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient Babylon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beer was the major beverage among the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>, and as early as 2700 BC they worshiped a wine goddess and other wine deities. Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings to their gods. Around 1750 BC, the famous <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a> devoted attention to alcohol. However, there were no penalties for drunkenness; in fact, it was not even mentioned. The concern was fair commerce in alcohol. Although it was not a crime, the Babylonians were critical of drunkenness.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_India">Ancient India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ancient India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alcohol production was occurring in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> as early as 2000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcoholic beverages in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic Era</a>. These beverages were in use between 3000 BC and 2000 BC. <i><a href="/wiki/Sura_(alcoholic_beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sura (alcoholic beverage)">Sura</a></i>, a beverage brewed from rice meal, wheat, sugar cane, grapes, and other fruits, was popular among the <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warriors</a> and the peasant population.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Sura</i> is considered to be a favorite drink of <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dasgupta,_Amitava_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dasgupta,_Amitava-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> texts describe both the beneficent uses of consuming alcoholic beverages and the consequences of intoxication and alcoholic diseases. <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> texts concluded that alcohol was a medicine if consumed in moderation, but a poison if consumed in excess.<sup id="cite_ref-Dasgupta,_Amitava_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dasgupta,_Amitava-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the people in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, have continued, throughout, to ferment a portion of their crops and nourish themselves with the alcoholic product. </p><p>In ancient India, alcohol was also used by the orthodox population. Early <a href="/wiki/Vedic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic literature">Vedic literature</a> suggests the use of alcohol by priestly classes.<sup id="cite_ref-The_True_Path_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_True_Path-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two great Hindu epics, <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, mention the use of alcohol. In Ramayana, alcohol consumption is depicted in a good/bad dichotomy. The bad faction members consumed meat and alcohol while the good faction members were abstinent vegetarians. However, in Mahabharata, the characters are not portrayed in such a black-white contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alcohol abstinence was promoted as a moral value in India by <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>, the founder of Jainism, and <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankaracharya" class="mw-redirect" title="Adi Shankaracharya">Adi Shankaracharya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_True_Path_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_True_Path-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distillation was known in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, evident from baked clay <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retorts</a> and receivers found at <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charsadda" title="Charsadda">Charsadda</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, dating back to the early centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>. These "<a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> stills" were only capable of producing very weak <a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">liquor</a>, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.<sup id="cite_ref-habib_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habib-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the art of wine making reached the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenic</a> peninsula by about 2000 BC, the first alcoholic beverage to obtain widespread popularity in what is now Greece was <a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a>, a fermented beverage made from honey and water. However, by 1700 BC, wine making was commonplace. During the next thousand years wine drinking assumed the same function so commonly found around the world: It was incorporated into religious rituals. It became important in hospitality, used for medicinal purposes, and became an integral part of daily meals. As a beverage, it was drunk in many ways: warm and chilled, pure and mixed with water, plain and spiced.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcohol, specifically wine, was considered so important to the Greeks that consumption was considered a defining characteristic of the Hellenic culture between their society and the rest of the world; those who did not drink were considered barbarians.<sup id="cite_ref-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drink:_A_Cultural_History_of_Alcohol-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While habitual drunkenness was rare, intoxication at banquets and festivals was not unusual. In fact, the <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposium</a>, a gathering of men for an evening of conversation, entertainment and drinking typically ended in intoxication. However, while there are no references in ancient Greek literature to mass drunkenness among the Greeks, there are references to it among foreign peoples. By 425 BC, warnings against intemperance, especially at symposia, appear to become more frequent.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> (431–351 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (429–347 BC) both praised the moderate use of wine as beneficial to health and happiness, but both were critical of drunkenness, which appears to have become a problem. Plato also believed that no one under the age of eighteen should be allowed to touch wine. <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (cir. 460–370 BC) identified numerous medicinal properties of wine, which had long been used for its therapeutic value. Later, both <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a> (cir. 336–264 BC) were very critical of drunkenness.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among Greeks, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a> viewed intemperance as a sign of masculinity and were well known for their drunkenness. Their king, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (356–323 BC), whose mother adhered to the Dionysian cult, developed a reputation for inebriety.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Rome">Ancient Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacchus, the god of wine – for the Greeks, <a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a> – is the patron deity of agriculture and the theater. He was also known as the Liberator (Eleutherios), freeing one from one's normal self, by madness, ecstasy, or wine. The divine mission of Dionysus was to mingle the music of the aulos and to bring an end to care and worry. The Romans would hold dinner parties where wine was served to the guest all day along with a three course feast. Scholars have discussed Dionysus' relationship to the "cult of the souls" and his ability to preside over communication between the living and the dead. </p><p>The Roman belief that wine was a daily necessity made the drink "democratic" and ubiquitous: wine was available to slaves, peasants, women and aristocrats alike. To ensure the steady supply of wine to Roman soldiers and colonists, viticulture and wine production spread to every part of the empire. The Romans diluted their wine before drinking. Wine was also used for religious purposes, in the pouring of libations to deities. </p><p>Though beer was drunk in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>, it was replaced in popularity by wine.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cornelius_Tacitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Cornelius Tacitus">Tacitus</a> wrote disparagingly of the beer brewed by the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> of his day. <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> were also known to consume beer made from rye, even since the 5th century BC, as the ancient Greek logographer <a href="/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos" title="Hellanicus of Lesbos">Hellanicus of Lesbos</a> says. Their name for beer was <i>brutos</i>, or <i>brytos</i>. The Romans called their brew <i>cerevisia</i>, from the Celtic word for it. Beer was apparently enjoyed by some <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legionaries</a>. For instance, among the <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda_tablets" title="Vindolanda tablets">Vindolanda tablets</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda" title="Vindolanda">Vindolanda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>, dated c. 97–103 AD), the cavalry <a href="/wiki/Decurion_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decurion (military)">decurion</a> Masculus wrote a letter to prefect Flavius Cerialis inquiring about the exact instructions for his men for the following day. This included a polite request for beer to be sent to the garrison (which had entirely consumed its previous stock of beer).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Columbian_America">Pre-Columbian America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pre-Columbian America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</a> civilizations developed alcoholic beverages. Many versions of these beverages are still produced today. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aguamiel00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Aguamiel00.jpg/220px-Aguamiel00.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Aguamiel00.jpg/330px-Aguamiel00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Aguamiel00.jpg/440px-Aguamiel00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>The making of <a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">pulque</a>, as illustrated in the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a> (Book 1 Appendix, fo.40)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">Pulque</a></b></i>, or <i><b>octli</b></i> is an <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverage</a> made from the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermented</a> juice of the <a href="/wiki/Agave_americana" title="Agave americana">maguey</a>, and is a traditional native beverage of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though commonly believed to be a beer, the main carbohydrate is a complex form of fructose rather than starch. <i>Pulque</i> is depicted in Native American stone carvings from as early as AD 200. The origin of pulque is unknown, but because it has a major position in religion, many folk tales explain its origins.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Balch%C3%A9" title="Balché">Balché</a></b></i> is the name of a <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a> wine brewed by the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a>. The drink shares its name with the balché tree (<a href="/wiki/Lonchocarpus_violaceus" title="Lonchocarpus violaceus">Lonchocarpus violaceus</a>), the bark of which is fermented in water together with honey from the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Stingless_bee" title="Stingless bee">stingless bee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Tepache" title="Tepache">Tepache</a></b></i> is a mildly alcoholic beverage indigenous to <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> that is created by fermenting <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a>, including the rind, for a short period of three days.<sup id="cite_ref-Botany_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botany-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Tejuino" title="Tejuino">Tejuino</a></b></i>, traditional to the Mexican state of <a href="/wiki/Jalisco" title="Jalisco">Jalisco</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>-based beverage that involves fermenting <a href="/wiki/Masa" title="Masa">masa</a> dough. </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">Chicha</a></b></i> is a Spanish word for any of variety of traditional fermented beverages from the Andes region of South America. It can be made of maize, <a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">manioc</a> root (also called yuca or cassava) or fruits among other things.<sup id="cite_ref-Barre_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barre-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> women were taught the techniques of brewing chicha in <a href="/wiki/Inca_education" title="Inca education">Acllahuasis</a> (feminine schools). <i>Chicha de jora</i> is prepared by <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germinating</a> maize, extracting the <a href="/wiki/Malt" title="Malt">malt</a> sugars, boiling the <a href="/wiki/Wort_(brewing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wort (brewing)">wort</a>, and fermenting it in large vessels, traditionally huge earthenware vats, for several days. In some cultures, in lieu of germinating the maize to release the starches, the maize is ground, moistened in the chicha maker's mouth and formed into small balls which are then flattened and laid out to dry. Naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Diastase" title="Diastase">diastase</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> in the maker's saliva <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyze</a> the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> in the maize into <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a>. Chicha de jora has been prepared and consumed in communities throughout in the Andes for millennia. The <a href="/wiki/Tahuantinsuyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahuantinsuyu">Inca</a> used chicha for ritual purposes and consumed it in vast quantities during religious festivals. In recent years, however, the traditionally prepared chicha is becoming increasingly rare. Only in a small number of towns and villages in southern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> is it still prepared. Other traditional drinks made from fermented maize or maize flour include <i><a href="/wiki/Pozol" title="Pozol">pozol</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pox_(drink)" title="Pox (drink)">pox</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mandioka_root_(being)_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg/220px-Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg/330px-Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg/440px-Mandioka_root_%28being%29_prepared_by_Indian_women_to_produced_a_liquid_brew._This_makes_the_tribesmen_drunk_LCCN2007677258.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1279" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">Manioc</a> root being prepared by Indian women to produce an alcoholic drink for ritual consumption, by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry" title="Theodor de Bry">Theodor de Bry</a>, Frankfurt, 1593. Women in the lower left can be seen spitting into the manioc mash. Salivary enzymes break down complex starches, and saliva introduces bacteria and yeast that hasten the fermentation process.</figcaption></figure> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Cauim" title="Cauim">Cauim</a></b></i> is a traditional alcoholic beverage of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Native American</a> populations of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> since pre-Columbian times. It is still made today in remote areas throughout <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. <i>Cauim</i> is very similar to <i>chicha</i> and it is also made by fermenting <a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">manioc</a> or maize, sometimes flavored with fruit juices. The Kuna Indians of Panama use plantains. A characteristic feature of the beverage is that the starting material is cooked, chewed, and re-cooked prior to fermentation. As in the making of <i>chicha</i>, enzymes from the saliva of the <i>cauim</i> maker break down the starches into fermentable sugars. </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Tiswin" title="Tiswin">Tiswin</a></b></i>, or <i><b>niwai</b></i> is a mild, fermented, ceremonial beverage produced by various cultures living in the region encompassing the southwestern <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and northern Mexico. Among the <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a>, tiswin was made from maize, while the <a href="/wiki/Tohono_O%27odham" class="mw-redirect" title="Tohono O'odham">Tohono O'odham</a> brewed tiswin using <a href="/wiki/Saguaro" title="Saguaro">saguaro</a> sap.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tarahumara" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarahumara">Tarahumara</a> variety, called <i><b><a href="/wiki/Tesg%C3%BCino" title="Tesgüino">tesgüino</a></b></i>, can be made from a variety of different ingredients. Recent archaeological evidence has also revealed the production of a similar maize-based intoxicant among the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a> peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">Cacao</a> wine</b></i> was produced during the <a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">formative stage</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> Culture (1100–900 BC). Evidence from <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Escondido,_Oaxaca" title="Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca">Puerto Escondido</a> indicates that a weak alcoholic beverage (up to 5% alcohol by volume) was made from fermented cacao pulp and stored in pottery containers.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> fermented sap from the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_maple" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar maple">sugar maple</a> tree to produce a mildly alcoholic beverage.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a> prepared a kind of <a href="/wiki/Corn_beer" title="Corn beer">corn beer</a> called <i>tula-pah</i> using sprouted corn kernels, dried and ground, flavored with <a href="/wiki/Astragalus_(plant)" title="Astragalus (plant)">locoweed</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lignum_vitae" title="Lignum vitae">lignum vitae</a> roots, placed in water and allowed to ferment.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Coahuiltecan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Coahuiltecan people">Coahuiltecan</a> in Texas combined <a href="/wiki/Dermatophyllum_secundiflorum" title="Dermatophyllum secundiflorum">mountain laurel</a> with <a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">agave</a> sap to create an alcoholic drink similar to pulque.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Zunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Zunis">Zunis</a> made fermented beverages from <a href="/wiki/Aloe" title="Aloe">aloe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">maguey</a>, corn, <a href="/wiki/Opuntia" title="Opuntia">prickly pear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitaya" title="Pitaya">pitaya</a> and grapes.<sup id="cite_ref-statistics_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statistics-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Creek</a> of Georgia and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> of the Carolinas used berries and other fruits to make alcoholic beverages.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherrington_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherrington-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a> made a mild beer by soaking corn in water to produce a fermented gruel to be consumed at tribal feasts.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kwakiutl" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwakiutl">Kwakiutl</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> produced a mildly alcoholic drink using <a href="/wiki/Elderberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elderberry">elderberry</a> juice, black <a href="/wiki/Chitons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitons">chitons</a>, and tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Both the <a href="/wiki/Aleuts" title="Aleuts">Aleuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberian_Yupik" title="Siberian Yupik">Yuit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kodiak_Island" title="Kodiak Island">Kodiak Island</a> in Alaska were observed making alcoholic drinks from fermented raspberries.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherrington_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherrington-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Middle_East">Medieval Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Medieval Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Muslim chemists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</a> (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</a> (Latin: Rhazes, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 865–925</span>) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindī</a> (c. 801–873 CE) and to <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Fārābī</a> (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī</a>'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) <i>Kitāb al-Taṣrīf</i> (later translated into Latin as <i>Liber servatoris</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_China_and_medieval_India">Medieval China and medieval India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medieval China and medieval India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (during the 1st & 2nd centuries), but the earliest archaeological evidence found so far indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began sometime during the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Still" title="Still">still</a> has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, dating to the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. It was in wide use in the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> by the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-habib_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habib-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/History of alcoholic drinks">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alembic_for_distillation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Alembic_for_distillation.svg/220px-Alembic_for_distillation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Alembic_for_distillation.svg/330px-Alembic_for_distillation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Alembic_for_distillation.svg/440px-Alembic_for_distillation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a still</figcaption></figure> <p>The process of distillation spread from the Middle East to Italy,<sup id="cite_ref-habib_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habib-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where evidence of the distillation of alcohol appears from the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salerno" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Salerno">School of Salerno</a> in the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes1970_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes1970-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of <a href="/wiki/Taddeo_Alderotti" title="Taddeo Alderotti">Taddeo Alderotti</a> (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">fractional distillation</a> through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1500, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> alchemist <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Braunschweig" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieronymus Braunschweig">Hieronymus Braunschweig</a> published <i>Liber de arte destillandi</i> (The Book of the Art of Distillation), the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, <a href="/wiki/John_French_(doctor)" class="mw-redirect" title="John French (doctor)">John French</a> published <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.levity.com/alchemy/jfren_ar.html">The Art of Distillation</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams showing an industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. </p><p>Names like "life water" have continued to be the inspiration for the names of several types of beverages, like <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Gaelic</a> <a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">whisky</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Eaux-de-vie" class="mw-redirect" title="Eaux-de-vie">eaux-de-vie</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">vodka</a>. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">akvavit</a> spirit gets its name from the Latin phrase <i>aqua vitae</i>. </p><p>At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>), the consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Grog" title="Grog">Grog</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> (1500–1800), <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Church">Anglican Church</a>, and even the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> did not differ substantially from the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> was a gift of God and created to be used in moderation for pleasure, enjoyment and health; <a href="/wiki/Drunkenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunkenness">drunkenness</a> was viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_alcohol" title="Christian views on alcohol">Christian views on alcohol</a>). </p><p>From this period through at least the beginning of the 18th century, attitudes toward drinking were characterized by a continued recognition of the positive nature of moderate consumption and an increased concern over the negative effects of drunkenness. The latter, which was generally viewed as arising out of the increased self-indulgence of the time, was seen as a threat to <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a> and societal well-being. English philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> bemoaned in his <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> how "the variety of behaviour in men that have drunk too much is the same with that of madmen",<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reflecting growing ethical concerns toward alcohol. <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Intoxication</a> was also inconsistent with the emerging emphasis on rational mastery of self and world and on work and efficiency. </p><p>In spite of the ideal of moderation, consumption of alcohol was often high. In the 16th century, alcohol beverage consumption reached 100 liters per person per year in Valladolid, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> <a href="/wiki/Peasants" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants">peasants</a> consumed up to three <a href="/wiki/Liters" class="mw-redirect" title="Liters">liters</a> of <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> per day. In Coventry, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, the average amount of beer and <a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">ale</a> consumed was about 17 pints per person per week, compared to about three pints today; nationwide, consumption was about one pint per day per capita. Swedish beer consumption may have been 40 times higher than in modern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. English sailors received a ration of a <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">gallon</a> of beer per day, while soldiers received two-thirds of a gallon. In <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, the usual consumption of beer appears to have been a gallon per day for adult laborers and sailors.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that modern beer is much stronger than the beers of the past. While current beers are 3–5% alcohol, the beer drunk in the historical past was generally 1% or so.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This was known as '<a href="/wiki/Small_beer" title="Small beer">small beer</a>'. </p><p>However, the production and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">spirits</a> spread slowly. Spirit drinking was still largely for <a href="/wiki/Medicinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal">medicinal</a> purposes throughout most of the 16th century. It has been said of distilled alcohol that "the sixteenth century created it; the seventeenth century consolidated it; the eighteenth popularized it." </p><p>A beverage that clearly made its debut during the 17th century was sparkling <a href="/wiki/Champagne_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne (wine)">champagne</a>. The credit for that development goes primarily and erroneously to <a href="/wiki/Dom_P%C3%A9rignon_(monk)" title="Dom Pérignon (monk)">Dom Perignon</a>, the wine-master in a <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">abbey</a>. Although the oldest recorded sparkling wine is <a href="/wiki/Blanquette_de_Limoux" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanquette de Limoux">Blanquette de Limoux</a>, in 1531,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the English scientist and physician <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Merret" title="Christopher Merret">Christopher Merret</a> documented the addition of sugar to a finished wine to create a second fermentation six years before Dom Perignon joined the <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">Abbey of Hautvillers</a> and almost 40 years before it was claimed that he invented Champagne. Around 1668, Perignon used strong bottles, invented a more efficient cork (and one that could contain the effervescence in those strong bottles), and began developing the technique of blending the contents. However, another century would pass before problems, especially bursting bottles, would be solved and champagne would become popular.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> spirit, <a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">whisky</a> (or <i>whiskey</i> in <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>) and its specific origins are unknown but the distillation of whisky has been performed in Ireland and Scotland for centuries. The first confirmed written record of whisky comes from 1405 in Ireland, the production of whisky from malted barley is first mentioned in Scotland in an entry from 1494, although both countries could have distilled grain alcohol before this date. </p><p>Distilled spirit was generally flavored with <a href="/wiki/Juniper" title="Juniper">juniper</a> berries. The resulting beverage was known as jenever, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> word for "juniper." The French changed the name to genievre, which the English changed to "geneva" and then modified to "gin." Originally used for medicinal purposes, the use of <a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">gin</a> as a social drink did not grow rapidly at first. However, in 1690, England passed "An Act for the Encouraging of the Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn" and within four years the annual production of distilled spirits, most of which was gin, reached nearly one million gallons.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Corn" in the British English of the time meant "grain" in general, while in American English "corn" refers principally to <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>. </p><p>The dawn of the 18th century saw the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> pass legislation designed to encourage the use of grain for distilling spirits. In 1685, consumption of gin had been slightly over one-half million gallons but by 1714 it stood at two million gallons. In 1727, official (declared and taxed) production reached five million gallons; six years later the London area alone produced eleven million gallons of gin. The English government actively promoted gin production to utilize surplus grain and to raise revenue. Encouraged by public policy, very cheap spirits flooded the market at a time when there was little stigma attached to drunkenness and when the growing urban poor in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> sought relief from the newfound insecurities and harsh realities of urban life. Thus developed the so-called <a href="/wiki/Gin_Craze" title="Gin Craze">Gin Epidemic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the negative effects of that phenomenon may have been exaggerated, Parliament passed legislation in 1736 to discourage consumption by prohibiting the sale of gin in quantities of less than two gallons and raising the tax on it dramatically. However, the peak in consumption was reached seven years later, when the nation of six and one-half million people drank over 18 million gallons of gin. And most was consumed by the small minority of the population then living in London and other cities; people in the countryside largely consumed beer, ale and <a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">cider</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After its peak, gin consumption rapidly declined. From eighteen million gallons in 1743, it dropped to just over seven million gallons in 1751 and to less than two million by 1758, and generally declined to the end of the century. A number of factors appear to have converged to discourage consumption of gin. These include the production of higher quality beer of lower price, rising corn prices and taxes which eroded the price advantage of gin, a temporary ban on distilling, an increasing criticism of drunkenness, a newer standard of behavior that criticized coarseness and excess, increased <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> consumption, an increase in <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> and increasing <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> with a consequent emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Sobriety" title="Sobriety">sobriety</a> and labor efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While drunkenness was still an accepted part of life in the 18th century, the 19th century would bring a change in attitudes as a result of increasing industrialization and the need for a reliable and punctual work force. Self-discipline was needed in place of self-expression, and task orientation had to replace relaxed conviviality. Drunkenness would come to be defined as a threat to industrial efficiency and growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_21-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethanol can produce a state of <a href="/wiki/General_anesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthesia">general anesthesia</a> and historically has been used for this purpose (Dundee et al., 1969).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Thirteen_Colonies">The Thirteen Colonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Thirteen Colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/History of alcoholic drinks">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_alcohol" title="Christian views on alcohol">Christian views on alcohol</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg/220px-1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg/330px-1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg/440px-1897_Saloon_Blackhawk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption>Interior view of the Toll Gate <a href="/wiki/Bar_(establishment)" title="Bar (establishment)">Saloon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk,_Colorado" title="Black Hawk, Colorado">Black Hawk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> (1897)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic beverages">Alcoholic beverages</a> played an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> from their early days. For example, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mayflower" title="Mayflower">Mayflower</a></i> shipped more <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> than <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> when it departed for the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1620. While this may seem strange viewed from the modern context, note that drinking wine and beer at that time was safer than drinking water – which was usually taken from sources also used to dispose of sewage and garbage.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experience showed that it was safer to drink alcohol than the typically polluted water in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This is a common belief that may have been added without examining research. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Alcohol was also an effective <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesic</a>, provided energy necessary for hard work, and generally enhanced the quality of life. </p><p>For hundreds of years the <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> ancestors of the colonists had consumed beer and <a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">ale</a>. Both in England and in the New World, people of both sexes and all ages typically drank beer with their meals. Because importing a continuing supply of beer was expensive, the early settlers brewed their own. However, it was difficult to make the beer they were accustomed to because wild <a href="/wiki/Yeasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeasts">yeasts</a> caused problems in <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> and resulted in a bitter, unappetizing brew. Although wild <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hops</a> grew in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, hop seeds were ordered from England in order to cultivate an adequate supply for traditional beer. In the meantime, the colonists improvised a beer made from red and black <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a> twigs boiled in water, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Ginger_beer" title="Ginger beer">ginger beer</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_cross_roads_store,_bar,_juke_joint,_and_gas_station_in_Melrose,_Louisiana,_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg/220px-A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg/330px-A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg/440px-A_cross_roads_store%2C_bar%2C_juke_joint%2C_and_gas_station_in_Melrose%2C_Louisiana%2C_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="2612" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Depression</a>-era bar in <a href="/wiki/Melrose,_Louisiana" title="Melrose, Louisiana">Melrose, Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Beer was designated<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> X, XX, or XXX according to its <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol content">alcohol content</a>. The colonists also learned to make a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> from fruits. They additionally made wine from such products as flowers, herbs, and even oak leaves. Early on, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> vine-growers were brought<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to the New World to teach settlers how to cultivate grapes. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg/220px-Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg/330px-Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg/440px-Charleston_J_W_Swarts_Saloon_year_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="2628" /></a><figcaption>J.W. Swarts Saloon in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_Arizona" title="Charleston, Arizona">Charleston, Arizona</a> in 1885</figcaption></figure> <p>Colonists adhered to the traditional belief that <a href="/wiki/Distilled" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled">distilled</a> spirits were <i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_vitae" title="Aqua vitae">aqua vitae</a></i>, or water of life. However, <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a> was not commonly available until after 1650, when it was imported from the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. The cost of rum dropped after the colonists began importing <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a> and cane sugar directly and distilled their own rum. By 1657, a rum distillery was operating in <a href="/wiki/Boston,_MA" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, MA">Boston</a>. It was highly successful and within a generation the production of rum became colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry. </p><p>Almost every important town from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> to the Carolinas had a rum distillery to meet the local demand, which had increased dramatically. Rum was often enjoyed in mixed drinks, including <a href="/wiki/Flip_(cocktail)" title="Flip (cocktail)">flip</a>. This was a popular winter beverage made of rum and beer sweetened with sugar and warmed by plunging a red-hot fireplace poker into the serving mug. Alcohol was viewed positively while its excessive use was condemned. <a href="/wiki/Increase_Mather" title="Increase Mather">Increase Mather</a> (d. 1723) expressed the common view in a sermon against <a href="/wiki/Drunkenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunkenness">drunkenness</a>: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_United_States_of_America">The United States of America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The United States of America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In colonial period of America from around 1623, when a Plymouth minister named <a href="/wiki/William_Blaxton" title="William Blaxton">William Blackstone</a> began distributing apples and flowers, up until the mid-1800s, hard cider was the primary alcoholic drink of the people. Hard cider was prominent throughout this entire period and nothing compared in scope or availability. It was one of the few aspects of American culture that all the colonies shared. Settlement along the frontier often included a legal requirement whereby an orchard of mature apple trees bearing fruit within three years of settlement were required before a land title was officially granted. For example, <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Company" title="Ohio Company">The Ohio Company</a> required settlers to plant not less than fifty apple trees and twenty peach trees within three years. These plantings would guarantee land titles. In 1767, the average New England family was consuming seven barrels of hard cider annually, which equates to about 35-gallons per person. Around the mid-1800s, newly arrived immigrants from Germany and elsewhere increased beer's popularity, and the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a> and continued westward expansion caused farmers to abandon their cider orchards.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 19th century, Americans had inherited a hearty <a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">drinking tradition</a>. Drinking hard liquor was a universally popular occurrence in early nineteenth-century America.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many types of alcohol were consumed. One reason for this heavy <a href="/wiki/Drinking#Alcoholic_beverages" title="Drinking">drinking</a> was attributed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to an overabundance of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a> on the western <a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">frontier</a>, which encouraged the widespread production of cheap whiskey. It was at this time that alcohol became an important part of the American diet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 1820s, Americans drank seven gallons of alcohol per person annually.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (January 2017)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In colonial America, water contamination was common. Two means to ensure that waterborne illness, for example <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, was not conveyed by water was to boil it in the process of making tea or coffee, or to use it to make alcohol. As a result, alcohol consumption was much higher in the nineteenth century than it is today -- 7.1 US gallons (27 L) of pure alcohol per person per year.<sup id="cite_ref-at150629_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-at150629-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a>, transportation of grain from the west was cost prohibitive; farmers instead converted their grain to alcohol for shipping eastward. This dependence on alcohol as a revenue source led to the <a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a> of 1794. Later in the nineteenth century opposition to alcohol grew in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Temperance movement in the United States">temperance movement</a>, culminating in <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a> from 1920 to 1933. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a> played an important social role in many African societies. </p><p>Thin, gruel-like, alcoholic beverages have existed in traditional societies all across the <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> continent, created through the fermentation of <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana_beer" title="Banana beer">bananas</a>, or in modern times, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawaii">Hawaii</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hawaii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Okolehao" title="Okolehao">Okolehao</a></b></i> is produced by <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a> from juice extracted from the roots of the <a href="/wiki/Ti_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Ti plant">ti plant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_history" title="Food history">Food history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Drugs_History_Society" title="Alcohol and Drugs History Society">Alcohol and Drugs History Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">Distilled beverage</a> (Includes history section)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/16px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/24px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/33px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCharles_HDurham,_NC1952" class="citation book cs1">Charles H, Patrick; Durham, NC (1952). <i>Alcohol, Culture, and Society</i>. Duke University Press (reprint edition by AMS Press, New York, 1970). pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780404049065" title="Special:BookSources/9780404049065"><bdi>9780404049065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alcohol%2C+Culture%2C+and+Society&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press+%28reprint+edition+by+AMS+Press%2C+New+York%2C+1970%29&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=9780404049065&rft.aulast=Charles+H&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Durham%2C+NC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalhotra2017" class="citation news cs1">Malhotra, Richa (23 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117001346/https://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20170222-our-ancestors-were-drinking-alcohol-before-they-were-human">"Our ancestors were drinking alcohol before they were human"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20170222-our-ancestors-were-drinking-alcohol-before-they-were-human">the original</a> on 17 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Our+ancestors+were+drinking+alcohol+before+they+were+human&rft.date=2017-02-23&rft.aulast=Malhotra&rft.aufirst=Richa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fearth%2Fstory%2F20170222-our-ancestors-were-drinking-alcohol-before-they-were-human&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45534133">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'World's oldest brewery' found in cave in Israel, say researchers"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 15 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%27World%27s+oldest+brewery%27+found+in+cave+in+Israel%2C+say+researchers&rft.date=2018-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-45534133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn2013" class="citation news cs1">Kahn, Jeffry P. (15 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/17/opinion/sunday/how-beer-gave-us-civilization.html">"How Beer Gave Us Civilization"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Beer+Gave+Us+Civilization&rft.date=2013-03-15&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Jeffry+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F03%2F17%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fhow-beer-gave-us-civilization.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWadleyHayden2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wadley, Greg; Hayden, Brian (1 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220811234112/https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-ethnobiology/volume-35/issue-3/etbi-35-03-566-584.1/Pharmacological-Influences-on-the-Neolithic-Transition/10.2993/etbi-35-03-566-584.1.full">"Pharmacological Influences on the Neolithic Transition"</a>. <i>Journal of Ethnobiology</i>. <b>35</b> (3): 566–584. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2993%2Fetbi-35-03-566-584.1">10.2993/etbi-35-03-566-584.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143315066">143315066</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-ethnobiology/volume-35/issue-3/etbi-35-03-566-584.1/Pharmacological-Influences-on-the-Neolithic-Transition/10.2993/etbi-35-03-566-584.1.full">the original</a> on 11 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ethnobiology&rft.atitle=Pharmacological+Influences+on+the+Neolithic+Transition&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=566-584&rft.date=2015-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2993%2Fetbi-35-03-566-584.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143315066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wadley&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft.au=Hayden%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbioone.org%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-ethnobiology%2Fvolume-35%2Fissue-3%2Fetbi-35-03-566-584.1%2FPharmacological-Influences-on-the-Neolithic-Transition%2F10.2993%2Fetbi-35-03-566-584.1.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fermented_beverages_of_pre-_and_proto-historic_China-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fermented_beverages_of_pre-_and_proto-historic_China_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGovernZhangTangZhang2004" class="citation journal cs1">McGovern, Patrick E.; Zhang, Juzhong; Tang, Jigen; Zhang, Zhiqing; Hall, Gretchen R.; Moreau, Robert A.; Nuñez, Alberto; Butrym, Eric D.; Richards, Michael P.; Wang, Chen-shan; Cheng, Guangsheng; Zhao, Zhijun; Wang, Changsui (21 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539767">"Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>101</b> (51): 17593–17598. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10117593M">2004PNAS..10117593M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0407921102">10.1073/pnas.0407921102</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539767">539767</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590771">15590771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Fermented+beverages+of+pre-+and+proto-historic+China&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=51&rft.pages=17593-17598&rft.date=2004-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539767%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15590771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0407921102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PNAS..10117593M&rft.aulast=McGovern&rft.aufirst=Patrick+E.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Juzhong&rft.au=Tang%2C+Jigen&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Zhiqing&rft.au=Hall%2C+Gretchen+R.&rft.au=Moreau%2C+Robert+A.&rft.au=Nu%C3%B1ez%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Butrym%2C+Eric+D.&rft.au=Richards%2C+Michael+P.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Chen-shan&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Guangsheng&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Zhijun&rft.au=Wang%2C+Changsui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC539767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach" class="citation news cs1">Roach, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34435526">"Cheers! Eight ancient drinks uncorked by science"</a>. <i>NBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FAO+Agricultural+Services+Bulletins+-+134&rft.atitle=Fermented+fruits+and+vegetables.+A+global+perspective&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2Fx0560e%2Fx0560e05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dirar-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dirar_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dirar, H., (1993), The Indigenous Fermented Foods of the Sudan: A Study in African Food and Nutrition, CAB International, UK</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgianjournal.ge/discover-georgia/34000-guinness-book-of-records-declares-georgian-wine-as-worlds-oldest-wine.html">"Guinness Book of Records declares Georgian wine as world's oldest wine"</a>. <i>Georgian Journal</i>. 30 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DiCesare%2C+CR.+%22Dangers+of+the+%27fifth+cup%27%3A+the+Aztec+approach+to+alcohol%2C%22+Mexicolore%2C+31+Jan+2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mexicolore.co.uk%2Faztecs%2Fhome%2Fthe-aztec-approach-to-alcohol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGovern2003" class="citation book cs1">McGovern, Patrick E. (2003). <i>Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07080-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07080-3"><bdi>978-0-691-07080-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Wine%3A+The+Search+for+the+Origins+of+Viniculture&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07080-3&rft.aulast=McGovern&rft.aufirst=Patrick+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanson-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_21-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Preventing Alcohol Abuse: Alcohol, Culture, and Control By David J. Hanson page 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haw-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_G._Haw2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Haw" title="Stephen G. Haw">Stephen G. Haw</a> (10 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148">"Wine, women and poison"</a>. <i>Marco Polo in China</i>. Routledge. pp. 147–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-27542-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-27542-7"><bdi>978-1-134-27542-7</bdi></a>. <q>The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine%2C+women+and+poison&rft.btitle=Marco+Polo+in+China&rft.pages=147-148&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-09-10&rft.isbn=978-1-134-27542-7&rft.au=Stephen+G.+Haw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDSfvfr8VQSEC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGovern" class="citation web cs1">McGovern, Patrick E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penn.museum/sites/wine/wineneolithic.html">"The Origins and Ancient History of Wine"</a>. <i>Penn Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Penn+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Origins+and+Ancient+History+of+Wine&rft.aulast=McGovern&rft.aufirst=Patrick+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.penn.museum%2Fsites%2Fwine%2Fwineneolithic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWisslerMok1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clark_Wissler" title="Clark Wissler">Wissler, Clark</a>; Mok, Michel (May 1932). Brown, Raymond J. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ScDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1931+plane&pg=PA44">"Stone Age Had Booze and Prohibition"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a></i>. <b>120</b> (5): 44–46, 121–123. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370">0161-7370</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=Stone+Age+Had+Booze+and+Prohibition&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=44-46%2C+121-123&rft.date=1932-05&rft.issn=0161-7370&rft.aulast=Wissler&rft.aufirst=Clark&rft.au=Mok%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ScDAAAAMBAJ%26q%3DPopular%2BScience%2B1931%2Bplane%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forbes1970-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forbes1970_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forbes1970_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1970" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Robert James (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C"><i>A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1"><bdi>978-90-04-00617-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The Evolution of the Still". <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033794500201451">10.1080/00033794500201451</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-3790">0003-3790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+the+Still&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=186&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033794500201451&rft.issn=0003-3790&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=F.+Sherwood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDhawendra_Kumar2012" class="citation book cs1">Dhawendra Kumar (11 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=74toAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1128"><i>Genomics and Health in the Developing World</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 1128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199705474" title="Special:BookSources/9780199705474"><bdi>9780199705474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genomics+and+Health+in+the+Developing+World&rft.pages=1128&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-05-11&rft.isbn=9780199705474&rft.au=Dhawendra+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D74toAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alcohol and Pleasure: A Health Perspective By <a href="/wiki/Stanton_Peele" title="Stanton Peele">Stanton Peele</a>, Marcus Grant. Page number 102. Contributor Stanton Peele, Ph. D., J.D. Published 1999. Psychology Press. Self/Help. 419 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58391-015-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-58391-015-8">1-58391-015-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dasgupta,_Amitava-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dasgupta,_Amitava_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dasgupta,_Amitava_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDasgupta2011" class="citation book cs1">Dasgupta, Amitava (2011). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scienceofdrinkin0000dasg"><i>The Science of Drinking: How Alcohol Affects Your Body and Mind</i></a></span>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scienceofdrinkin0000dasg/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0409-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0409-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-0409-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Drinking%3A+How+Alcohol+Affects+Your+Body+and+Mind&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-0409-6&rft.aulast=Dasgupta&rft.aufirst=Amitava&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscienceofdrinkin0000dasg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_True_Path-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_True_Path_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_True_Path_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew2009" class="citation book cs1">Mathew, Roy J. (18 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cAaZWZwSHqgC&pg=PA131"><i>The True Path: Western Science and the Quest for Yoga</i></a>. Basic Books. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0738206813" title="Special:BookSources/978-0738206813"><bdi>978-0738206813</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+True+Path%3A+Western+Science+and+the+Quest+for+Yoga&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2009-02-18&rft.isbn=978-0738206813&rft.aulast=Mathew&rft.aufirst=Roy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcAaZWZwSHqgC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath1995" class="citation book cs1">Heath, Dwight (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalhand00heat"><i>International handbook on alcohol and culture</i></a></span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalhand00heat/page/131">131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-25234-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-25234-1"><bdi>978-0-313-25234-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+handbook+on+alcohol+and+culture&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-313-25234-1&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Dwight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finternationalhand00heat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-habib-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-habib_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habib_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habib_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Irfan_Habib" title="Irfan Habib">Irfan Habib</a> (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55"><i>Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500</i>, page 55</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ilaria Gozzini Giacosa, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KVbBA3x9wW0C&pg=PA16"><i>A Taste of Ancient Rome</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. 2 May 1994. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29032-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29032-4"><bdi>978-0-226-29032-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Taste+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994-05-02&rft.isbn=978-0-226-29032-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKVbBA3x9wW0C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbeji2012" class="citation web cs1">Ibeji, Mike (16 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/vindolanda_01.shtml">"Vindolanda"</a>. 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Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26298-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26298-7"><bdi>978-0-486-26298-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-486-26298-7&rft.aulast=Holmyard&rft.aufirst=Eric+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 51–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Distillation". <i><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_Engineering_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial and Engineering Chemistry">Industrial and Engineering Chemistry</a></i>. <b>28</b> (6): 677. 1936. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie50318a015">10.1021/ie50318a015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+and+Engineering+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Distillation&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=677&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fie50318a015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn" class="citation web cs1">Dunn, Rob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/strong-medicine-drinking-wine-and-beer-can-help-save-you-from-cholera-montezumas-revenge-e-coli-and-ulcers1/">"Strong Medicine: Drinking Wine and Beer Can Help Save You from Cholera, Montezuma s Revenge, E. Coli and Ulcers 1"</a>. <i>Scientific American Blog Network</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Blog+Network&rft.atitle=Strong+Medicine%3A+Drinking+Wine+and+Beer+Can+Help+Save+You+from+Cholera%2C+Montezuma+s+Revenge%2C+E.+Coli+and+Ulcers+1&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.scientificamerican.com%2Fguest-blog%2Fstrong-medicine-drinking-wine-and-beer-can-help-save-you-from-cholera-montezumas-revenge-e-coli-and-ulcers1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbes1651" class="citation book cs1">Hobbes, Thomas (1651). <i>Leviathan</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press (published 1965). p. 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leviathan&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1651&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Tom Stevenson (2005) Sotheby’s Wine Encyclopaedia Dorling Kindersley <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7513-3740-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7513-3740-4">0-7513-3740-4</a>, p237"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWongFongTauckKendig1997" class="citation journal cs1">Wong, Shirley M.E.; Fong, Eileen; Tauck, David L.; Kendig, Joan J. (25 June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0014-2999%2897%2989174-1">"Ethanol as a general anesthetic: Actions in spinal cord"</a>. <i>European Journal of Pharmacology</i>. <b>329</b> (2–3): 121–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0014-2999%2897%2989174-1">10.1016/S0014-2999(97)89174-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9226403">9226403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Ethanol+as+a+general+anesthetic%3A+Actions+in+spinal+cord&rft.volume=329&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=121-127&rft.date=1997-06-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0014-2999%2897%2989174-1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9226403&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Shirley+M.E.&rft.au=Fong%2C+Eileen&rft.au=Tauck%2C+David+L.&rft.au=Kendig%2C+Joan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0014-2999%252897%252989174-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.alcohol.org/guides/americas-history-of-drinking/">"America's History of Drinking"</a>. <i>Alcohol.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alcohol.org&rft.atitle=America%27s+History+of+Drinking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alcohol.org%2Fguides%2Famericas-history-of-drinking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutkow2012" class="citation book cs1">Rutkow, Eric (2012). <i>American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation</i>. New York: Scribner. pp. 56–58, 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9354-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9354-9"><bdi>978-1-4391-9354-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Canopy%3A+Trees%2C+Forests%2C+and+the+Making+of+a+Nation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=56-58%2C+61&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-9354-9&rft.aulast=Rutkow&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison1954" class="citation book cs1">Garrison, James Holley (1954). "Introduction to Part I". In Merrill, Walter McIntosh (ed.). <i>Behold Me Once More. The Confessions of James Holley Garrison, brother of <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></i>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton,_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton, Mifflin">Houghton, Mifflin</a>. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Part+I&rft.btitle=Behold+Me+Once+More.+The+Confessions+of+James+Holley+Garrison%2C+brother+of+William+Lloyd+Garrison&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=James+Holley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_F._Will2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">George F. Will</a> (29 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/28/AR2009102803801.html">"A reality check on drug use"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. pp. A19. <q>In <i>Waking Giant: America in the Age of Jackson,</i> historian David S. Reynolds writes that in 1820, Americans spent on liquor a sum larger than the federal government's budget. By the mid-1820s, annual per capita consumption of absolute alcohol reached seven gallons, more than three times today's rate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=A+reality+check+on+drug+use&rft.pages=A19&rft.date=2009-10-29&rft.au=George+F.+Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F10%2F28%2FAR2009102803801.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRorabaugh1981" class="citation book cs1">Rorabaugh, W.J. (1981). <i>The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition</i>. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502990-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502990-1"><bdi>978-0-19-502990-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Alcoholic+Republic%3A+An+American+Tradition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502990-1&rft.aulast=Rorabaugh&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-at150629-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-at150629_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2015" class="citation news cs1">Green, Emma (29 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/06/benjamin-rush-booze-morality-democracy/396818/">"Colonial Americans Drank Roughly Three Times as Much as Americans Do Now"</a>. The Atlantic<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Colonial+Americans+Drank+Roughly+Three+Times+as+Much+as+Americans+Do+Now&rft.date=2015-06-29&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fhealth%2Farchive%2F2015%2F06%2Fbenjamin-rush-booze-morality-democracy%2F396818%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+alcoholic+drinks" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Dietler and Ingrid Herbich, Liquid material culture: following the flow of beer among the Luo of Kenya, in <i>Grundlegungen. Beiträge zur europäischen und afrikanischen Archäologie für Manfred K.H. Eggert</i>, edited by Hans-Peter Wotzka, 2006, pp. 395–408. Tübingen: Francke Verlag. A. Huetz de Lemps, <i>Boissons et civilsations en Afrique</i>, 2001, Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/condp17&div=16&id=&page=">"<i>Ka Wai Kau Mai O Maleka</i> Water from America: The Intoxication of the Hawai'ian People," <i>Contemporary Drug Problems,</i> Summer, 1990:161–194.</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>30.^<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://archaeology.about.com/od/wterms/qt/wine.htm">http://archaeology.about.com/od/wterms/qt/wine.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140228042930/http://archaeology.about.com/od/wterms/qt/wine.htm">Archived</a> 28 February 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_alcoholic_drinks&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Bert L. Vallee, "Alcohol in the Western World", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> June 1998</li> <li>Michael Dietler, "Alcohol: Archaeological/Anthropological Perspectives", <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Anthropology" title="Annual Review of Anthropology">Annual Review of Anthropology</a></i> 2006, v.35:229–249.</li> <li>Jack S. Blocker et al. (eds.): Alcohol and Temperance in History. An International Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara 2003 (esp. on the period after 1800, which is not mentioned in this article).</li> <li>Thomas Hengartner / Christoph M. Merki (eds.): Genussmittel, Frankfort 2001 (esp. the article on alcohol by Hasso Spode).</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alcoholic_beverages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template talk:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alcoholic_beverages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_and_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History and production</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of alcohol</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcoholic beverages">History of alcoholic beverages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bordeaux_wine" title="History of Bordeaux wine">History of Bordeaux wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Champagne" title="History of Champagne">History of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chianti" title="History of Chianti">History of Chianti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rioja_wine" title="History of Rioja wine">History of Rioja wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sherry" title="History of Sherry">History of Sherry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol industry">Alcohol industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub_gin" title="Bathtub gin">Bathtub gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">Brewery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malting" title="Malting">Malting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautering" title="Lautering">Lautering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wort" title="Wort">Wort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drinking establishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Fermentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_syrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple syrup">Simple syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fermented_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink#Fermented_drinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">Fermented drinks</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">Cider</a></li></ul></li> <li>Banana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_beer" title="Banana beer">Banana beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_wine" title="Banana wine">Banana wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bignay <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bignay_wine" title="Bignay wine">Bignay wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bokbunja <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bokbunja-ju" title="Bokbunja-ju">Bokbunja-ju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeira_wine" title="Madeira wine">Madeira wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_wine" title="Marsala wine">Marsala wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mistelle">Mistelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscatel_de_Set%C3%BAbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscatel de Setúbal">Moscatel de Setúbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_wine" title="Port wine">Port wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">Red wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ros%C3%A9_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosé wine">Rosé wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">Sherry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermouth" title="Vermouth">Vermouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">White wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Java plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duhat_wine" title="Duhat wine">Duhat wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longan_wine" title="Longan wine">Longan wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lychee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lychee_wine" title="Lychee wine">Lychee wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perry" title="Perry">Perry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pineapple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepache" title="Tepache">Tepache</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plum_jerkum" title="Plum jerkum">Plum jerkum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pomegranate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rimon_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rimon (wine)">Rimon</a></li></ul></li> <li>Prickly pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonche" title="Colonche">Colonche</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conditum" title="Conditum">Conditum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubonnet" title="Dubonnet">Dubonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocras" title="Hippocras">Hippocras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabol" title="Jabol">Jabol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulled_wine" title="Mulled wine">Mulled wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabidh" title="Nabidh">Nabidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruno" title="Pruno">Pruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangria" title="Sangria">Sangria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barley_wine" title="Barley wine">Barley wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Corn <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mageu" title="Mageu">Mageu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pozol" title="Pozol">Pozol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tejuino" title="Tejuino">Tejuino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesg%C3%BCino" title="Tesgüino">Tesgüino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Millet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oshikundu" title="Oshikundu">Oshikundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongba" title="Tongba">Tongba</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agkud" title="Agkud">Agkud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazake" title="Amazake">Amazake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_(drink)" title="Apo (drink)">Apo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beopju" title="Beopju">Beopju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brem" title="Brem">Brem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choujiu" title="Choujiu">Choujiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuak" title="Chuak">Chuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dansul" title="Dansul">Dansul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwaha-ju" title="Gwaha-ju">Gwaha-ju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hariya" title="Hariya">Hariya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makgeolli" title="Makgeolli">Makgeolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiu" title="Mijiu">Mijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirin" title="Mirin">Mirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangasi" title="Pangasi">Pangasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">Rice wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3u_c%E1%BA%A7n" title="Rượu cần">Rượu cần</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">Sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sato_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sato (beverage)">Sato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_wine" title="Shaoxing wine">Shaoxing wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonti_(rice_drink)" title="Sonti (rice drink)">Sonti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapai" title="Tapai">Tapai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapuy" title="Tapuy">Tapuy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kvass" title="Kvass">Kvass</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pendh%C4%81" title="Pendhā">Pendhā</a></li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">Ale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boza" title="Boza">Boza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">Huangjiu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Agave americana</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">Pulque</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahalina" title="Bahalina">Bahalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuak">Tuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuba_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuba (wine)">Tubâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuhak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuhak">Tuhak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunggang" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunggang">Tunggang</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">Kumis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ginger <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ginger_wine" title="Ginger wine">Ginger wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Galangal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bais_(wine)" title="Bais (wine)">Bais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabarawan" title="Kabarawan">Kabarawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">Mead</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilju" title="Kilju">Kilju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basi" title="Basi">Basi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intus" title="Intus">Intus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palek" title="Palek">Palek</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fermented_tea" title="Fermented tea">Fermented tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kombucha" title="Kombucha">Kombucha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cauim" title="Cauim">Cauim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">Chicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parakari" title="Parakari">Parakari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibwatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibwatu">Ibwatu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liquors_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">Liquors</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applejack_(drink)" title="Applejack (drink)">Applejack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvados" title="Calvados">Calvados</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cashew apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feni_(liquor)" title="Feni (liquor)">Feni</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirsch" title="Kirsch">Kirschwasser</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Araqi_(drink)" title="Araqi (drink)">Araqi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fig <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boukha" title="Boukha">Boukha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armagnac_(brandy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armagnac (brandy)">Armagnac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognac" title="Cognac">Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisco" title="Pisco">Pisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slivovitz" title="Slivovitz">Slivovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C8%9Auic%C4%83" title="Țuică">Țuică</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">Pomace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chacha_(brandy)" title="Chacha (brandy)">Chacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappa" title="Grappa">Grappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace_brandy" title="Pomace brandy">Marc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orujo" title="Orujo">Orujo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsikoudia" title="Tsikoudia">Tsikoudia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsipouro" title="Tsipouro">Tsipouro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eau_de_vie" title="Eau de vie">Eau de vie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geist_(liquor)" title="Geist (liquor)">Geist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himbeergeist" title="Himbeergeist">Himbeergeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marillenschnaps" title="Marillenschnaps">Marillenschnaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalewka" title="Nalewka">Nalewka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghi_(drink)" title="Oghi (drink)">Oghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1linka" title="Pálinka">Pálinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakia" title="Rakia">Rakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Schnaps">Schnaps</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_whiskey" title="Irish whiskey">Irish whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_whisky" title="Japanese whisky">Japanese whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Scotch whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierbrand" title="Bierbrand">Bierbrand</a></li></ul></li> <li>Buckwheat <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckwheat_whisky" title="Buckwheat whisky">Buckwheat whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maize <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_whiskey" title="Bourbon whiskey">Bourbon whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_whiskey" title="Corn whiskey">Corn whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_whiskey" title="Tennessee whiskey">Tennessee whiskey</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awamori" title="Awamori">Awamori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheongju_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheongju (wine)">Cheongju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholai" title="Cholai">Cholai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao-Lao" title="Lao-Lao">Lao-Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lihing" title="Lihing">Lihing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixiang_Baijiu" title="Mixiang Baijiu">Mixiang Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shochu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shochu">Shochu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soju" title="Soju">Soju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korn_(liquor)" title="Korn (liquor)">Korn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rye_whiskey" title="Rye whiskey">Rye whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starka" title="Starka">Starka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaoliang_liquor" title="Kaoliang liquor">Kaoliang liquor</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_whiskey" title="American whiskey">American whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_whisky" title="Canadian whisky">Canadian whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">Whisky</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">Agave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mezcal" title="Mezcal">Mezcal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequila" title="Tequila">Tequila</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrack" title="Arrack">Arrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laksoy" title="Laksoy">Laksoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambanog" title="Lambanog">Lambanog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotol" title="Sotol">Sotol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkhi" title="Arkhi">Arkhi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacha%C3%A7a" title="Cachaça">Cachaça</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairin" title="Clairin">Clairin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_daru" title="Desi daru">Desi daru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaro_(drink)" title="Guaro (drink)">Guaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">Rum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seco_Herrerano" title="Seco Herrerano">Seco Herrerano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sura_(alcoholic_drink)" title="Sura (alcoholic drink)">Sura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharra" title="Tharra">Tharra</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Akvavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_(drink)" title="Bangla (drink)">Bangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Horilka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poit%C3%ADn" title="Poitín">Poitín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">Vodka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liqueurs_and_infused_distilled_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liqueur" title="Liqueur">Liqueurs</a> and infused distilled drinks by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Almond <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amaretto" title="Amaretto">Amaretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_Noyaux" title="Crème de Noyaux">Crème de Noyaux</a></li></ul></li> <li>Anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absinthe" title="Absinthe">Absinthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisado" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado">Anisado</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisado_Mallorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado Mallorca">Anisado Mallorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisette" title="Anisette">Anisette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierbas" title="Hierbas">Hierbas</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbs_de_Majorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbs de Majorca">Herbs de Majorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastika" title="Mastika">Mastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouzo" title="Ouzo">Ouzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rak%C4%B1" title="Rakı">Rakı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca" title="Sambuca">Sambuca</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierlik%C3%B6r" title="Bierlikör">Bierlikör</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blackthorn shrub <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patxaran" title="Patxaran">Patxaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_Heering" title="Cherry Heering">Cherry Heering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraschino" title="Maraschino">Maraschino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chili peppers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Pertsivka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chocolate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate_liqueur" title="Chocolate liqueur">Chocolate liqueur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cinnamon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tentura" title="Tentura">Tentura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubus_chamaemorus" title="Rubus chamaemorus">Cloudberry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakka" title="Lakka">Lakka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malibu_Rum" class="mw-redirect" title="Malibu Rum">Malibu</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coffee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kahl%C3%BAa" title="Kahlúa">Kahlúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tia_Maria" title="Tia Maria">Tia Maria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cream <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cream_liqueur" title="Cream liqueur">Cream liqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cream" title="Irish cream">Irish cream</a></li></ul></li> <li>Egg <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocaat" title="Advocaat">Advocaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eggnog" title="Eggnog">Eggnog</a></li></ul></li> <li>Hazelnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frangelico" title="Frangelico">Frangelico</a></li></ul></li> <li>Herbs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Aquavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dictine" title="Bénédictine">Bénédictine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenniv%C3%ADn" title="Brennivín">Brennivín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_menthe" title="Crème de menthe">Crème de menthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxa" title="Metaxa">Metaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicum" title="Unicum">Unicum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A4renfang" title="Bärenfang">Bärenjäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drambuie" title="Drambuie">Drambuie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glayva" title="Glayva">Glayva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mist" title="Irish Mist">Irish Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krupnik" title="Krupnik">Krupnik</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borovi%C4%8Dka" title="Borovička">Borovička</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenever" title="Jenever">Jenever</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mammee apple flower <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eau_cr%C3%A9ole" class="mw-redirect" title="Eau créole">Eau créole</a></li></ul></li> <li>Orange <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cointreau" title="Cointreau">Cointreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_(liqueur)" title="Curaçao (liqueur)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Marnier" title="Grand Marnier">Grand Marnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_sec" title="Triple sec">Triple sec</a></li></ul></li> <li>Star anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastis" title="Pastis">Pastis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassolino" title="Sassolino">Sassolino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane/molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charanda" title="Charanda">Charanda</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vanilla <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Licor_43" title="Licor 43">Licor 43</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campari" title="Campari">Campari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedratine" title="Cedratine">Cedratine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_banane" title="Crème de banane">Crème de banane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_cassis" title="Crème de cassis">Crème de cassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limoncello" title="Limoncello">Limoncello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnapps" title="Schnapps">Schnapps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloe_gin" title="Sloe gin">Sloe gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Walnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nocino" title="Nocino">Nocino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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