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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.2</span> <span>Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cuba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2.1</span> <span>Cuba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominican_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominican_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2.2</span> <span>Dominican Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominican_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2.3</span> <span>Haiti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puerto_Rico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puerto_Rico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2.4</span> <span>Puerto Rico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puerto_Rico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Central America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costa_Rica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costa_Rica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3.1</span> <span>Costa Rica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costa_Rica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guatemala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guatemala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3.2</span> <span>Guatemala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guatemala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honduras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honduras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3.3</span> <span>Honduras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honduras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Panama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Panama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3.4</span> <span>Panama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Panama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argentina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.1</span> <span>Argentina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.2</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.3</span> <span>Chile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.4</span> <span>Colombia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecuador" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecuador"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.5</span> <span>Ecuador</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecuador-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paraguay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paraguay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.6</span> <span>Paraguay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paraguay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peru" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peru"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.7</span> <span>Peru</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peru-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uruguay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uruguay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.8</span> <span>Uruguay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uruguay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venezuela" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venezuela"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.9</span> <span>Venezuela</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venezuela-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African_Self-Consciousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Self-Consciousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>African Self-Consciousness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_Self-Consciousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africana_Womanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africana_Womanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Africana Womanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africana_Womanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afrocentricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afrocentricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Afrocentricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afrocentricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Male_Studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Male_Studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Black Male Studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Male_Studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blues_Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blues_Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Blues Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blues_Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double_Consciousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_Consciousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Double Consciousness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_Consciousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Four_Basic_Tasks_of_the_Black_Studies_Scholar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_Basic_Tasks_of_the_Black_Studies_Scholar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_Basic_Tasks_of_the_Black_Studies_Scholar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretative_Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretative_Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Interpretative Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretative_Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kawaida_Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kawaida_Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Kawaida Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kawaida_Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miseducation_of_the_Negro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miseducation_of_the_Negro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Miseducation of the Negro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miseducation_of_the_Negro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nigrescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nigrescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Nigrescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nigrescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optimal_Worldview_of_Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optimal_Worldview_of_Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Optimal Worldview of Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optimal_Worldview_of_Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paradigm_of_Unity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paradigm_of_Unity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Paradigm of Unity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paradigm_of_Unity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shared_Authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shared_Authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Shared Authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shared_Authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_Legitimacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Legitimacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Social Legitimacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Legitimacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two_Cradle_Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_Cradle_Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.16</span> <span>Two Cradle Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_Cradle_Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ujimaa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ujimaa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.17</span> <span>Ujimaa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ujimaa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_challenges_and_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_challenges_and_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Recent challenges and criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_challenges_and_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments,_programs,_and_courses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments,_programs,_and_courses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Universities and colleges with Black studies departments, programs, and courses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments,_programs,_and_courses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Universities and colleges with Black studies departments, programs, and courses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments,_programs,_and_courses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Universities_with_Ph.D._programs_in_Black_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universities_with_Ph.D._programs_in_Black_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Universities with Ph.D. programs in Black studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universities_with_Ph.D._programs_in_Black_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominent_academics_in_Black_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_academics_in_Black_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Prominent academics in Black studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_academics_in_Black_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_and_academic_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_and_academic_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Scholarly and academic journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_and_academic_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Black studies</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 6 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-6" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">6 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Афроамерикански изследвания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Афроамерикански изследвания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_studies" title="African American studies – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="African American studies" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American_studies" title="African-American studies – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="African-American studies" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estudos_negros" title="Estudos negros – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estudos negros" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B4%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1" title="අප‍්‍රිකානු ඇමරිකානු අධ්‍යයන – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අප‍්‍රිකානු ඇමරිකානු අධ්‍යයන" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-aram_Aprikana-Amerikana" title="Pag-aram Aprikana-Amerikana – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pag-aram Aprikana-Amerikana" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=African_American_studies&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="African American studies">African American studies</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Academic field focusing on peoples of the African diaspora and Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/African_studies" title="African studies">African studies</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/350px-Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/525px-Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Black studies</b> or <b>Africana studies</b> (with nationally specific terms, such as <b>African American studies</b> and <b>Black Canadian studies</b>), is an interdisciplinary <a href="/wiki/Academic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic field">academic field</a> that primarily focuses on the study of the history, culture, and politics of the peoples of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. The field includes scholars of <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afro-Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Canadian">Afro-Canadian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Caribbean">Afro-Caribbean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afro-Latino" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Latino">Afro-Latino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afro-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-European">Afro-European</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asian">Afro-Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="African Australian">African Australian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a> literature, history, politics, and religion as well as those from disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, and many other disciplines within the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. The field also uses various types of <a href="/wiki/Research_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Research methods">research methods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African-American history began in the late 19th century (<a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Suppression_of_the_African_Slave-trade_to_the_United_States_of_America" title="The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America">The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America</a></i>, 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dagbovie_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dagbovie-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melville_Herskovits" class="mw-redirect" title="Melville Herskovits">Melville Herskovits</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Dow_Turner" title="Lorenzo Dow Turner">Lorenzo Dow Turner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cotter_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cotter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Programs and departments of Black studies in the United States were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked by a five-month strike for Black studies at <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_State_University" title="San Francisco State University">San Francisco State University</a>. In February 1968, San Francisco State hired <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hare" title="Nathan Hare">Nathan Hare</a> to coordinate the first Black studies program and write a proposal for the first Department of Black Studies; the department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the five-month strike in the spring of 1969. Hare's views reflected those of the Black Power movement, and he believed that the department should empower Black students. The creation of programs and departments in Black studies was a common demand of protests and <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-ins</a> by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by the traditional academic structures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Black studies departments, programs, and courses were also created in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_II_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews_II-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teelucksingh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Barnstead_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnstead-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_II_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo_II-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-Vincent_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-Vincent-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names_of_the_academic_discipline">Names of the academic discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names of the academic discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The academic discipline is known by various names.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mazama (2009) expounds: </p> <blockquote><p>In the appendix to their recently published <i>Handbook of Black Studies</i>, Asante and Karenga note that "the naming of the discipline" remains "unsettled" (Asante & Karenga, 2006, p. 421). This remark came as a result of an extensive survey of existing Black Studies programs, which led to the editors identifying a multiplicity of names for the discipline: Africana Studies, African and African Diaspora Studies, African/Black World Studies, Pan-African Studies, Africology, African and New World Studies, African Studies–Major, Black World Studies, Latin American Studies, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, Africana and Latin American Studies, African and African-American Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, African American Studies, Afro-American Studies, African American Education Program, Afro-Ethnic Studies, American Ethnic Studies, American Studies–African-American Emphasis, Black Studies, Comparative American Cultures, Ethnic Studies Programs, Race and Ethnic Studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazama_X_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazama_X-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Okafor (2014) clarifies: </p> <blockquote><p>What appears to drive these distinctive names is a combination of factors: the composite expertise of their faculty, their faculty's areas of specialization, and the worldviews of the faculty that make up each unit. By worldview, I am referring to the question of whether the constituent faculty in a given setting manifests any or a combination of the following visions of our project: </p><ul><li>a domestic vision of black studies that sees it as focusing exclusively on the affairs of only United States African Americans who descended from the generation of enslaved Africans</li> <li>a diasporic vision of black studies that is inclusive of the affairs of all of African descendants in the New World—that is, the Americas: North America, South America and the Caribbean</li> <li>a globalistic vision of the black studies—that is, a viewpoint that thinks in terms of an African world—a world encompassing African-origin communities that are scattered across the globe and the continent of Africa itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Okafor_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okafor-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></blockquote> <p>The range of names in Black Studies also reflects the historical and sociopolitical contexts in which these programs emerged. For example, terms like "Afro-American Studies" originated during the civil rights movement, emphasizing a focus on the African American experience and the struggle for racial equality. In contrast, more contemporary terms like "Africana Studies" and "Pan-African Studies" reflect a broader engagement with the global Black experience, including connections across the African diaspora and an acknowledgment of transnational influences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Canada">Canada</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1991, the national chair for Black Canadian Studies, which was named after <a href="/wiki/James_Robinson_Johnston" title="James Robinson Johnston">James Robinson Johnston</a>, was created at <a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a> for the purpose of advancing the development and presence of Black studies in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnstead_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnstead-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Sergeevich_Pushkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin">Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin</a> was studied by the Black Canadian Studies chairman, John Barnstead.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnstead_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnstead-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mexico">Mexico</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through development of the publication, <i>The black population in Mexico</i> (1946), <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Aguirre_Beltr%C3%A1n" title="Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán">Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán</a> made way for the development of Afro-Mexican studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_Casas_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz_Casas-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="United_States">United States</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This Black Studies <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this Black Studies by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. <br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Black+studies%22">"Black studies"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Black+studies%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Black+studies%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Black+studies%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Black+studies%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Black+studies%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_(1875-1950),_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site,_1915._(18f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg/200px-Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg/300px-Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg/400px-Dr._Carter_G._Woodson_%281875-1950%29%2C_Carter_G._Woodson_Home_National_Historic_Site%2C_1915._%2818f7565bf62142c0ad7fff83701ca5f6%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The development of Africana studies, as outlined by Robert Harris Jr., underscores the discipline's evolution in response to historical contexts and societal needs. The first stage, from the 1890s until World War II, was marked by grassroots organizations that sought to illuminate the rich histories and cultures of African peoples. This foundational work laid the groundwork for future scholarship by challenging prevailing narratives that often marginalized or misrepresented Black experiences. </p><p>The second stage shifted the focus to African Americans, reflecting the urgent need to address the unique historical and cultural contributions of this community, particularly in the wake of the civil rights movement. This period emphasized the significance of African American history, culture, and identity within a broader American context, fostering a greater understanding of systemic racism and social justice. </p><p>The third stage saw the establishment of formal academic programs labeled as Black Studies, which further institutionalized the discipline within higher education. These programs aimed to create a rigorous academic framework for studying the Black experience, often incorporating interdisciplinary approaches that draw from history, sociology, literature, and the arts. This formalization not only legitimized the field but also contributed to a growing body of scholarship that challenged dominant narratives. </p><p>As Africana studies continues to evolve, the fourth stage—emphasizing global connections and an Afro-centric perspective—highlights the discipline's responsiveness to contemporary issues. It seeks to explore the interconnectedness of African and African Diaspora experiences, fostering a deeper understanding of cultural phenomena and their implications in a global context. This aim reinforces the importance of representing diverse voices and experiences, ensuring that the Black experience is recognized as integral to the broader human narrative. </p><p>In summary, Africana studies serves not only to broaden students' understanding of global histories and cultures but also to empower them with an enriched perspective that celebrates the complexity and diversity of Black experiences. By acknowledging and addressing the gaps in traditional educational narratives, this field of study aims to contribute to a more equitable and inclusive understanding of history and culture. </p><p>In the United States, the 1960s is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Turbulent_Sixties" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent Sixties">Turbulent Sixties</a>."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During this time period, the nation experienced great social unrest, as citizens challenged the social order in radical ways. Many movements took place in the United States during this time period, including women's rights movement, labor rights movement, and the civil rights movement.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The students at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, and by 1964, they were thrust into activism.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 1, 1964, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Weinberg" title="Jack Weinberg">Jack Weinberg</a>, a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE) was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a>. Police asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he was a student, but he refused to do so and was, therefore, arrested. In support of Weinberg, 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car as a podium, from where they spoke about their right to engage in political protest on campus.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This impromptu demonstration was the first of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of Black studies. </p><p>Two months later, students at UC Berkeley organized a sit-in at the Sproul Hall Administration building to protest an unfair rule that prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Police arrested 800 students. Students formed a "<a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> movement" and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of speech was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is."<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">Students for a Democratic Society</a> (SDS), a well-connected and organized club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges."<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black leaders, who were directly tied to then ongoing civil rights movements, spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC) and <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC). </p><p>Educational conferences, like that of the SDS, forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial issue on campus—the sparse black student population.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1970_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1970-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1966, the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, in which it was discovered that the "American Negro" represented 1.02% of the university population.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968, the university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP), facilitated the increased minority student enrollment, and offered financial aid to minority students with high potential.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1970_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1970-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1970, there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased, tension between activists clubs and minorities rose because minorities wanted the reigns of the movement that affected them directly. One student asserted that it was "backward to educate white people about Black Power when many black people are still uneducated on the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The members of the Afro-American Student Union (AASU) proposed an academic department called "Black Studies" in April 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "We demand a program of 'Black Studies', a program that will be of and for black people. We demand to be educated realistically and that no form of education which attempts to lie to us, or otherwise mis-educate us will be accepted."<sup id="cite_ref-DailyCalifornian69_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DailyCalifornian69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>AASU members asserted: "The young people of America are the inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of young people in history."<sup id="cite_ref-DailyCalifornian69_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DailyCalifornian69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everyone learns differently and teaching only one way is a cause for students to not want to learn, which eventually leads to dropping out. All students have their specialties, but teachers don't use that to help them in their learning community. Instead, they use a broad way of teaching just to get the information out.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AASU used these claims to gain ground on their proposal to create a Black studies department. <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hare" title="Nathan Hare">Nathan Hare</a>, a sociology professor at San Francisco State University, created what was known as the "A Conceptual Proposal for Black Studies" and AASU used Hare's framework to create a set of criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-a3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Black studies program was implemented by the UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, <a href="/wiki/St._Clair_Drake" title="St. Clair Drake">St. Clair Drake</a> was named the first chair of the degree granting, <i>Program in African and Afro-American Studies</i> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Black studies programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>, similarly, student activism led to the establishment of a Black studies department, amidst great targeting and discrimination of student leaders of color on the University of California campuses. In the Autumn season of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights movement to end racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and general campus life, they occupied North Hall and presented the administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to the eventual creation of the Black studies department and the Center for Black Studies.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar activism was happening outside of California. At <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, a committee, headed by <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political scientist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dahl" title="Robert Dahl">Robert Dahl</a>, recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African-American culture, one of the first of such at an American university.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Ernie_Davis" title="Ernie Davis">Ernie Davis</a>, who was from <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University" title="Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a>, became the first African American to win the <a href="/wiki/Heisman_Trophy" title="Heisman Trophy">Heisman Trophy</a> in college football, it renewed debates about race on college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, civil rights movement, and nationwide student activism, in 1969, black and white students, led by the Student African American Society (SAS), at <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University" title="Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a>, marched in front of the building at <a href="/wiki/Newhouse_School_of_Public_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Newhouse School of Public Communications">Newhouse</a> and demanded for Black studies to be taught at Syracuse.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It existed as an independent, underfunded non-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruffin_II_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruffin_II-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1979, the program became the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_African_American_Studies_%E2%80%93_Syracuse_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of African American Studies – Syracuse University">Department of African American Studies</a>, offering degrees within the College of Arts and Sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruffin_II_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruffin_II-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the other stages, Black studies grew out of mass rebellions of black college students and faculty in search of a scholarship of change.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The fourth stage, the new name "Africana studies" involved a theoretical elaboration of the discipline of Black studies according to African cultural reclamation and disparate tenets in the historical and cultural issues of Africanity within a professorial interpretation of the interactions between these fields and college administrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, Africana studies reflected the mellowing and institutionalization of the Black studies movement in the course of its integration into the mainstream academic curriculum. Black studies and Africana studies differ primarily in that Africana studies focuses on Africanity and the historical and cultural issues of Africa and its descendants, while Black studies was designed to deal with the uplift and development of the black (African-American) community in relationship to education and its "relevance" to the black community. The adaptation of the term, "Africana studies", appears to have derived from the encyclopedic work of <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a>. <a href="/wiki/James_E._Turner" title="James E. Turner">James Turner</a>, who was recruited from graduate school at Northwestern on the heels of the student rebellions of 1969, first used the term to describe a global approach to Black studies and name the "<a href="/wiki/Cornell_Africana_Studies_and_Research_Center" title="Cornell Africana Studies and Research Center">Africana Studies and Research Center</a>" at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell</a>, where he acted as the founding director.<sup id="cite_ref-Fenderson_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fenderson-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Studia Africana</i>, subtitled "An International Journal of Africana Studies", was published by the Department for African American Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati" title="University of Cincinnati">University of Cincinnati</a> in a single issue in 1977 (an unrelated journal called <i>Studia Africana</i> is published by the Centro de Estudios Africanos, in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, since 1990). The <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Journal_of_Africana_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Journal of Africana Studies (page does not exist)">International Journal of Africana Studies</a></i> (ISSN 1056-8689) has been appearing since 1992, published by the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Black_Studies" title="National Council for Black Studies">National Council for Black Studies</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana philosophy</a> is a part of and developed within the field of Africana studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Curry_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curry-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1988 and 1990, publications on African-American studies were funded by the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a>, and the African-American academics who produced the publications used traditional disciplinary orthodoxies, from outside of African-American studies, to analyze and evaluate the boundaries, structure, and legitimacy of African-American studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the detriment of the field, an abundance of research on African American studies has been developed by academics who are not within the discipline of African American studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, the academics, and the scholarship they have produced about African American studies, has been characterized as bearing an "Aryan hegemonic worldview."<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that due to a staffing shortage in the field of African American studies, academics in the field, who are trained in traditional fields, carry with them presumptions of the primacy of their field of training's viewpoints, which tends to result in the marginalization of the African phenomena that are the subjects of study and even the field of African American studies at-large.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, matters of development of theory as well as the development of historical and African consciousness frequently go overlooked.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the focus of African American studies is the study of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a> and Africa, including the problems of the African diaspora and Africa, Conyers claims that this makes the theory of Afrocentricity increasingly relevant.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Black_Studies" title="National Council for Black Studies">National Council for Black Studies</a> has also recognized the problem of academics, who have been trained in fields such as education, economics, history, philosophy, political science, psychology, and sociology – fields outside of African American studies – and are committed to their disciplinary training, yet are not able to recognize the shortcomings of their training, as it relates to the field of African American studies that they are entering into.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, such academics, who would also recognize themselves as experts in the discipline of African American studies, would also attempt to assess the legitimacy of Africology – done so, through analysis based on critical rhetoric rather than based on pensive research.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2023)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Following the Black studies movement and Africana studies movement, <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a> identifies the Africological movement as a subsequent academic movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_XXI_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_XXI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asante authored the book <i><a href="/wiki/Afrocentricity_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrocentricity (book)">Afrocentricity</a></i>, in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_XXI_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_XXI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the book, Asante used the term "<a href="/wiki/Afrology#Afrology_and_Africology" title="Afrology">Afrology</a>" as the name for the interdisciplinary field of Black studies, and defined it as "the Afrocentric study of African phenomena."<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_XXI_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_XXI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Winston Van Horne changed Asante's use of the term "Afrology" to "Africology."<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_XXI_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_XXI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asante then went on to use his earlier definition for "Afrology" as the definition for his newly adopted term, "Africology".<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_XXI_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_XXI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systematic Africology,<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is a <a href="/wiki/Research_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Research method">research method</a> in the field of Black studies that was developed by Asante,<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> utilizes the theory of <a href="/wiki/Afrocentricity" title="Afrocentricity">Afrocentricity</a> to analyze and evaluate African phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_III_46-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_III-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an effort to shift Black studies away from its interdisciplinary status toward disciplinary status, Asante recommended that Afrocentricity should be the meta-paradigm for Black studies and that the new name for Black studies should be Africology; this is intended to shift Black studies away from having a "topical definition" of studying African peoples, which is shared with other disciplines, toward having a "perspectival definition" that is unique in how African peoples are studied – that is, the study of African peoples, through a centered perspective, which is rooted in and derives from the cultures and experiences of African peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazama_III_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazama_III-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By doing so, as Ama Mazama indicates, this should increase how relevant Black studies is and strengthen its disciplinary presence.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazama_III_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazama_III-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among English-speaking countries of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, scholars educated in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> added considerably to the development of Black studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teelucksingh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars, such as Fitzroy Baptiste, Richard Goodridge, <a href="/wiki/Elsa_Goveia" title="Elsa Goveia">Elsa Goveia</a>, Allister Hinds, Rupert Lewis, Bernard Marshall, James Millette, and Alvin Thompson, added to the development of Black studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies" title="University of the West Indies">University of the West Indies</a> campuses in <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teelucksingh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cuba">Cuba</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cuba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the early 1900s, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Ortiz_Fern%C3%A1ndez" title="Fernando Ortiz Fernández">Fernando Ortiz</a> pioneered the emerging field of Afro-Cuban studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Shefferman_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shefferman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 16, 1937, the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies was established.<sup id="cite_ref-Shefferman_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shefferman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afro-Cuban Studies (Estudios Afrocubanos) is the academic journal for the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies (SEAC/Sociedad de Estudios Afrocubanos).<sup id="cite_ref-Shefferman_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shefferman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, <a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C3%B3mulo_Lachata%C3%B1er%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rómulo Lachatañeré (page does not exist)">Rómulo Lachatañeré</a>'s academic work appeared in a volume of this journal.<sup id="cite_ref-Shefferman_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shefferman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Dominican_Republic">Dominican Republic</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dominican Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1967, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlos_Larraz%C3%A1bal_Blanco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlos Larrazábal Blanco (page does not exist)">Carlos Larrazábal Blanco</a> authored, <i>Los Negros Y La Esclavitud En Santo Domingo</i>, which is considered to be a foundational academic work in Afro-Dominican studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Valdez_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valdez-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in areas of the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> with many <a href="/wiki/Afro-Dominicans" title="Afro-Dominicans">Afro-Dominicans</a> and where <a href="/wiki/Afro-Dominicans#Cultural_contributions" title="Afro-Dominicans">Afro-Dominican culture</a> is predominant, there has been an ongoing challenge in Afro-Dominican studies to find linguistic evidence of a remnant Afro-Dominican language.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipski_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipski-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Haiti">Haiti</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Haiti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lorimer_Denis" title="Lorimer Denis">Lorimer Denis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francois_Duvalier" class="mw-redirect" title="Francois Duvalier">Francois Duvalier</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Price-Mars" title="Jean Price-Mars">Jean Price-Mars</a>, as founders of the Bureau of Ethnology and leading figures in the <a href="/wiki/Noirism" title="Noirism">Noirisme</a> movement in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, were also influential in the publishing of the foundational Afro-Haitian studies journal, <i>Les Griots</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-McGee_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGee-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most influential academics in Afro-Haitian studies is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Piquion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="René Piquion (page does not exist)">René Piquion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pamphile_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pamphile-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Puerto Rico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2019, Afro-Puerto Rican studies is not offered as a degree program by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Puerto_Rico" title="University of Puerto Rico">University of Puerto Rico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Franco_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franco-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous academic publications, such as <i>Arrancando Mitos De Raiz: Guia Para La Ensenanza Antirracista De La Herencia Africana En Puerto Rico</i>, were scholarly works that established <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isar_Godreau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isar Godreau (page does not exist)">Isar Godreau</a> as a leading academic in Afro-Puerto Rican Studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Guzman_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guzman-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_America">Central America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Central America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Costa_Rica">Costa Rica</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Costa Rica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Costa_Rica#Executive_branch" title="Politics of Costa Rica">Executive branch</a> created a law to establish a Committee for Afro-Costa Rican Studies, as one, among other laws, to increase the level of inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Costa_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Costa Ricans">Afro-Costa Ricans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Guatemala">Guatemala</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Guatemala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_H._Lutz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christopher H. Lutz (page does not exist)">Christopher H. Lutz</a> authored, <i>Santiago de Guatemala, 1541–1773</i>, which is considered to be one of the foundational literatures of Afro-Guatemalan studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryant_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryant-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Honduras">Honduras</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Honduras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to a history of scarce resources and anti-black racism, <a href="/wiki/Afro-Hondurans" title="Afro-Hondurans">Afro-Hondurans</a> have largely been excluded from academic publications about <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>; consequently, Afro-Honduran studies has remained limited in its formal development.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason-Montero_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason-Montero-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Panama">Panama</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Panama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 1980, along with the Panamanian government, the Afro-Panamanian Studies Center hosted the Second Congress on Black Culture in the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-Redwood_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redwood-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_America">South America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Argentina">Argentina</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Argentina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1980s, Afro-Argentine studies has undergone renewed growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Rebagliati_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebagliati-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Brazil">Brazil</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg/200px-Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg/300px-Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg/400px-Abdias_do_Nascimento.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1207" data-file-height="1483" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Abdias_Nascimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdias Nascimento">Abdias Nascimento</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Abdias_Nascimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdias Nascimento">Abdias Nascimento</a> gave a presentation in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> of his scholarship on Kilombismo at the 2nd Congress of Black Culture in the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His scholarship on Kilombismo detailed how the economic and political affairs of <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_in_the_Americas" title="African diaspora in the Americas">Africans throughout the Americas</a> contributed to how they socially organized themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Saunders_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saunders-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, Nascimento went back to <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and began institutionalization of Africana studies in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Catholic_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo">Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo</a>, Nascimento developed the Afro-Brazilian Studies and Research Institute (IPEAFRO).<sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A course for professors was provided by IPEAFRO between 1985 and 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Chile">Chile</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Chile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the 1920s to the 1950s, publications that included the presence of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Chileans" title="Afro-Chileans">Afro-Chileans</a> were not systematized, and, from the 1960s to the 1980s, publications continued to group Afro-Chileans with other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Marfull_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marfull-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 2000s, there has been increasing systematization and a more formal development of Afro-Chilean studies, along with a greater focus on Afro-Chileans and the recovery of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Chileans#Cultural_Contributions" title="Afro-Chileans">Afro-Chilean cultural heritage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marfull_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marfull-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Colombia">Colombia</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Colombia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars, such as Rogerio Velásquez, Aquiles Escalante, José Rafael Arboleda, and Thomas Price, were forerunners in the development of Afro-Colombian studies in the 1940s and 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-Velandia_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velandia-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s, as social science programs became incorporated into university institutions, contributions from anthropologists and social scientists added to its emergence.<sup id="cite_ref-Velandia_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velandia-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991" title="Colombian Constitution of 1991">Colombian Constitution</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991#Chapter_II:_Social,_economic_and_cultural_rights" title="Colombian Constitution of 1991">Article 55</a>, in 1991,<sup id="cite_ref-Velandia_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velandia-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Law 70 in 1993,<sup id="cite_ref-Velandia_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velandia-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_II_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo_II-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Decree 804 by the Ministry of Education in 1995,<sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_II_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo_II-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the elements for Afro-Colombian studies began to come together,<sup id="cite_ref-Velandia_63-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velandia-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Afro-Colombians#Educational_disparities_in_Afro-Colombian_life" title="Afro-Colombians">historic discrimination of Afro-Colombians</a> was able to begin being addressed, with the development of national educational content about <a href="/wiki/Afro-Colombians" title="Afro-Colombians">Afro-Colombians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arocha_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arocha-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_II_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo_II-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/University_City_of_Bogot%C3%A1" title="University City of Bogotá">University City of Bogotá</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Colombia" title="National University of Colombia">National University of Colombia</a>, the Afro-Colombian Studies Group developed and established a training program in Afro-Colombian studies for primary and secondary school teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-Arocha_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arocha-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2002, a continuing education <a href="/wiki/Diploma" title="Diploma">diploma</a> program in Afro-Colombian studies was developed and began to be offered at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cauca" title="University of Cauca">University of Cauca</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belalc%C3%A1zar,_Caldas" title="Belalcázar, Caldas">Belalcázar, Caldas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rojas_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rojas-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cauca_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cauca-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cauca_II_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cauca_II-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Xavierian_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifical Xavierian University">Pontifical Xavierian University</a>, there is a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> program in Afro-Colombian studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Xavierian_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xavierian-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USA_StudyAbroad_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_StudyAbroad-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a <a href="/wiki/Study_abroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Study abroad">study abroad</a> program for Afro-Colombian students and African-American students existing between the Afro-Colombian studies program at the Pontifical Xavierian University in Colombia and African-American studies programs at <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black colleges and universities</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-USA_StudyAbroad_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_StudyAbroad-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ecuador">Ecuador</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ecuador"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Afro-Ecuadorians" title="Afro-Ecuadorians">Afro-Ecuadorians</a> initiated the development of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies in the late 1970s, which served as a means of organizing academic questions relating to Afro-Ecuadorian identity and history.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it dissolved in the early 1980s, by the 1990s, organizations that followed in the example of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies ushered in the development of the Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación program at the National High School, in <a href="/wiki/Mira_River_(Ecuador_and_Colombia)#Course" title="Mira River (Ecuador and Colombia)">Chota Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, and a master's degree program in Afro-Andean Studies at the Simón Bolívar Andean University (UASB), in <a href="/wiki/Quito" title="Quito">Quito</a>, Ecuador.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the promulgation of Article 84 of the 1998 Constitution of Ecuador, gave formal recognition was given to Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Juan Garcia, who was one of the founders of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies, is a leading scholar in Afro-Ecuadorian studies and has contributed considerably to the development of the programs in Chota Valley and Quito.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Paraguay">Paraguay</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Paraguay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1971, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carvalho_Neto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carvalho Neto (page does not exist)">Carvalho Neto</a> authored, <i>Afro-Paraguayan studies</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipski_II_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipski_II-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Peru">Peru</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Peru"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the presence of Afro-Peruvian studies may not be strong in Peru,<sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carillo_II_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carillo_II-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the body of scholarship is undergoing growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Maass_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maass-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been efforts to organize the elements of Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru, such as by LUNDU, which organized an international conference for Afro-Peruvian studies in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a><sup id="cite_ref-LUNDU_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LUNDU-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on November 13, 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this LUNDU-organized conference, Luis Rocca, who co-founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Afro-Peruvian_Museum" title="National Afro-Peruvian Museum">National Afro-Peruvian Museum</a>, and is also a historian, presented on his research regarding <a href="/wiki/Afro-Peruvians" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Peruvians">Afro-Peruvians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LUNDU_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LUNDU-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A university student group focused on Afro-Peruvian studies was also created near <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_de_Lurigancho" title="San Juan de Lurigancho">San Juan de Lurigancho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rivera_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rivera-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there has been some scholarship in Afro-Peruvian studies developed in the United States<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a panel on Afro-Peruvian studies at a conference hosted on December 11, 2019, by the <a href="/wiki/Hutchins_Center_for_African_and_African_American_Research" title="Hutchins Center for African and African American Research">Hutchins Center for African and African American Research</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ALARI_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALARI-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Uruguay">Uruguay</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Uruguay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1996, the amount of scholarship of Afro-Uruguayan studies has increased as a result of increased global focus on Afro-Latin American studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Rocamora_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocamora-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Venezuela">Venezuela</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Venezuela"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The curriculum for Afro-Venezuelan studies was developed at Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya (UPTBAL), in <a href="/wiki/Higuerote" title="Higuerote">Higuerote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barlovento,_Venezuela" title="Barlovento, Venezuela">Barlovento</a>, by Alejandro Correa.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-Vincent_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-Vincent-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, Afro-Epistemology and African Culture were formally developed as the initial courses for students in this curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-Vincent_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-Vincent-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KehindeAndrews2020.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/KehindeAndrews2020.png/200px-KehindeAndrews2020.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/KehindeAndrews2020.png/300px-KehindeAndrews2020.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/KehindeAndrews2020.png/400px-KehindeAndrews2020.png 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Kehinde_Andrews" title="Kehinde Andrews">Kehinde Andrews</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following the rise and decline of Black British Cultural Studies between the early 1980s and late 1990s, Black studies in the United States reinvigorated Black Critical Thought in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brar_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brar-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kehinde_Andrews" title="Kehinde Andrews">Kehinde Andrews</a>, who initiated the development of the Black Studies Association in the United Kingdom as well as the development of a course in Black studies at <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_City_University" title="Birmingham City University">Birmingham City University</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Brar_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brar-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> continues to advocate for the advancement of the presence of Black studies in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_II_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews_II-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methods">Research methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Research methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_Self-Consciousness">African Self-Consciousness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: African Self-Consciousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kobi K. K. Kambon developed a <a href="/wiki/Research_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Research method">research method</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_psychology" title="Black psychology">psychological</a> framework, known as African Self-Consciousness, which analyzes the states and changes of the African mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africana_Womanism">Africana Womanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Africana Womanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Delores_P._Aldridge" title="Delores P. Aldridge">Delores P. Aldridge</a> developed a research method, which analyzes from the viewpoint of <a href="/wiki/Black_women" title="Black women">black women</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Africana_Womanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Africana Womanism">Africana Womanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than the importance of the individual (e.g., needs, wants) being considered greater than the family unit, the importance of the family unit is regarded as greater than the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afrocentricity">Afrocentricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Afrocentricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afrocentricity" title="Afrocentricity">Afrocentricity</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg/200px-Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg/300px-Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg/400px-Molefi_Asante_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1328" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Afrocentricity is an academic theory and approach to scholarship that seeks to center the experiences and peoples of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a> within their own historical, cultural, and sociological contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Monteiro-Ferreira_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monteiro-Ferreira-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Asante_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Alkebulan_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alkebulan-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pellerin_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pellerin-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First developed as a systematized methodology by <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a> in 1980, he drew inspiration from a number of African and African diaspora intellectuals including <a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_G._M._James" title="George G. M. James">George James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Cruse" title="Harold Cruse">Harold Cruse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Monteiro-Ferreira_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monteiro-Ferreira-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Temple Circle,<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_VIII_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_VIII-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Karenga_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karenga-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the Temple School of Thought,<sup id="cite_ref-Karenga_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karenga-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temple Circle of Afrocentricity,<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_X_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_X-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Temple School of Afrocentricity,<sup id="cite_ref-Myers_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an early group of Africologists during the late 1980s and early 1990s that helped to further develop Afrocentricity, which is based on concepts of agency, centeredness, location, and orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-Asante_VIII_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asante_VIII-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_Male_Studies">Black Male Studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Black Male Studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Male_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Male Studies">Black Male Studies</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Black_Male_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Male Studies">Black Male Studies</a> primarily focuses on the study of Black men and boys.<sup id="cite_ref-Wint_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wint-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its research focus includes the study of Black <a href="/wiki/Manhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhood">manhood</a> and Black <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a>, and it draws from disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wint_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wint-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Male Studies uses a Black male-centered <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> designed to critique past and present <a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">gender studies</a> publications on Black males as well as centers and contends with the problem of anti-Black misandry ("disdain for Black men and boys").<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Past and present gender studies publications tend to carry assumptions of Black men and boys being <a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">criminals</a> and assailants of <a href="/wiki/Black_women" title="Black women">Black women</a> and white women.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, past and present gender studies publications tend to contain paradigms, theories, and narratives that are grounded in anti-Black <a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">misandry</a>, along with a theoretically constructed language of <a href="/wiki/Hypermasculinity" title="Hypermasculinity">hypermasculinity</a>, and tend to be ill-equipped at understanding Black males as victims.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The past and present vulnerability of Black males, ranging from rape, to sexual abuse, to death, which tends to be overlooked and downplayed by rhetoric about hypermasculinity, underscores the need to develop new language, narratives, and theories for understanding Black males.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blues_Culture">Blues Culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Blues Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>James B. Stewart developed the research method and methodological framework, known as Blues Culture, which examines the traits (e.g., versatility, vibration) of Africana culture utilizing various means from an assortment of disciplines (e.g., economics, history, sociology).<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double_Consciousness">Double Consciousness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Double Consciousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/200px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/300px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/400px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3627" data-file-height="4725" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._DuBois" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. DuBois">W. E. B. DuBois</a> developed the research method and conceptual framework, known as <a href="/wiki/Double_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Consciousness">Double Consciousness</a>, to analyze how Africana people (and phenomena) exist in a dual racialized (black-white) world and subsequently develop a dual consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than succumb to various forms of external pressure (e.g., assimilation, harassment, prejudice, racism, sexism, surveillance), Africana people discover how to steer through them.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_Basic_Tasks_of_the_Black_Studies_Scholar">Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>James Turner developed the research method and social scientific framework, known as Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar, which investigates the problems that affect the experiences of Africana peoples and addresses four related criteria (e.g., defend, disseminate, generate, preserve new knowledge) utilizing various means of examination from an assortment of disciplines (e.g., conceptual history, economics, political science, sociology).<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretative_Analysis">Interpretative Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Interpretative Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Wesley" title="Charles H. Wesley">Charles H. Wesley</a> developed the research method of Interpretative Analysis, which utilizes a structural or cultural system to gather, analyze, and interpret data.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kawaida_Theory">Kawaida Theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Kawaida Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maulana_Ndabezitha_Karenga_(Ronald_McKinley_Everett)_2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Maulana_Ndabezitha_Karenga_%28Ronald_McKinley_Everett%29_2003.jpg/200px-Maulana_Ndabezitha_Karenga_%28Ronald_McKinley_Everett%29_2003.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Maulana_Ndabezitha_Karenga_%28Ronald_McKinley_Everett%29_2003.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a> drew from the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nguzo_Saba" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguzo Saba">Nguzo Saba</a> to develop his research method, known as <a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa#Nguzo_Saba_(The_Seven_Principles)" title="Kwanzaa">Kawaida Theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven factors (e.g., creative production, ethos, history, religion, economic organization, political organization, social organization) are utilized to examine the Africana experience, which is set within a Pan-Africanist context.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miseducation_of_the_Negro">Miseducation of the Negro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Miseducation of the Negro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a> developed the research method of and conceptual framework for the <a href="/wiki/Miseducation_of_the_Negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Miseducation of the Negro">Miseducation of the Negro</a>, which analyzes and assesses the history and culture of Africana people, and notates their notable loss of such is due to Africana people being decentered from their own historic and cultural contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nigrescence">Nigrescence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Nigrescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_E._Cross_Jr." title="William E. Cross Jr.">William E. Cross Jr.</a> developed the research method, known as <a href="/wiki/Nigrescence" title="Nigrescence">Nigrescence</a>, as a psychological framework; with the framework, he analyzes Africana culture and the behavioral dimensions of its psycho-adaptive traits as well as analyzes a timeline of Black culture (which is composed of five steps).<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimal_Worldview_of_Psychology">Optimal Worldview of Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Optimal Worldview of Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linda Meyers developed the research method, known as the Optimal Worldview of Psychology, which utilizes investigates the African mind through a cultural framework (e.g., surface-level structure of culture, deep structure of culture); its sub-optimal viewpoint highlights the demerits of an African mind that has an assimilated mentality and its optimal viewpoint corresponds with an African mind that has an Africana mentality.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paradigm_of_Unity">Paradigm of Unity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Paradigm of Unity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Alkalimat" title="Abdul Alkalimat">Abdul Alkalimat</a> developed the research method known as the Paradigm of Unity, which has a considerable focus on relationships between social classes, via <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> analysis, and utilizes gender as a determining factor as well as utilizes an undefined notion of Afrocentricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shared_Authority">Shared Authority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Shared Authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Michael Frisch developed the research method, known as Shared Authority, to investigate <a href="/wiki/Orature" class="mw-redirect" title="Orature">orature</a>, which recognizes the personhood (e.g., subject, agency) and experiences of the Africana individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through this methodological recognition, information that may not have been captured in prior publications is able to be optimally acquired.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_Legitimacy">Social Legitimacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Social Legitimacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Winston Van Horn developed a research method and methodological framework (composed of three steps), known as Social Legitimacy, which analyzes the experiences of Africana peoples and Africana phenomena in their political and sociological contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_Cradle_Theory">Two Cradle Theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Two Cradle Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheikh_Anta_Diop,_late_1940s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cheikh_Anta_Diop%2C_late_1940s.jpg/150px-Cheikh_Anta_Diop%2C_late_1940s.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cheikh_Anta_Diop%2C_late_1940s.jpg/225px-Cheikh_Anta_Diop%2C_late_1940s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Cheikh_Anta_Diop%2C_late_1940s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="241" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a> drew from anthropology, archaeology, history, and sociology to develop a research method and cultural metric, known as Two Cradle Theory, to assess the differences between African and European cultures – between what are characterized and viewed as the southern cradle and the northern cradle.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ujimaa">Ujimaa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Ujimaa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>James L. Conyers Jr. drew from the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nguzo_Saba" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguzo Saba">Nguzo Saba</a> to develop the research method known as <a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa#Nguzo_Saba_(The_Seven_Principles)" title="Kwanzaa">Ujimaa</a>; the methodological framework draws from philosophy, sociology, and conceptual history, with the understanding that culture is utilized to analyze and assess Pan-Africanist phenomena from around the world, and is utilized to analyze social responsibility and the work of the collective.<sup id="cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_challenges_and_criticisms">Recent challenges and criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Recent challenges and criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the major setbacks with Black studies programs or departments is that there is a lack of financial resources available to students and faculty.<sup id="cite_ref-BSCCD_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BSCCD-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many universities and colleges around the United States provided Black studies programs with small budgets and, therefore, it is difficult for the department to purchase materials and hire staff. Due to the budget allocated to Black studies being limited, some faculty are jointly appointed, therefore, causing faculty to leave their home disciplines to teach a discipline with which they may not be familiar. Budgetary issues make it difficult for Black studies programs and departments to function and to promote themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racism, perpetrated by many administrators, is alleged to hinder the institutionalization of Black studies at major universities.<sup id="cite_ref-BSCCD_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BSCCD-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with the case of UC Berkeley, most of the Black studies programs across the country were instituted because of the urging and demanding of black students to create the program. In many instances, black students also called for the increased enrollment of black students and financial assistance to these students.<sup id="cite_ref-BSCCD_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BSCCD-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also seen in the case of UC Berkeley is the constant demand to have such a program, but place the power of control in the hands of black people. The idea was that Black studies could not be "realistic" if it were taught by someone who was not accustomed to the black experience. On many campuses, directors of Black studies have little to no autonomy—they do not have the power to hire or grant tenure to faculty. On many campuses, an overall lack of respect for the discipline has caused instability for the students and for the program. </p><p>In the past thirty years, there has been a steady decline of Black studies scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-BSCCD_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BSCCD-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments,_programs,_and_courses"><span id="Universities_and_colleges_with_Black_studies_departments.2C_programs.2C_and_courses"></span>Universities and colleges with Black studies departments, programs, and courses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Universities and colleges with Black studies departments, programs, and courses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <p><b>Brazil</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Catholic_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo">Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nascimento_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nascimento-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Canada</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brock_University" title="Brock University">Brock University</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_University" title="Concordia University">Concordia University</a><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barnstead_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnstead-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston" title="Queen's University at Kingston">Queen's University</a><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Caribbean</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="University of the Virgin Islands">University of the Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies" title="University of the West Indies">University of the West Indies</a><sup id="cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teelucksingh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Colombia</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Colombia" title="National University of Colombia">National University of Colombia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Arocha_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arocha-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Xavierian_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifical Xavierian University">Pontifical Xavierian University</a><sup id="cite_ref-Xavierian_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xavierian-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USA_StudyAbroad_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_StudyAbroad-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cauca" title="University of Cauca">University of Cauca</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rojas_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rojas-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Ecuador</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar_Andean_University&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simón Bolívar Andean University (page does not exist)">Simón Bolívar Andean University</a><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>United Kingdom</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_City_University" title="Birmingham City University">Birmingham City University</a><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brar_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brar-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>United States</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_University" title="American University">American University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amherst_College" title="Amherst College">Amherst College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_College" title="Baruch College">Baruch College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Dominguez_Hills" title="California State University, Dominguez Hills">California State University, Dominguez Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Fullerton" title="California State University, Fullerton">California State University, Fullerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Northridge" title="California State University, Northridge">California State University, Northridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_College" title="Carleton College">Carleton College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_State_University" title="Cleveland State University">Cleveland State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="College of William and Mary">College of William and Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_College" title="Davidson College">Davidson College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DePaul_University" title="DePaul University">DePaul University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_University_(Illinois)" title="Dominican University (Illinois)">Dominican University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Kentucky_University" title="Eastern Kentucky University">Eastern Kentucky University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Michigan_University" title="Eastern Michigan University">Eastern Michigan University</a><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilford_College" title="Guilford College">Guilford College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter_College" title="Hunter College">Hunter College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin_College" title="Oberlin College">Oberlin College</a><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_College" title="Landmark College">Landmark College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyola_Marymount_University" title="Loyola Marymount University">Loyola Marymount University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_College_(Iowa)" title="Luther College (Iowa)">Luther College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tennessee_State_University" title="Middle Tennessee State University">Middle Tennessee State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Holyoke_College" title="Mount Holyoke College">Mount Holyoke College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nassau_Community_College" title="Nassau Community College">Nassau Community College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University" title="Pennsylvania State University">Pennsylvania State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portland_State_University" title="Portland State University">Portland State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queens_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Queens College">Queens College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Jose_State_University" title="San Jose State University">San Jose State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Illinois_University" title="Southern Illinois University">Southern Illinois University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_African_American_Studies_%E2%80%93_Syracuse_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of African American Studies – Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_University" title="Temple University">Temple University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_City_College_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="The City College of New York">The City College of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_College_of_New_Jersey" title="The College of New Jersey">The College of New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towson_University" title="Towson University">Towson University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulane_University" title="Tulane University">Tulane University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_at_Albany" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Albany">University at Albany</a><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona" title="University of Arizona">University of Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas" title="University of Arkansas">University of Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo" title="University at Buffalo">University at Buffalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Louisville" title="University of Louisville">University of Louisville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts,_Amherst" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Massachusetts, Amherst">University of Massachusetts, Amherst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_at_Omaha" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Nebraska at Omaha">University of Nebraska at Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill" title="University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Charlotte" title="University of North Carolina at Charlotte">University of North Carolina at Charlotte</a><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Greensboro" title="University of North Carolina at Greensboro">University of North Carolina at Greensboro</a><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Texas" title="University of North Texas">University of North Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma" title="University of Oklahoma">University of Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oregon" title="University of Oregon">University of Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Puget_Sound" title="University of Puget Sound">University of Puget Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina" title="University of South Carolina">University of South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Arlington" title="University of Texas at Arlington">University of Texas at Arlington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin">University of Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valdosta_State_University" title="Valdosta State University">Valdosta State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassar_College" title="Vassar College">Vassar College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Commonwealth_University" title="Virginia Commonwealth University">Virginia Commonwealth University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Illinois_University" title="Western Illinois University">Western Illinois University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_University" title="Wesleyan University">Wesleyan University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_State_University" title="Wright State University">Wright State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a></li></ul> <p><b>Venezuela</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universidad_Polit%C3%A9cnica_Territorial_de_Barlovento_Argelia_Laya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya (page does not exist)">Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya</a><sup id="cite_ref-Brown-Vincent_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-Vincent-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Universities_with_Ph.D._programs_in_Black_studies">Universities with Ph.D. programs in Black studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Universities with Ph.D. programs in Black studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <p><b>United States</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University" title="Pennsylvania State University">Pennsylvania State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_University" title="Temple University">Temple University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Louisville" title="University of Louisville">University of Louisville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts,_Amherst" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Massachusetts, Amherst">University of Massachusetts, Amherst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Milwaukee" title="University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee">University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prominent_academics_in_Black_studies">Prominent academics in Black studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Prominent academics in Black studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Black_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Black studies">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <p><b>Africa</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micere_Mugo" class="mw-redirect" title="Micere Mugo">Micere Mugo</a></li></ul> <p><b>Brazil</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9lia_Gonzalez" title="Lélia Gonzalez">Lélia Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_Nascimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdias Nascimento">Abdias Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatriz_Nascimento" title="Beatriz Nascimento">Beatriz Nascimento</a></li></ul> <p><b>Caribbean</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Boyce_Davies" title="Carole Boyce Davies">Carole Boyce Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Campbell" title="Horace Campbell">Horace Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell_Cox" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Cromwell Cox">Oliver Cromwell Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elsa_Goveia" title="Elsa Goveia">Elsa Goveia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C.L.R._James" class="mw-redirect" title="C.L.R. James">C.L.R. James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Kwame Ture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Wynter" title="Sylvia Wynter">Sylvia Wynter</a></li></ul> <p><b>United Kingdom</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kehinde_Andrews" title="Kehinde Andrews">Kehinde Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Kwame Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazel_Carby" title="Hazel Carby">Hazel Carby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gilroy" title="Paul Gilroy">Paul Gilroy</a></li></ul> <p><b>United States</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Alkalimat" title="Abdul Alkalimat">Abdul Alkalimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawn_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Shawn Alexander">Shawn Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M.K._Asante_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="M.K. Asante Jr.">M.K. Asante Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_A._Baker_Jr." title="Houston A. Baker Jr.">Houston A. Baker Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Chrisman" title="Robert Chrisman">Robert Chrisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Cole_(musician)" title="Bill Cole (musician)">Bill Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Crosby" title="Edward W. Crosby">Edward W. Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_Davis_(anthropologist)" title="Allison Davis (anthropologist)">Allison Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Y._Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Angela Y. Davis">Angela Y. Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Clair_Drake" title="St. Clair Drake">St. Clair Drake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Early" title="Gerald Early">Gerald Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Franklin_Frazier" title="E. Franklin Frazier">E. Franklin Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Henry Louis Gates Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farah_Griffin" title="Farah Griffin">Farah Griffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hare" title="Nathan Hare">Nathan Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissa_Harris-Perry" title="Melissa Harris-Perry">Melissa Harris-Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saidiya_Hartman" title="Saidiya Hartman">Saidiya Hartman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Herskovits" class="mw-redirect" title="Melville Herskovits">Melville Herskovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lena_Hill" title="Lena Hill">Lena Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Johnson" title="Charles S. Johnson">Charles S. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_D.G._Kelley" class="mw-redirect" title="Robin D.G. Kelley">Robin D.G. Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_C._Loury" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenn C. Loury">Glenn C. Loury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Manning Marable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janis_Mayes" title="Janis Mayes">Janis Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Moten" title="Fred Moten">Fred Moten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Anthony_Neal" title="Mark Anthony Neal">Mark Anthony Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Reed" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph Reed">Adolph Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedric_Robinson" title="Cedric Robinson">Cedric Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricia_Rose" title="Tricia Rose">Tricia Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Sernett" title="Milton Sernett">Milton Sernett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_Sharpe" title="Christina Sharpe">Christina Sharpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracy_Denean_Sharpley-Whiting" title="Tracy Denean Sharpley-Whiting">Tracy Denean Sharpley-Whiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renate_Simson" title="Renate Simson">Renate Simson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Smitherman" title="Geneva Smitherman">Geneva Smitherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Stepto" title="Robert B. Stepto">Robert B. Stepto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Tillard" title="Conrad Tillard">Conrad Tillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_A._Young" title="Cynthia A. Young">Cynthia A. Young</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly_and_academic_journals">Scholarly and academic journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Scholarly and academic journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/African_American_Review" title="African American Review">African American Review</a></i></li> <li><i>Africana</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://africanajournal.org/">[1]</a> – Journal of Ideas on Africa and the Diaspora</li> <li><i>Africana Online: Journal of the Africana Center for Cultural Literacy and Research</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Pan_African_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Pan African Studies">Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.jpanafrican.org">[2]</a> (since 1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afro-Americans_in_New_York_Life_and_History" title="Afro-Americans in New York Life and History">Afro-Americans in New York Life and History</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.aanylh.com/">[3]</a> (since 1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Scholar" title="The Black Scholar">The Black Scholar</a></i> (since 1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Callaloo_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Callaloo (journal)">Callaloo</a></i></li> <li><i>Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/ejab/index">[4]</a> – coverage includes any aspect of Africa, its peoples, their homes, cities, towns, districts, states, countries, regions, including social, economic sustainable development, creative literature, the arts, and the Diaspora.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Griot:_The_Journal_of_African_American_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Griot: The Journal of African American Studies (page does not exist)">The Griot: The Journal of African American Studies</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://scaasi.info/the-griot/">[5]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Journal_of_Africana_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Journal of Africana Studies (page does not exist)">International Journal of Africana Studies</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://ncbsonline.org/publications/the-international-journal-of-africana-studies/">[6]</a> – designed to interrogate and analyze the lived experiences of Africana people.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_African_Civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of African Civilizations">The Journal of African Civilizations</a></i> (since 1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of African American History">Journal of African American History</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_African_American_Males_in_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of African American Males in Education (page does not exist)">Journal of African American Males in Education</a></i> (JAAME) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://jaamejournal.scholasticahq.com/">[7]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Black_Studies" title="Journal of Black Studies">Journal of Black Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_Education" title="Journal of Negro Education">Journal of Negro Education</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Journal_of_Black_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Journal of Black Studies (page does not exist)">Western Journal of Black Studies</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://education.wsu.edu/wjbs/">[8]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Negro_Digest" title="Negro Digest">Negro Digest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negro_Educational_Review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Negro Educational Review (page does not exist)">Negro Educational Review</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.education.pitt.edu/faculty-research/affiliated-journals-and-organizations/negro-educational-review-journal">[9]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Negro_History_Bulletin" class="mw-redirect" title="Negro History Bulletin">Negro History Bulletin</a></i></li> <li><i>Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/nka">[10]</a> – focuses on publishing critical work that examines the newly developing field of contemporary African and African Diaspora art within the modernist and postmodernist experience, thereby contributing to the intellectual dialogue on world art and the discourse on internationalism and multiculturalism in the arts.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phylon" title="Phylon">Phylon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Race_%26_Class" title="Race & Class">Race & Class</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Souls:_A_Critical_Journal_of_Black_Politics,_Culture,_and_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society (page does not exist)">Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://souls.uic.edu/">[11]</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Transition_Magazine" title="Transition Magazine">Transition Magazine</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_African_American_Studies" title="AP African American Studies">AP African American Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_race_theory" title="Critical race theory">Critical race theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Conyers_II-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conyers_II_1-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFConyers2018" class="citation book cs1">Conyers, James L. Jr. (October 15, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VvN0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201">"Research Methods In Africana Studies"</a>. <i>Africana Methodology: A Social Study of Research, Triangulation and Meta-theory</i>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 201–204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781527519404" title="Special:BookSources/9781527519404"><bdi>9781527519404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Research+Methods+In+Africana+Studies&rft.btitle=Africana+Methodology%3A+A+Social+Study+of+Research%2C+Triangulation+and+Meta-theory&rft.pages=201-204&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2018-10-15&rft.isbn=9781527519404&rft.aulast=Conyers&rft.aufirst=James+L.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVvN0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dagbovie-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dagbovie_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDagbovie2007" class="citation book cs1">Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ts1jBbBI0kAC&q=Carter+G.+Woodson"><i>The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07435-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07435-6"><bdi>978-0-252-07435-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Black+History+Movement%2C+Carter+G.+Woodson%2C+and+Lorenzo+Johnston+Greene&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-252-07435-6&rft.aulast=Dagbovie&rft.aufirst=Pero+Gaglo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTs1jBbBI0kAC%26q%3DCarter%2BG.%2BWoodson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kelly-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2010" class="citation web cs1">Kelly, Jason (November–December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://magazine.uchicago.edu/1012/features/legacy.shtml">"Lorenzo Dow Turner, PhD'26"</a>. <i>The University of Chicago® Magazine</i>. <q><i>Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect</i> (1949) ... was considered not only the defining work of Gullah language and culture but also the beginning of a new field, Black studies. 'Until then it was pretty much thought that all of the African knowledge and everything had been erased by slavery. Turner showed that was not true,' [curator Alcione] Amos says. 'He was a pioneer. He was the first one to make the connections between African Americans and their African past.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+University+of+Chicago%C2%AE+Magazine&rft.atitle=Lorenzo+Dow+Turner%2C+PhD%2726&rft.date=2010-11%2F2010-12&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmagazine.uchicago.edu%2F1012%2Ffeatures%2Flegacy.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cotter-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cotter_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotter2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Holland_Cotter" title="Holland Cotter">Cotter, Holland</a> (September 2, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/03/arts/design/03gullah.html">"A Language Explorer Who Heard Echoes of Africa"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <q>Turner published 'Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect,' a book that would help pave the way for the field of African-American studies in the 1960s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Language+Explorer+Who+Heard+Echoes+of+Africa&rft.date=2010-09-02&rft.aulast=Cotter&rft.aufirst=Holland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F09%2F03%2Farts%2Fdesign%2F03gullah.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrews-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2020" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews, Kehinde (December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/area.12528">"Blackness, Empire and migration: How Black Studies transforms the curriculum"</a>. <i>Area</i>. <b>52</b> (4): 701–707. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Farea.12528">10.1111/area.12528</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151178582">151178582</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Area&rft.atitle=Blackness%2C+Empire+and+migration%3A+How+Black+Studies+transforms+the+curriculum&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=701-707&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Farea.12528&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151178582%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Kehinde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Farea.12528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrews_II-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_II_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_II_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2018" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, Kehinde (September 1, 2018). "The Black Studies Movement in Britain: Becoming an Institution, Not Institutionalised". In Arday, Jason; Mirza, Heidi Safia (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-60261-5_15"><i>Dismantling Race in Higher Education</i></a>. Springer International Publishing. pp. 271–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-60261-5_15">10.1007/978-3-319-60261-5_15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319602615" title="Special:BookSources/9783319602615"><bdi>9783319602615</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158719176">158719176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Black+Studies+Movement+in+Britain%3A+Becoming+an+Institution%2C+Not+Institutionalised&rft.btitle=Dismantling+Race+in+Higher+Education&rft.pages=271-287&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2018-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158719176%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-60261-5_15&rft.isbn=9783319602615&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Kehinde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-60261-5_15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teelucksingh-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teelucksingh_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeelucksingh2017" class="citation book cs1">Teelucksingh, Jerome (September 29, 2017). "Academic Revolution: Black Studies". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-67456-8_3"><i>Civil Rights in America and the Caribbean, 1950s–2010s</i></a>. 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Edinburgh University Press. pp. 48–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748686971" title="Special:BookSources/9780748686971"><bdi>9780748686971</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g0b6m8">10.3366/j.ctt1g0b6m8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afrocentricity+and+Africology%3A+Theory+and+Practice+in+the+Discipline&rft.pages=48-50&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2010-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctt1g0b6m8%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780748686971&rft.aulast=Asante&rft.aufirst=Molefi+Kete&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKcJvAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Myers-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Myers_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2015" class="citation journal cs1">Myers, Joshua (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12111-014-9291-8">"Racial Economies of Academia: Africana Studies as Arbiter"</a>. <i>Journal of African American Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12111-014-9291-8">10.1007/s12111-014-9291-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43525579">43525579</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144208208">144208208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Racial+Economies+of+Academia%3A+Africana+Studies+as+Arbiter&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144208208%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43525579%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12111-014-9291-8&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs12111-014-9291-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wint-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wint_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wint_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWintOparaGordonBrooms2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wint, Keisha M.; Opara, Ijeoma; Gordon, Rahjaun; Brooms, Derrick R. 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York University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Canadian+Studies&rft.pub=York+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yorku.ca%2Flaps%2Fhuma%2Fbcs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.ucas.com/coursedisplay/courses/344b74d0-9760-a1eb-20cd-2c7f3d35a857?academicYearId=2021&courseOptionId=70b130f2-357f-48b8-afea-05f4dfd9617a">"Black Studies"</a>. Birmingham City University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Studies&rft.pub=Birmingham+City+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.ucas.com%2Fcoursedisplay%2Fcourses%2F344b74d0-9760-a1eb-20cd-2c7f3d35a857%3FacademicYearId%3D2021%26courseOptionId%3D70b130f2-357f-48b8-afea-05f4dfd9617a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aaas.duke.edu/">"Duke African & African American Studies"</a>. Duke University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Duke+African+%26+African+American+Studies&rft.pub=Duke+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faaas.duke.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emich.edu/aas/">"Africology and African American Studies"</a>. Eastern Michigan University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africology+and+African+American+Studies&rft.pub=Eastern+Michigan+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.emich.edu%2Faas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kent.edu/afs">"Department of Africana Studies"</a>. Kent State University. May 7, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Africana+Studies&rft.pub=Kent+State+University&rft.date=2022-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kent.edu%2Fafs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oberlin.edu/arts-and-sciences/departments/africana-studies">"Department of Africana Studies"</a>. Oberlin College & Conservatory. October 24, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Africana+Studies&rft.pub=Oberlin+College+%26+Conservatory&rft.date=2016-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oberlin.edu%2Farts-and-sciences%2Fdepartments%2Fafricana-studies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afam.la.psu.edu/">"African American Studies"</a>. Pennsylvania State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+American+Studies&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafam.la.psu.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdx.edu/blackstudies/">"Black Studies Department"</a>. Portland State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Black+Studies+Department&rft.pub=Portland+State+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdx.edu%2Fblackstudies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://africanastudies.rutgers.edu/">"Africana Studies"</a>. Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africana+Studies&rft.pub=Rutgers%2C+The+State+University+of+New+Jersey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafricanastudies.rutgers.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sjsu.edu/afam/">"SJSU Department of African-American Studies"</a>. San Jose State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SJSU+Department+of+African-American+Studies&rft.pub=San+Jose+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sjsu.edu%2Fafam%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albany.edu/africana/">"Department of Africana Studies"</a>. State University of New York at Albany.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Africana+Studies&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+at+Albany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.albany.edu%2Fafricana%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/afam/">"Home – UCI African American Studies"</a>. University of California Irvine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home+%E2%80%93+UCI+African+American+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+California+Irvine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanities.uci.edu%2Fafam%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aaad.unc.edu/">"Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies"</a>. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+African%2C+African+American%2C+and+Diaspora+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+at+Chapel+Hill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faaad.unc.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://africana.uncc.edu/">"Department of Africana Studies"</a>. University of North Carolina at Charlotte.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Africana+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+at+Charlotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fafricana.uncc.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509105650/http://admissions.uncg.edu/major-african-american-studies.php">"African American Studies – Majors – UNCG Admissions"</a>. University of North Carolina Greensboro. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://admissions.uncg.edu/major-african-american-studies.php">the original</a> on May 9, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+American+Studies+%E2%80%93+Majors+%E2%80%93+UNCG+Admissions&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Greensboro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadmissions.uncg.edu%2Fmajor-african-american-studies.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170426150928/http://afam.la.psu.edu/join-us/graduate">"Graduate — African American Studies"</a>. Pennsylvania State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afam.la.psu.edu/join-us/graduate">the original</a> on April 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Graduate+%E2%80%94+African+American+Studies&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafam.la.psu.edu%2Fjoin-us%2Fgraduate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120702004920/http://www.sas.upenn.edu/africana/phd-program-0">"PhD Program"</a>. University of Pennsylvania. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sas.upenn.edu/africana/phd-program-0">the original</a> on July 2, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PhD+Program&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sas.upenn.edu%2Fafricana%2Fphd-program-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140331053134/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/aads/graduate-programs/ma-admissions.php">"Graduate Admissions for Master's and Ph.D. Programs"</a>. African and African Diaspora Studies, University of Texas at Austin. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/aads/graduate-programs/ma-admissions.php">the original</a> on March 31, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Graduate+Admissions+for+Master%27s+and+Ph.D.+Programs&rft.pub=African+and+African+Diaspora+Studies%2C+University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utexas.edu%2Fcola%2Fdepts%2Faads%2Fgraduate-programs%2Fma-admissions.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_studies&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlkalimat2021" class="citation book cs1">Alkalimat, Abdul (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745344225/the-history-of-black-studies/"><i>The History of Black Studies</i></a>. London: Pluto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745344225" title="Special:BookSources/9780745344225"><bdi>9780745344225</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Black+Studies&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780745344225&rft.aulast=Alkalimat&rft.aufirst=Abdul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.plutobooks.com%2F9780745344225%2Fthe-history-of-black-studies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+studies" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Biondi, Martha. <i>The Black Revolution on Campus</i>. University of California Press, 2014.</li> <li>Ferguson, Stephen. <i>Philosophy of African American Studies: Nothing Left of Blackness</i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.</li> <li>Higgins, Andrew Stone. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uncpress.org/book/9781469672915/higher-education-for-all">Higher Education for All: Racial Inequality, Cold War Liberalism, and the California Master Plan</a></i>. University of North Carolina Press, 2023.</li> <li>Kendi, Ibram X. <i>The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965–1972</i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.</li> <li>Rooks, Noliwe M. <i>White Money/Black Power: The Surprising History of African American Studies and the Crisis of Race in Higher Education</i>. Beacon Press, 2007.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Regional_cultural_studies" title="Template talk:Regional cultural studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Regional_cultural_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Regional cultural studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Regional_cultural_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Regional <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_studies" title="African studies">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanology" title="Albanology">Albanology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_studies" title="American studies">American</a> <ul><li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_studies" title="Canadian studies">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_studies" title="Central European studies">Central European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_studies" title="Chicano studies">Chicano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_studies" title="Czech studies">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_studies" title="Circumpolar studies">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptology" title="Coptology">Coptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_studies" title="Croatian studies">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_studies" title="East Asian studies">East Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimology" title="Eskimology">Eskimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_studies" title="Ethiopian studies">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_studies" title="European studies">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipinology" title="Filipinology">Filipinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_studies" title="German studies">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_studies" title="Hawaiian studies">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraist" title="Hebraist">Hebraic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_studies" title="Hellenic studies">Hellenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_studies" title="Hungarian studies">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_studies" title="Irish studies">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_studies" title="Italian studies">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_studies" title="Japanese studies">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_studies" title="Kartvelian studies">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_studies" title="Korean studies">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kremlinology" title="Kremlinology">Kremlinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_studies" title="Macedonian studies">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaean_studies" title="Mandaean studies">Mandaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_studies" title="Middle Eastern studies">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_studies" title="Mongolian studies">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_studies" title="New Zealand studies">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">Oriental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_studies" title="Pacific studies">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_studies" title="Polish studies">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_studies" title="Romance studies">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_studies" title="Romani studies">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_studies" title="Russian studies">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_studies" title="Scandinavian studies">Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_studies" title="Scottish studies">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_studies" title="Semitic studies">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_studies" title="Serbian studies">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_studies" title="Slavic studies">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_studies" title="Somali studies">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_studies" title="Southeast Asian studies">Southeast Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_studies" title="Syriac studies">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_studies" title="Taiwan studies">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkology" title="Turkology">Turkology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_studies" title="Ukrainian studies">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_studies" title="Welsh studies">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_studies" title="Yugoslav studies">Yugoslav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_studies" title="Zhuang studies">Zhuang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_by_location" title="Category:Culture by location">Culture by location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_culture" title="Official culture">Official culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Political culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_culture" title="Super culture">Super culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_culture" title="Vernacular culture">Vernacular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African 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