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class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Workhouse</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Workhouse" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.main">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Workhouse" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Workhouse" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the prison in St. Louis known as "The Workhouse", see <a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Workhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis Workhouse">St. Louis Workhouse</a>.</div> In Britain and Ireland, a workhouse (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: tloty,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> lit. "poor-house") was a <a href="/wiki/Total_institution" title="Total institution">total institution</a> where those unable to support themselves financially were offered accommodation and employment. In Scotland, they were usually known as <a href="/wiki/Scottish_poorhouse" title="Scottish poorhouse">poorhouses</a>. The earliest known use of the term workhouse is from 1631, in an account by the mayor of <a href="/wiki/Abingdon,_Oxfordshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abingdon, Oxfordshire">Abingdon</a> reporting that "we have erected within our borough a workhouse to set poorer people to work".<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamIntroduction-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg/300px-Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg/450px-Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg/600px-Workhouse_Nantwich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="924"></a><figcaption>Former workhouse in <a href="/wiki/Nantwich" title="Nantwich">Nantwich</a>, dating from 1780</figcaption></figure> The origins of the workhouse can be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Cambridge_1388" title="Statute of Cambridge 1388">Statute of Cambridge 1388</a>, which attempted to address the labour shortages following the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">Black Death in England</a> by restricting the movement of labourers, and ultimately led to the state becoming responsible for the support of the poor. However, mass unemployment following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in 1815, the introduction of new technology to replace agricultural workers in particular, and a series of bad harvests, meant that by the early 1830s the established system of poor relief was proving to be unsustainable. The <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">New Poor Law of 1834</a> attempted to reverse the economic trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates. Most were employed on tasks such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking <a href="/wiki/Oakum" title="Oakum">oakum</a> using a large metal nail known as a spike. As the 19th century wore on, workhouses increasingly became refuges for the elderly, infirm, and sick rather than the able-bodied poor, and in 1929 legislation was passed to allow local authorities to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals. Although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/National_Assistance_Act_1948" title="National Assistance Act 1948">National Assistance Act 1948</a> (<a href="/wiki/11_%26_12_Geo._6" class="mw-redirect" title="11 & 12 Geo. 6">11 & 12 Geo. 6</a>. c. 29) that the last vestiges of the Poor Law finally disappeared, and with them the workhouses. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Legal_and_social_background">1 Legal and social background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Medieval_to_Early_Modern_period">1.1 Medieval to Early Modern period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Georgian_era">1.2 Georgian era</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#1834_Act">1.3 1834 Act</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Early_Victorian_workhouses">2 Early Victorian workhouses</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Admission_and_discharge">2.1 Admission and discharge</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Work">2.2 Work</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Diet">2.3 Diet</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Education">2.4 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Religion">2.5 Religion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Discipline">2.6 Discipline</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Management_and_staffing">2.7 Management and staffing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Later_developments_and_abolition">3 Later developments and abolition</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Modern_view">4 Modern view</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#In_art_and_literature">5 In art and literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References">7 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Notes">7.1 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Citations">7.2 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Bibliography">7.3 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Legal_and_social_background">Legal and social background</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Legal and social background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_to_Early_Modern_period">Medieval to Early Modern period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medieval to Early Modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Cambridge_1388" title="Statute of Cambridge 1388">Statute of Cambridge 1388</a> was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, a devastating <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> that killed about one-third of England's population. The new law fixed wages and restricted the movement of labourers, as it was anticipated that if they were allowed to leave their <a href="/wiki/Civil_parish" title="Civil parish">parishes</a> for higher-paid work elsewhere then wages would inevitably rise. According to historian Derek Fraser, the fear of social disorder following the plague ultimately resulted in the state, and not a "personal Christian charity", becoming responsible for the support of the poor. The resulting laws against <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vagrancy (people)">vagrancy</a> were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor. From the 16th century onwards a distinction was legally enshrined between those who were willing to work but could not, and those who were able to work but would not: between "the genuinely unemployed and the idler". Supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution of the Monasteries">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>, which began in 1536. They had been a significant source of charitable relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham20069-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Poor_Act_1575" title="Poor Act 1575">Poor Act 1575</a> went on to establish the principle that if the able-bodied poor needed support, they had to work for it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200939-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Relief_of_the_Poor_1601" class="mw-redirect" title="Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601">Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601</a> made parishes legally responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who, through age or infirmity, were unable to work. The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups. It proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a <a href="/wiki/House_of_correction" title="House of correction">house of correction</a> (the precursor of the workhouse), where the "persistent idler" was to be punished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200940-5">[5]</a> It also proposed the construction of housing for the <a href="/wiki/Classifications_of_poor_used_in_the_Poor_Law_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Classifications of poor used in the Poor Law system">impotent poor</a>, the old and the infirm, although most assistance was granted through a form of <a href="/wiki/Poor_relief" title="Poor relief">poor relief</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Outdoor_relief" title="Outdoor relief">outdoor relief</a> – money, food, or other necessities given to those living in their own homes, funded by a local <a href="/wiki/Poor_rate" title="Poor rate">tax</a> on the property of the wealthiest in the parish.<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamIntroduction-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgian_era">Georgian era</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Georgian era" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg/220px-Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg/220px-Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg/330px-Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg/440px-Framlingham_Castle_-poor_house-6.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The 'Red House' at <a href="/wiki/Framlingham_Castle" title="Framlingham Castle">Framlingham Castle</a> in Suffolk was founded as a workhouse in 1664.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeMorrison20163-6">[6]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1042"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg/330px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg/440px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_096_-_Workroom_at_St_James_Workhouse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"The workroom at St James's workhouse", from The Microcosm of London (1808)</figcaption></figure> The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief. The first authoritative figure for numbers of workhouses comes in the next century from The Abstract of Returns made by the Overseers of the Poor, which was drawn up following a government survey in 1776. It put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800 (about one parish in seven), with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> This growth in the number of workhouses was prompted by the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse_Test_Act_1723" class="mw-redirect" title="Workhouse Test Act 1723">Workhouse Test Act 1723</a>; by obliging anyone seeking poor relief to enter a workhouse and undertake a set amount of work, usually for no pay (a system called indoor relief), the Act helped prevent irresponsible claims on a parish's poor rate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENixon201157-8">[8]</a> The growth was also bolstered by the <a href="/wiki/Relief_of_the_Poor_Act_1782" title="Relief of the Poor Act 1782">Relief of the Poor Act 1782</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gilbert_(politician)" title="Thomas Gilbert (politician)">Thomas Gilbert</a>. Gilbert's Act was intended to allow parishes to share the cost of poor relief by joining together to form unions, known as Gilbert Unions, to build and maintain even larger workhouses to accommodate the elderly and infirm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENixon201163-9">[9]</a> The able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200747-10">[10]</a> Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200728-11">[11]</a> but the supplementing of inadequate wages under the <a href="/wiki/Speenhamland_system" title="Speenhamland system">Speenhamland system</a> did become established towards the end of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay198789-12">[12]</a> So keen were some <a href="/wiki/English_Poor_Laws" title="English Poor Laws">Poor Law</a> authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to <a href="/wiki/Wife_selling_(English_custom)" title="Wife selling (English custom)">sell their wives</a>, to avoid them becoming a financial burden on the parish. In one such case in 1814 the wife and child of Henry Cook, who were living in <a href="/wiki/Effingham,_Surrey" title="Effingham, Surrey">Effingham</a> workhouse, were sold at <a href="/wiki/Croydon" title="Croydon">Croydon</a> market for one shilling (5p); the parish paid for the cost of the journey and a "wedding dinner".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson199351-13">[13]</a> By the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200718-14">[14]</a> but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Frederick_Eden,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Frederick Eden, 2nd Baronet">Sir Frederick Eden</a>, wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The workhouse is an inconvenient building, with small windows, low rooms and dark staircases. It is surrounded by a high wall, that gives it the appearance of a prison, and prevents free circulation of air. There are 8 or 10 beds in each room, chiefly of flocks, and consequently retentive of all scents and very productive of vermin. The passages are in great want of whitewashing. No regular account is kept of births and deaths, but when <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> or malignant fevers make their appearance in the house, the mortality is very great. Of 131 inmates in the house, 60 are children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1994163%E2%80%93164-15">[15]</a></blockquote> Instead of a workhouse, some sparsely populated parishes placed homeless paupers into rented accommodation, and provided others with relief in their own homes. Those entering a workhouse might join anywhere from a handful to several hundred other inmates; for instance, between 1782 and 1794 <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>'s workhouse accommodated 900–1200 indigent men, women and children. The larger workhouses such as the Gressenhall House of Industry generally served a number of communities, in <a href="/wiki/Gressenhall" title="Gressenhall">Gressenhall</a>'s case 50 parishes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1994163%E2%80%93164-15">[15]</a> Writing in 1854, Poor Law commissioner <a href="/wiki/George_Nicholls_(commissioner)" title="George Nicholls (commissioner)">George Nicholls</a> viewed many of them as little more than factories: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">These workhouses were established, and mainly conducted, with a view to deriving profit from the labour of the inmates, and not as being the safest means of affording relief by at the same time testing the reality of their destitution. The workhouse was in truth at that time a kind of manufactory, carried on at the risk and cost of the poor-rate, employing the worst description of the people, and helping to pauperise the best.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholls185418-16">[16]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1834_Act">1834 Act</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1834 Act" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg/220px-Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5728" data-file-height="4448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg/220px-Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg/330px-Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg/440px-Cleveland_Street_Work_House_London.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Former <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Street_workhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland Street workhouse">Cleveland Street workhouse</a>, London W1, photographed in 1930. It later became part of the Middlesex Hospital.</figcaption></figure> By 1832 the amount spent on poor relief nationally had risen to £7 million a year, more than 10 <a href="/wiki/Shilling_(British_coin)" title="Shilling (British coin)">shillings</a> (£0.50) per head of population,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200950-17">[17]</a> up from £2 million in 1784.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987121-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[a]</a> The large number of those seeking assistance was pushing the system to "the verge of collapse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007103-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[b]</a> The economic downturn following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in the early 19th century resulted in increasing numbers of unemployed. Coupled with developments in agriculture that meant less labour was needed on the land,<a href="#cite_note-FowlerPP14-16-22">[20]</a> along with three successive bad harvests beginning in 1828 and the <a href="/wiki/Swing_Riots" title="Swing Riots">Swing Riots</a> of 1830, reform was inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnott198651-23">[21]</a> Many suspected that the system of poor relief was being widely abused. In 1832 the government established a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commission</a> to investigate and recommend how relief could best be given to the poor.<a href="#cite_note-FowlerPP14-16-22">[20]</a> The result was the establishment of a centralised Poor Law Commission in England and Wales under the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">Poor Law Amendment Act 1834</a>, also known as the New Poor Law, which discouraged the allocation of outdoor relief to the able-bodied; "all cases were to be 'offered the house', and nothing else".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007242-24">[22]</a> Individual parishes were grouped into <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor Law Union">Poor Law Unions</a>, each of which was to have a union workhouse. More than 500 of these were built during the next 50 years, two-thirds of them by 1840.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200963%E2%80%9364-25">[23]</a> In certain parts of the country there was a good deal of resistance to these new buildings, some of it violent, particularly in the industrial north. Many workers lost their jobs during the major economic depression of 1837, and there was a strong feeling that what the unemployed needed was not the workhouse but short-term relief to tide them over. By 1838, 573 Poor Law Unions had been formed in England and Wales, incorporating 13,427 parishes, but it was not until 1868 that unions were established across the entire country:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987124-26">[24]</a> the same year that the New Poor Law was applied to the Gilbert Unions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200742-27">[25]</a> Despite the intentions behind the 1834 Act, relief of the poor remained the responsibility of local taxpayers, and there was thus a powerful economic incentive to use loopholes such as sickness in the family to continue with outdoor relief; the weekly cost per person was about half that of providing workhouse accommodation.<a href="#cite_note-29">[c]</a> Outdoor relief was further restricted by the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Outdoor_Relief_Prohibitory_Order" title="Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order">1844 Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order</a>, which aimed to end it altogether for the able-bodied poor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200963%E2%80%9364-25">[23]</a> In 1846, of 1.33 million paupers only 199,000 were maintained in workhouses, of whom 82,000 were considered to be able-bodied, leaving an estimated 375,000 of the able-bodied on outdoor relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987124%E2%80%93125-30">[27]</a> Excluding periods of extreme economic distress, it has been estimated that about 6.5% of the British population may have been accommodated in workhouses at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200967-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[d]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Early_Victorian_workhouses">Early Victorian workhouses</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early Victorian workhouses" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Design" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg/240px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1253" data-file-height="754"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 240px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg/240px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg" data-alt="Design" data-width="240" data-height="144" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg/360px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg/480px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers,_plan_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Design" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg/150px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="519"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg/150px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg" data-alt="Design" data-width="150" data-height="144" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg/225px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg/300px-Sampson_Kempthorne_workhouse_design_for_300_paupers%2C_plan_view.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sampson_Kempthorne" title="Sampson Kempthorne">Sampson Kempthorne</a>'s cruciform design for a workhouse accommodating 300 paupers</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg/220px-Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1302"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 315px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg/220px-Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="315" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg/330px-Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg/440px-Contrasted_Residences_for_the_Poor.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Contrasted Residences for the Poor (1836), by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Welby_Northmore_Pugin" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin">Augustus Pugin</a>. He was critical of Kempthorne's octagonal design shown above.</figcaption></figure> The New Poor Law Commissioners were very critical of existing workhouses, and generally insisted that they be replaced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200749-33">[29]</a> They complained in particular that "in by far the greater number of cases, it is a large almshouse, in which the young are trained in idleness, ignorance, and vice; the able-bodied maintained in sluggish sensual indolence; the aged and more respectable exposed to all the misery that is incident to dwelling in such a society".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987122%E2%80%93123-34">[30]</a> After 1835 many workhouses were constructed with the central buildings surrounded by work and exercise yards enclosed behind brick walls, so-called "pauper bastilles". The commission proposed that all new workhouses should allow for the segregation of paupers into at least four distinct groups, each to be housed separately: the aged and impotent, children, able-bodied males, and able-bodied females.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987122%E2%80%93123-34">[30]</a> A common layout resembled <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>'s prison <a href="/wiki/Panopticon" title="Panopticon">panopticon</a>, a radial design with four three-storey buildings at its centre set within a rectangular courtyard, the perimeter of which was defined by a three-storey entrance block and single-storey outbuildings, all enclosed by a wall. That basic layout, one of two designed by the architect <a href="/wiki/Sampson_Kempthorne" title="Sampson Kempthorne">Sampson Kempthorne</a> (his other design was octagonal with a segmented interior, sometimes known as the Kempthorne star<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201110-35">[31]</a>), allowed for four separate work and exercise yards, one for each class of inmate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200749%E2%80%9352-36">[32]</a> Separating the inmates was intended to serve three purposes: to direct treatment to those who most needed it; to deter others from pauperism; and as a physical barrier against illness, physical and mental.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriver200465-37">[33]</a> The commissioners argued that buildings based on Kempthorne's plans would be symbolic of the recent changes to the provision of poor relief; one assistant commissioner expressed the view that they would be something "the pauper would feel it was utterly impossible to contend against", and "give confidence to the Poor Law Guardians". Another assistant commissioner claimed the new design was intended as a "terror to the able-bodied population", but the architect <a href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott" title="George Gilbert Scott">George Gilbert Scott</a> was critical of what he called "a set of ready-made designs of the meanest possible character".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriver200459-38">[34]</a> Some critics of the new Poor Law noted the similarities between Kempthorne's plans and model prisons, and doubted that they were merely coincidental - <a href="/wiki/Richard_Oastler" title="Richard Oastler">Richard Oastler</a> went as far as referring to the institutions as 'prisons for the poor'.<a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Welby_Northmore_Pugin" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin">Augustus Pugin</a> compared Kempthorne's octagonal plan with the "antient poor hoyse", in what Felix Driver calls a "romantic, conservative critique" of the "degeneration of English moral and aesthetic values".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriver200461-40">[36]</a> By the 1840s some of the enthusiasm for Kempthorne's designs had waned. With limited space in built-up areas, and concerns over the ventilation of buildings, some unions moved away from panopticon designs. Between 1840 and 1870 about 150 workhouses with separate blocks designed for specific functions were built. Typically the entrance building contained offices, while the main workhouse building housed the various wards and workrooms, all linked by long corridors designed to improve ventilation and lighting. Where possible, each building was separated by an exercise yard, for the use of a specific category of pauper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2010117%E2%80%93118-41">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Admission_and_discharge">Admission and discharge</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Admission and discharge" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skiddaw_Building,_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg/220px-Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="473"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg/220px-Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg/330px-Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg/440px-Skiddaw_Building%2C_University_of_Cumbria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_715574.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Carlisle Union Workhouse, opened in 1864, later part of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cumbria" title="University of Cumbria">University of Cumbria</a></figcaption></figure> Each Poor Law Union employed one or more relieving officers, whose job it was to visit those applying for assistance and assess what relief, if any, they should be given. Any applicants considered to be in need of immediate assistance could be issued with a note admitting them directly to the workhouse. Alternatively they might be offered any necessary money or goods to tide them over until the next meeting of the guardians, who would decide on the appropriate level of support and whether or not the applicants should be assigned to the workhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007202%E2%80%93203-42">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Workhouse_shoes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Workhouse_shoes.jpg/220px-Workhouse_shoes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 270px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Workhouse_shoes.jpg/220px-Workhouse_shoes.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="270" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Workhouse_shoes.jpg/330px-Workhouse_shoes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Workhouse_shoes.jpg/440px-Workhouse_shoes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Children's boots issued by <a href="/wiki/Thackray_Museum_of_Medicine" title="Thackray Museum of Medicine">Leeds Union Workhouse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a></figcaption></figure> Workhouses were designed with only a single entrance guarded by a porter, through which inmates and visitors alike had to pass. Near to the entrance were the casual wards for tramps and vagrants<a href="#cite_note-45">[e]</a> and the relieving rooms, where paupers were housed until they had been examined by a medical officer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> After being assessed the paupers were separated and allocated to the appropriate ward for their category: boys under 14, able-bodied men between 14 and 60, men over 60, girls under 14, able-bodied women between 14 and 60, and women over 60.<a href="#cite_note-47">[f]</a> Children under the age of two were allowed to remain with their mothers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> but by entering a workhouse paupers were considered to have forfeited responsibility for their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> Clothing and personal possessions (with the possible exception of <a href="/wiki/Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectacles">spectacles</a>) were usually taken from them and stored, to be returned on their discharge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> After bathing,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200759-49">[43]</a> they were issued with a distinctive uniform:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[g]</a> for men it might be a striped cotton shirt, jacket and trousers, and a cloth cap, and for women a blue-and-white striped dress worn underneath a smock. Shoes were also provided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> In some establishments certain categories of inmate were marked out by their clothing; for example, at <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Corporation_of_the_Poor" title="Bristol Corporation of the Poor">Bristol Incorporation</a> workhouse, prostitutes were required to wear a yellow dress and pregnant single women a red dress; such practices were deprecated by the Poor Law Commission in a directive issued in 1839 entitled "Ignominious Dress for Unchaste Women in Workhouses", but they continued until at least 1866.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham20122208-52">[45]</a> Some workhouses had a separate "foul" or "itch" ward, where inmates diagnosed with skin diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">scabies</a> could be detained before entering the workhouse proper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> Also not to be overlooked were unfortunate destitute sufferers of mental health disorders, who would be ordered to enter the workhouse by the parish doctor. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lunacy_Act_1853&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lunacy Act 1853 (page does not exist)">Lunacy Act 1853</a> did promote the asylum as the institution of choice for patients afflicted with all forms of mental illness. However, in reality, destitute people suffering from mental illness would be housed in their local workhouse.<a href="#cite_note-53">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Former_workhouse_in_Kensington,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg/220px-Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg/220px-Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg/330px-Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg/440px-Former_workhouse_in_Kensington%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kensington" title="Kensington">Kensington</a> workhouse in London, which later became part of <a href="/wiki/St_Mary_Abbots_Hospital" title="St Mary Abbots Hospital">St Mary Abbots Hospital</a></figcaption></figure> Conditions in the casual wards were worse than in the relieving rooms, and deliberately designed to discourage vagrants, who were considered potential troublemakers and probably disease-ridden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> Vagrants who presented themselves at the door of a workhouse were at the mercy of the porter, whose decision it was whether or not to allocate them a bed for the night in the casual ward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007160%E2%80%93161-54">[47]</a> Those refused entry risked being sentenced to two weeks of <a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">hard labour</a> if they were found begging or sleeping in the open and prosecuted for an offence under the <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_Act_1824" title="Vagrancy Act 1824">Vagrancy Act 1824</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggs200787-55">[48]</a> A typical early 19th-century casual ward was a single large room furnished with some kind of bedding and perhaps a bucket in the middle of the floor for sanitation. The bedding on offer could be very basic: the Poor Law authorities in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_London" title="Richmond, London">Richmond</a> in London in the mid-1840s provided only straw and rags, although beds were available for the sick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007190-56">[49]</a> In return for their night's accommodation vagrants might be expected to undertake a certain amount of work before leaving the next day; for instance at <a href="/wiki/Guisborough" title="Guisborough">Guisborough</a> men were required to break stones for three hours and women to pick oakum, two hours before breakfast and one after.<a href="#cite_note-57">[50]</a> Until the passage of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Casual_Poor_Act_1882&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Casual Poor Act 1882 (page does not exist)">Casual Poor Act 1882</a> vagrants could discharge themselves before 11 am on the day following their admission, but from 1883 onwards they were required to be detained until 9 am on the second day. Those who were admitted to the workhouse again within one month were required to be detained until the fourth day after their admission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggs200794-58">[51]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg/133px-Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="177" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 133px;height: 177px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg/133px-Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg" data-width="133" data-height="177" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg/199px-Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg/265px-Leeds_workhouse_casual_wards.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Entrance to casual wards of Leeds Union Workhouse, built in 1901</figcaption></figure> Inmates were free to leave whenever they wished after giving reasonable notice, generally considered to be three hours, but if a parent discharged him- or herself then the children were also discharged, to prevent them from being abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007130-59">[52]</a> The comic actor <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a>, who spent some time with his mother in <a href="/wiki/Lambeth" title="Lambeth">Lambeth</a> workhouse, records in his autobiography that when he and his half-brother returned to the workhouse after having been sent to a school in <a href="/wiki/Hanwell" title="Hanwell">Hanwell</a>, he was met at the gate by his mother Hannah, dressed in her own clothes. Desperate to see them again she had discharged herself and the children; they spent the day together playing in <a href="/wiki/Kennington_Park" title="Kennington Park">Kennington Park</a> and visiting a coffee shop, after which she readmitted them all to the workhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007130%E2%80%93131-60">[53]</a> Available data surrounding death rates within the workhouse system is minimal; however, in the <a href="/wiki/Wall_to_Wall_Media" title="Wall to Wall Media">Wall to Wall</a> documentary Secrets from the Workhouse, it is estimated that 10% of those admitted to the workhouse after the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act died within the system.<a href="#cite_note-61">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Work">Work</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Work" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 1em 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; width:20%;" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <th style="padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background:#ccccff;" align="center" colspan="2">Daily workhouse schedule<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #fff;" align="left"> <td>5:00-6:00 </td> <td>Rise </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #ececec;"> <td>6:30–7:00 </td> <td>Breakfast </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #fff;" align="left"> <td>7:00–12:00 </td> <td>Work </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #ececec;" align="left"> <td>12:00–13:00 </td> <td>Dinner </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #fff;" align="left"> <td>13:00–18:00 </td> <td>Work </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #ececec;"> <td>18:00–19:00 </td> <td>Supper </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 90%; background: #fff;" align="left"> <td>20:00 </td> <td>Bedtime </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="color:black;text-align:center;">Sunday was a day of rest. During the winter months inmates were allowed to rise an hour later and did not start work until 8:00.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Some Poor Law authorities hoped that payment for the work undertaken by the inmates would produce a profit for their workhouses, or at least allow them to be self-supporting, but whatever small income could be produced never matched the running costs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther198127-62">[55]</a> In the 18th century, inmates were poorly managed, and lacked either the inclination or the skills to compete effectively with free market industries such as spinning and weaving. Some workhouses operated not as places of employment, but as houses of correction, a role similar to that trialled by Buckinghamshire magistrate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Marryott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matthew Marryott (page does not exist)">Matthew Marryott</a>. Between 1714 and 1722 he experimented with using the workhouse as a test of poverty rather than a source of profit, leading to the establishment of a large number of workhouses for that purpose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoynter196915%E2%80%9316-63">[56]</a> Nevertheless, local people became concerned about the competition to their businesses from cheap workhouse labour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther198127-62">[55]</a> As late as 1888, for instance, the Firewood Cutters Protection Association was complaining that the livelihood of its members was being threatened by the cheap firewood on offer from the workhouses in the East End of London.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007110-64">[57]</a> Many inmates were allocated tasks in the workhouse such as caring for the sick or teaching that were beyond their capabilities, but most were employed on "generally pointless" work,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007111-65">[58]</a> such as breaking stones or removing the <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> from telegraph wires. Workhouses were sometimes colloquially known as 'The Spike', which may derive from the common task of picking <a href="/wiki/Oakum" title="Oakum">oakum</a> using a large metal nail, also known as a spike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007111-65">[58]</a> Bone-crushing, useful in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Fertiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertiliser">fertiliser</a>, was a task most inmates could perform,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholls1854394-66">[59]</a> until a government inquiry into conditions in the <a href="/wiki/Andover_workhouse_scandal" title="Andover workhouse scandal">Andover workhouse</a> in 1845 found that starving paupers were reduced to fighting over the rotting bones they were supposed to be grinding, to suck out the marrow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler20078%E2%80%939-67">[60]</a> The resulting scandal led to the withdrawal of bone-crushing as an employment in workhouses and the replacement of the Poor Law Commission by the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Board" title="Poor Law Board">Poor Law Board</a> in 1847.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> Conditions were thereafter regulated by a list of rules contained in the 1847 <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_General_Order" title="Consolidated General Order">Consolidated General Order</a>, which included guidance on issues such as diet, staff duties, dress, education, discipline, and redress of grievances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007130-59">[52]</a> Some Poor Law Unions opted to send destitute children to the British colonies, in particular to <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, where it was hoped the fruits of their labour would contribute to the defence of the empire and enable the colonies to buy more British exports. Known as <a href="/wiki/Home_Children" title="Home Children">Home Children</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philanthropic_Society#Philanthropic_Farm_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Philanthropic Society">Philanthropic Farm school</a> alone sent more than 1000 boys to the colonies between 1850 and 1871, many of them taken from workhouses. In 1869 <a href="/wiki/Maria_Rye" title="Maria Rye">Maria Rye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annie_Macpherson" class="mw-redirect" title="Annie Macpherson">Annie Macpherson</a>, "two spinster ladies of strong resolve", began taking groups of orphans and children from workhouses to Canada, most of whom were taken in by farming families in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>. The Canadian government paid a small fee to the ladies for each child delivered, but most of the cost was met by charities or the Poor Law Unions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007147-68">[61]</a> As far as possible, elderly inmates were expected to undertake the same kind of work as the younger men and women, although concessions were made to their relative frailty. Or they might be required to chop firewood, clean the wards, or carry out other domestic tasks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007174-69">[62]</a> In 1882 Lady Brabazon, later the <a href="/wiki/Countess_of_Meath" class="mw-redirect" title="Countess of Meath">Countess of Meath</a>, set up a project to provide alternative occupation for non-able-bodied inmates, known as the <a href="/wiki/Brabazon_scheme" title="Brabazon scheme">Brabazon scheme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiggs200763-70">[63]</a> Volunteers provided training in crafts such as knitting, embroidery and lace making, all costs initially being borne by Lady Brabazon herself. Although slow to take off, when workhouses discovered that the goods being produced were saleable and could make the enterprise self-financing, the scheme gradually spread across the country, and by 1897 there were more than 100 branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Brabazon_scheme-71">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diet" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg/220px-Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="637"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg/220px-Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg/330px-Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg/440px-Women_mealtime_st_pancras_workhouse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Dinnertime at St Pancras Workhouse, London, 1911</figcaption></figure> In 1836 the Poor Law Commission distributed six diets for workhouse inmates, one of which was to be chosen by each Poor Law Union depending on its local circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> Although dreary, the food was generally nutritionally adequate,<a href="#cite_note-BMJ-72">[65]</a> and according to contemporary records was prepared with great care. Issues such as training staff to serve and weigh portions were well understood.<a href="#cite_note-BMJ-72">[65]</a> The diets included general guidance, as well as schedules for each class of inmate. They were laid out on a weekly rotation, the various meals selected on a daily basis, from a list of foodstuffs. For instance, a breakfast of bread and <a href="/wiki/Gruel" title="Gruel">gruel</a> was followed by dinner, which might consist of cooked meats, pickled pork or bacon with vegetables, potatoes, yeast <a href="/wiki/Dumpling" title="Dumpling">dumpling</a>, soup and <a href="/wiki/Suet" title="Suet">suet</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rice_pudding" title="Rice pudding">rice pudding</a>. Supper was normally bread, cheese and <a href="/wiki/Broth" title="Broth">broth</a>, and sometimes butter or potatoes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnon183656%E2%80%9359-73">[66]</a> The larger workhouses had separate dining rooms for males and females; workhouses without separate dining rooms would stagger the meal times to avoid any contact between the sexes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200762-74">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Education" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg/220px-Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="602"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 152px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg/220px-Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="152" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg/330px-Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg/440px-Children_at_crumpsall_workhouse_circa_1895.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A group of children at <a href="/wiki/Crumpsall" title="Crumpsall">Crumpsall</a> Workhouse, 1895–97</figcaption></figure> Education was provided for the children,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> but workhouse teachers were a particular problem. Poorly paid, without any formal training, and facing large classes of unruly children with little or no interest in their lessons, few stayed in the job for more than a few months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007134%E2%80%93135-75">[68]</a> In an effort to force workhouses to offer at least a basic level of education, legislation was passed in 1845 requiring that all pauper apprentices should be able to read and sign their own <a href="/wiki/Indenture" title="Indenture">indenture</a> papers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007135-76">[69]</a> A training college for workhouse teachers was set up at <a href="/wiki/Kneller_Hall" title="Kneller Hall">Kneller Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Twickenham" title="Twickenham">Twickenham</a> during the 1840s, but it closed in the following decade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007134-77">[70]</a> Some children were trained in skills valuable to the area. In <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a>, the boys were placed in the workhouse's workshop, while girls were tasked with <a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">spinning</a>, making gloves and other jobs "suited to their sex, their ages and abilities". At <a href="/wiki/St_Martin_in_the_Fields" class="mw-redirect" title="St Martin in the Fields">St Martin in the Fields</a>, children were trained in spinning <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a>, picking hair and <a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">carding</a> wool, before being placed as apprentices. Workhouses also had links with local industry; in <a href="/wiki/Nottingham" title="Nottingham">Nottingham</a>, children employed in a cotton mill earned about £60 a year for the workhouse. Some parishes advertised for apprenticeships, and were willing to pay any employer prepared to offer them. Such agreements were preferable to supporting children in the workhouse: apprenticed children were not subject to inspection by justices, thereby lowering the chance of punishment for neglect; and apprenticeships were viewed as a better long-term method of teaching skills to children who might otherwise be uninterested in work. Supporting an apprenticed child was also considerably cheaper than the workhouse or outdoor relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoneyman200721%E2%80%9323-78">[71]</a> Children often had no say in the matter, which could be arranged without the permission or knowledge of their parents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham200619-48">[42]</a> The supply of labour from workhouse to factory, which remained popular until the 1830s, was sometimes viewed as a form of <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transportation</a>. While getting parish apprentices from <a href="/wiki/Clerkenwell" title="Clerkenwell">Clerkenwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Oldknow" title="Samuel Oldknow">Samuel Oldknow</a>'s agent reported how some parents came "crying to beg they may have their Children out again". Historian Arthur Redford suggests that the poor may have once shunned factories as "an insidious sort of workhouse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedford197624%E2%80%9325-79">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> From the Jewish point of view ... was the virtual impossibility of complying with the Jewish ritual requirements; the dietary laws could have been followed, if at all, only by virtual restriction to bread and water, and the observance of the Sabbath and Festivities was impossible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones198090-80">[73]</a> </blockquote> </div> Religion played an important part in workhouse life: prayers were read to the paupers before breakfast and after supper each day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200766-81">[74]</a> Each Poor Law Union was required to appoint a chaplain to look after the spiritual needs of the workhouse inmates, and he was invariably expected to be from the established <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. Religious services were generally held in the dining hall, as few early workhouses had a separate chapel but in some parts of the country, notably <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a>,<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamReligion-82">[75]</a> there were more <a href="/wiki/Dissenter" title="Dissenter">dissenters</a> than members of the established church. As section 19 of the 1834 Poor Law specifically forbade any regulation forcing an inmate to attend church services "in a Mode contrary to [their] Religious Principles",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2004666-83">[76]</a> the commissioners were reluctantly forced to allow non-Anglicans to leave the workhouse on Sundays to attend services elsewhere, so long as they were able to provide a certificate of attendance signed by the officiating minister on their return.<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamReligion-82">[75]</a> As the 19th century wore on <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">non-conformist</a> ministers increasingly began to conduct services within the workhouse, but <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> priests were rarely welcomed.<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamReligion-82">[75]</a> A variety of legislation had been introduced during the 17th century to limit the civil rights of Catholics, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Popish_Recusants_Act_1605" title="Popish Recusants Act 1605">Popish Recusants Act 1605</a> in the wake of the failed <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">Gunpowder Plot</a> that year. Though almost all restrictions on Catholics in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were removed by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829" title="Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829">Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829</a>, a great deal of anti-Catholic feeling remained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981130-84">[77]</a> Even in areas with large Catholic populations, such as <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, the appointment of a Catholic chaplain was unthinkable.<a href="#cite_note-HigginbothamReligion-82">[75]</a> Some guardians went so far as to refuse Catholic priests entry to the workhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981130-84">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discipline">Discipline</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Discipline" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Discipline was strictly enforced in the workhouse; for minor offences such as swearing or feigning sickness the "disorderly" could have their diet restricted for up to 48 hours. For more serious offences such as insubordination or violent behavior the "refractory" could be confined for up to 24 hours, and might also have their diet restricted. Girls were punished in the same way as adults but sometimes in older cases girls were also beaten or slapped, but boys under the age of 14 could be beaten with "a rod or other instrument, such as may have been approved of by the Guardians". Children, specifically orphans, who leave the grounds without being discharged or run away from workhouses could be severely disciplined and could be confined with no food or water. The persistently refractory, or anyone bringing "spirituous or fermented liquor" into the workhouse, could be taken before a <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice of the Peace">Justice of the Peace</a> and even gaoled.<a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a> All punishments handed out were recorded in a punishment book, which was examined regularly by the workhouse guardians, locally elected representatives of the participating parishes with overall responsibility for the running of the workhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007135-76">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management_and_staffing">Management and staffing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Management and staffing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ripon_workhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ripon_workhouse.jpg/220px-Ripon_workhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1728"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ripon_workhouse.jpg/220px-Ripon_workhouse.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ripon_workhouse.jpg/330px-Ripon_workhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ripon_workhouse.jpg/440px-Ripon_workhouse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ripon Union Workhouse, completed in 1855, replaced an earlier <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a> workhouse. It now houses a museum.<a href="#cite_note-86">[79]</a></figcaption></figure> Although the commissioners were responsible for the regulatory framework within which the Poor Law Unions operated, each union was run by a locally elected board of guardians, comprising representatives from each of the participating parishes, assisted by six <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_phrases_(E)#ex_officio" title="List of Latin phrases (E)">ex officio</a>[<a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS">broken anchor</a>] members.<a href="#cite_note-NationalArchives-87">[80]</a> The guardians were usually farmers or tradesmen,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201114-88">[81]</a> and as one of their roles was the contracting out of the supply of goods to the workhouse, the position could prove lucrative for them and their friends. Simon Fowler has commented that "it is clear that this [the awarding of contracts] involved much petty corruption, and it was indeed endemic throughout the Poor Law system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200733-89">[82]</a> Although the 1834 Act allowed for women to become workhouse guardians provided they met the property requirement, the first female was not elected until 1875. <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working class</a> guardians were not appointed until 1892, when the property requirement was dropped in favour of occupying rented premises worth £5 a year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201114-88">[81]</a> Every workhouse had a complement of full-time staff, often referred to as the indoor staff. At their head was the governor or master, who was appointed by the board of guardians. His duties were laid out in a series of orders issued by the Poor Law Commissioners. As well as the overall administration of the workhouse, masters were required to discipline the paupers as necessary and to visit each ward twice daily, at 11 am and 9 pm. Female inmates and children under seven were the responsibility of the matron, as was the general housekeeping.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200775%E2%80%9376-90">[83]</a> The master and the matron were usually a married couple, charged with running the workhouse "at the minimum cost and maximum efficiency – for the lowest possible wages".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200777-91">[84]</a> A large workhouse such as <a href="/wiki/Whitechapel" title="Whitechapel">Whitechapel</a>, accommodating several thousand paupers, employed a staff of almost 200; the smallest may only have had a porter and perhaps an assistant nurse in addition to the master and matron.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200775-92">[85]</a> A typical workhouse accommodating 225 inmates had a staff of five, which included a part-time chaplain and a part-time medical officer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981127-93">[86]</a> The low pay meant that many medical officers were young and inexperienced. To add to their difficulties, in most unions they were obliged to pay out of their own pockets for any drugs, dressings or other medical supplies needed to treat their patients.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007155%E2%80%93156-94">[87]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Later_developments_and_abolition">Later developments and abolition</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Later developments and abolition" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg/170px-St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="766"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 146px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg/170px-St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="146" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg/255px-St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg/340px-St_mary_abbots_workhouse_plan.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Allom" title="Thomas Allom">Thomas Allom</a>'s design for St Mary Abbots workhouse in <a href="/wiki/Kensington,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensington, London">Kensington, London</a>, is noticeably different from those produced by <a href="/wiki/Sampson_Kempthorne" title="Sampson Kempthorne">Sampson Kempthorne</a> a decade earlier.</figcaption></figure> A second major wave of workhouse construction began in the mid-1860s, the result of a damning report by the Poor Law inspectors on the conditions found in infirmaries in London and the provinces. Of one workhouse in <a href="/wiki/Southwark" title="Southwark">Southwark</a>, London, an inspector observed bluntly that "The workhouse does not meet the requirements of medical science, nor am I able to suggest any arrangements which would in the least enable it to do so".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200747-10">[10]</a> By the middle of the 19th century there was a growing realisation that the purpose of the workhouse was no longer solely or even chiefly to act as a deterrent to the able-bodied poor, and the first generation of buildings was widely considered to be inadequate. About 150 new workhouses were built mainly in London, <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> between 1840 and 1875, in architectural styles that began to adopt <a href="/wiki/Italianate_architecture" title="Italianate architecture">Italianate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture" title="Elizabethan architecture">Elizabethan</a> features, to better fit into their surroundings and present a less intimidating face. One surviving example is the gateway at Ripon, designed somewhat in the style of a medieval almshouse. A major feature of this new generation of buildings is the long corridors with separate wards leading off for men, women and children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200748-95">[88]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leeds_workhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Leeds_workhouse.jpg/220px-Leeds_workhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1652" data-file-height="966"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 129px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Leeds_workhouse.jpg/220px-Leeds_workhouse.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="129" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Leeds_workhouse.jpg/330px-Leeds_workhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Leeds_workhouse.jpg/440px-Leeds_workhouse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Leeds Union Workhouse, now the <a href="/wiki/Thackray_Museum_of_Medicine" title="Thackray Museum of Medicine">Thackray Museum of Medicine</a>, built 1858-61 in the long corridor design</figcaption></figure> By 1870 the architectural fashion had moved away from the corridor design in favour of a pavilion style based on the military hospitals built during and after the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, providing light and well-ventilated accommodation. Opened in 1878, the Manchester Union's infirmary comprised seven parallel three-storey pavilions separated by 80-foot-wide (24 m) "airing yards"; each pavilion had space for 31 beds, a day room, a nurse's kitchen and toilets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200749-33">[29]</a> By the start of the 20th century new workhouses were often fitted out to an "impressive standard".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012The_Twentieth-Century_Workhouse-96">[89]</a> Opened in 1903, the workhouse at <a href="/wiki/Hunslet" title="Hunslet">Hunslet</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="West Riding of Yorkshire">West Riding of Yorkshire</a> had two steam boilers with automatic stokers supplying heating and hot water throughout the building, a generator to provide electricity for the institution's 1,130 electric lamps, and electric lifts in the infirmary pavilion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012The_Twentieth-Century_Workhouse-96">[89]</a> As early as 1841 the Poor Law Commissioners were aware of an "insoluble dilemma" posed by the ideology behind the New Poor Law:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987125-28">[26]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">If the pauper is always promptly attended by a skilful and well qualified medical practitioner ... if the patient be furnished with all the cordials and stimulants which may promote his recovery: it cannot be denied that his condition in these respects is better than that of the needy and industrious ratepayer who has neither the money nor the influence to secure prompt and careful attendance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987125-28">[26]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg/220px-Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="75" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="13801" data-file-height="4702"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 75px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg/220px-Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="75" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg/330px-Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg/440px-Watling_Street_Road_Workhouse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Watling Street Road Workhouse, Preston, built in 1865–1868</figcaption></figure>The education of children presented a similar dilemma. It was provided free in the workhouse but had to be paid for by the "merely poor";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987125-28">[26]</a> free <a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">primary education</a> for all children was not provided in the UK until 1918.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987144%E2%80%93145-97">[90]</a> Instead of being "less eligible", conditions for those living in the workhouse were in certain respects "more eligible" than for those living in poverty outside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987125-28">[26]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:22em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Hush-a-bye baby, on the tree top, When you grow old, your wages will stop, When you have spent the little you made First to the Poorhouse and then to the grave </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="center-aligned" style="">Anonymous verse from Yorkshire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007171-98">[91]</a></cite></div> </div> By the late 1840s most workhouses outside London and the larger provincial towns housed only "the incapable, elderly and sick".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201119-99">[92]</a> By the end of the century only about 20 per cent of those admitted to workhouses were unemployed or destitute,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007105-100">[93]</a> but about 30 per cent of the population over 70 were in workhouses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007171-98">[91]</a> The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Old_age_pension" class="mw-redirect" title="Old age pension">pensions</a> for those aged over 70 in 1908 did not reduce the number of elderly housed in workhouses, but it did reduce the number of those on outdoor relief by 25 per cent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007170-101">[94]</a> Responsibility for administration of the Poor Law passed to the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Board" title="Local Government Board">Local Government Board</a> in 1871, and the emphasis soon shifted from the workhouse as "a receptacle for the helpless poor" to its role in the care of the sick and helpless. The <a href="/wiki/Diseases_Prevention_(Metropolis)_Act_1883" title="Diseases Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1883">Diseases Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1883</a> allowed London workhouse infirmaries to offer treatment to non-paupers as well as inmates, and by the beginning of the 20th century some infirmaries were even able to operate as private hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201119-99">[92]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_the_Poor_Laws_and_Relief_of_Distress_1905%E2%80%931909" title="Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905–1909">Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905–1909</a> reported that workhouses were unsuited to deal with the different categories of resident they had traditionally housed, and recommended that specialised institutions for each class of pauper should be established, in which they could be treated appropriately by properly trained staff. The "deterrent" workhouses were in future to be reserved for "incorrigibles such as drunkards, idlers and tramps".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther198154-102">[95]</a> On 24 January 1918 the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Daily Telegraph">Daily Telegraph</a> reported that the Local Government Committee on the Poor Law had presented to the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Reconstruction" title="Ministry of Reconstruction">Ministry of Reconstruction</a> a report recommending abolition of the workhouses and transferring their duties to other organizations.<a href="#cite_note-103">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1929" title="Local Government Act 1929">Local Government Act 1929</a> gave local authorities the power to take over workhouse infirmaries as municipal hospitals, although outside London few did so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987346-104">[97]</a> The workhouse system was abolished in the UK by the same Act on 1 April 1930, but many workhouses, renamed Public Assistance Institutions, continued under the control of local county councils.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeansSmith1985155-105">[98]</a> At the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> in 1939 almost 100,000 people were accommodated in the former workhouses, 5,629 of whom were children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981110-106">[99]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Assistance_Act_1948" title="National Assistance Act 1948">National Assistance Act 1948</a> (<a href="/wiki/11_%26_12_Geo._6" class="mw-redirect" title="11 & 12 Geo. 6">11 & 12 Geo. 6</a>. c. 29) abolished the last vestiges of the Poor Law, and with it the workhouses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeansSmith1985155-105">[98]</a> Many of the workhouse buildings were converted into <a href="/wiki/Retirement_home" title="Retirement home">retirement homes</a> run by the local authorities;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongmate2003284-107">[100]</a> slightly more than half of local authority accommodation for the elderly was provided in former workhouses in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981112-108">[101]</a> Camberwell workhouse (in <a href="/wiki/Peckham" title="Peckham">Peckham</a>, South London) continued until 1985 as a <a href="/wiki/Homeless_shelter" title="Homeless shelter">homeless shelter</a> for more than 1,000 men, operated by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Security" title="Department of Health and Social Security">Department of Health and Social Security</a> and renamed a resettlement centre.<a href="#cite_note-Deer1985-109">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Workhouse,_Southwell" title="The Workhouse, Southwell">Southwell Workhouse</a>, now a museum, was used to provide temporary accommodation for mothers and children until the early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2007223-110">[103]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Modern_view">Modern view</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modern view" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> It is beyond the omnipotence of Parliament to meet the conflicting claims of justice to the community; severity to the idle and viscious and mercy to those stricken down into penury by the vicissitudes of God ... There is grinding want among the honest poor; there is starvation, squalor, misery beyond description, children lack food and mothers work their eyes dim and their bodies to emaciation in the vain attempt to find the bare necessities of life, but the Poor Law authorities have no record of these struggles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987120-111">[104]</a> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="center-aligned" style="">Philanthropist <a href="/wiki/William_Rathbone_V" title="William Rathbone V">William Rathbone</a>, 1850</cite></div> </div> The Poor Law was not designed to address the issue of poverty, which was considered to be the inevitable lot for most people; rather it was concerned with <a href="/wiki/Pauperism" title="Pauperism">pauperism</a>, "the inability of an individual to support himself". Writing in 1806 <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Colquhoun" title="Patrick Colquhoun">Patrick Colquhoun</a> commented that:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987120-111">[104]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Poverty ... is a most necessary and indispensable ingredient in society, without which nations and communities could not exist in a state of civilisation. It is the lot of man – it is the source of wealth, since without poverty there would be no labour, and without labour there could be no riches, no refinement, no comfort, and no benefit to those who may be possessed of wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987120-111">[104]</a></blockquote> Historian <a href="/wiki/Simon_Fowler_(author)" title="Simon Fowler (author)">Simon Fowler</a> has argued that workhouses were "largely designed for a pool of able-bodied idlers and shirkers ... However this group hardly existed outside the imagination of a generation of political economists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200714-112">[105]</a> Workhouse life was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor and to ensure that only the truly destitute would apply, a principle known as <a href="/wiki/Less_eligibility" title="Less eligibility">less eligibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987122-113">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, however, described what he imagined the motives of the authors of the 1834 New Poor Law to be, "to force the poor into the <a href="/wiki/Procrustes" title="Procrustes">Procrustean</a> bed of their preconceived notions. To do this they treated the poor with incredible savagery."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200710-114">[107]</a> The purpose of workhouse labour was never clear according to historian M. A. Crowther. In the early days of workhouses it was either a punishment or a source of income for the parish, but during the 19th century the idea of work as punishment became increasingly unfashionable. The idea took hold that work should rehabilitate the workhouse inmates for their eventual independence, and that it should therefore be rewarded with no more than the workers' maintenance, otherwise there would be no incentive for them to seek work elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981197-115">[108]</a> As of 1997, around 10% of the British population had a genealogical connection to the workhouse system.<a href="#cite_note-116">[109]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="In_art_and_literature">In art and literature</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In art and literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg/220px-Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="452"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 140px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg/220px-Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="140" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg/330px-Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg/440px-Hubert_von_Herkomer_1878_-_Eventide.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eventide:_A_Scene_in_the_Westminster_Union" title="Eventide: A Scene in the Westminster Union">Eventide: A Scene in the Westminster Union</a> (workhouse), 1878, by Sir <a href="/wiki/Hubert_von_Herkomer" title="Hubert von Herkomer">Hubert von Herkomer</a></figcaption></figure> The "dramatic possibilities" of the workhouse provided the inspiration for several artists including <a href="/wiki/Charles_West_Cope" title="Charles West Cope">Charles West Cope</a>, whose Board Day Application for Bread (1841), depicting a young widow pleading for bread for her four children, was painted following his visit to a meeting of the Staines Board of Guardians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Art-44">[40]</a> The "quintessential workhouse yarn" is <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Twist" title="Oliver Twist">Oliver Twist</a> (1838) by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, which contains the well-known request from Oliver to the master of the workhouse: "Please, sir, I want some more".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction-117">[110]</a> Another popular piece of workhouse literature was the dramatic monologue <a href="/wiki/In_the_Workhouse_%E2%80%93_Christmas_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="In the Workhouse – Christmas Day">In the Workhouse – Christmas Day</a> (1877) by <a href="/wiki/George_Robert_Sims" title="George Robert Sims">George Robert Sims</a>, with its first line of "It is Christmas Day in the workhouse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Christmas-118">[111]</a> In chapter XXVII of his first book, <a href="/wiki/Down_and_Out_in_Paris_and_London" title="Down and Out in Paris and London">Down and Out in Paris and London</a> (1933), <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a> gives a brief but vivid account of his stay in a London workhouse when he roamed the streets as a tramp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction-117">[110]</a> In 1931 an early version of this account had been published as an essay "<a href="/wiki/The_Spike_(essay)" title="The Spike (essay)">The Spike</a>" in an issue of <a href="/wiki/The_Adelphi" title="The Adelphi">The New Adelphi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction-117">[110]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almshouse" title="Almshouse">Almshouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poorhouse" title="Poorhouse">Poorhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Murder" title="Book of Murder">Book of Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_Homes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage Homes">Cottage Homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_servitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal servitude">Penal servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_poorhouse" title="Scottish poorhouse">Scottish poorhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: notes;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Britain's <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">gross national income</a> in 1830 was £400 million, of which the £7 million spent on poor relief represents 2%, not a great deal by modern standards according to the historian Trevor May. He further observes that "As poor relief was the only social service provided by the state this might seem to be a small price to pay for saving Britain from the revolution that must have seemed so imminent during the <a href="/wiki/Swing_Riots" title="Swing Riots">Swing riots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987121-18">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> It has been estimated that there were 1.5 million paupers in Britain in 1832, about 12% of the population of 13 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987121-18">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> In 1860 the weekly cost of maintaining a pauper in a workhouse in the east of England was 3s 0½d (£0.152) a week, as opposed to 1s 9d (£0.088) a week for outdoor relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987125-28">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Official twice-yearly headcounts, taken on 1 January and 1 July, suggest that between 2.5% and 4.5% of the population was accommodated in workhouses at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200967-31">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Houseless_Poor_Act_1864" title="Metropolitan Houseless Poor Act 1864">Metropolitan Houseless Poor Act 1864</a> imposed a legal obligation on Poor Law Unions to provide such temporary accommodation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Art-44">[40]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Those were the official categories, but some Poor Law Unions further subdivided those in their care, particularly women: prostitutes, "women incapable of getting their own way from syphilis", and "idiotic or weak-minded women with one or more bastard children".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200757-46">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> The notion of marking out those in receipt of poor relief by their clothing was enshrined in law by the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Act_1697" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor Act 1697">Poor Act 1697</a>, although the custom dated back to at least the previous century. The 1697 Act required paupers to wear a badge consisting of the letter "P" on their right shoulder, in either red or blue cloth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Badging_the_Poor-50">[44]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.llangynfelyn.org/dogfennau/tloty_reseitiau.html">"Tloty Aberystwyth Reseitiau 1884/ Aberystwyth Workhouse Recipes, 1884"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tloty+Aberystwyth+Reseitiau+1884%2F+Aberystwyth+Workhouse+Recipes%2C+1884&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.llangynfelyn.org%2Fdogfennau%2Ftloty_reseitiau.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HigginbothamIntroduction-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HigginbothamIntroduction_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HigginbothamIntroduction_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham" class="citation web cs1">Higginbotham, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.workhouses.org.uk/intro/">"Introduction"</a>. workhouse.org.uk. Retrieved 9 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction&rft.pub=workhouse.org.uk&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.workhouses.org.uk%2Fintro%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham20069-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham20069_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHigginbotham2006">Higginbotham (2006)</a>, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200939-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser200939_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser2009">Fraser (2009)</a>, p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200940-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser200940_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser2009">Fraser (2009)</a>, p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeMorrison20163-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColeMorrison20163_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFColeMorrison2016">Cole & Morrison (2016)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham" class="citation web cs1">Higginbotham, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.workhouses.org.uk/parishes/">"Parish Workhouses"</a>. 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay198789-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay198789_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMay1987">May (1987)</a>, p. 89 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson199351-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibson199351_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibson1993">Gibson (1993)</a>, p. 51 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler200718-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler200718_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler2007">Fowler (2007)</a>, p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1994163–164-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins1994163%E2%80%93164_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins1994163%E2%80%93164_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHopkins1994">Hopkins (1994)</a>, pp. 163–164 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholls185418-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholls185418_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicholls1854">Nicholls (1854)</a>, p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser200950-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser200950_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser2009">Fraser 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler2007170_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler2007">Fowler (2007)</a>, p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther198154-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowther198154_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrowther1981">Crowther (1981)</a>, p. 54 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Reprinted in <a href="/wiki/Daily_Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Daily Telegraph">Daily Telegraph</a> 24 January 2018, page 26 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1987346-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay1987346_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMay1987">May (1987)</a>, p. 346 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeansSmith1985155-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeansSmith1985155_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeansSmith1985155_105-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeansSmith1985">Means & Smith (1985)</a>, p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowther1981110-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowther1981110_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrowther1981">Crowther 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Edwin Chadwick, Spartacus Educational, 1997, retrieved 27 November 2014, available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://spartacus-educational.com/PHchadwick.htm">http://spartacus-educational.com/PHchadwick.htm</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Fiction_117-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHigginbotham2012">Higginbotham (2012)</a>, Fiction </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Christmas-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigginbotham2012Christmas_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHigginbotham2012">Higginbotham (2012)</a>, Christmas </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnon1836" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Anon (1836), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RFQSAAAAYAAJ">Reports from Commissioners, Fifteen Volumes, (8. Part I), Poor Laws (England), Session 4 February – 20 August 1836</a>, vol. 29, part 1, HMSO</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reports+from+Commissioners%2C+Fifteen+Volumes%2C+%288.+Part+I%29%2C+Poor+Laws+%28England%29%2C+Session+4+February+%E2%80%93+20+August+1836&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1836&rft.au=Anon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRFQSAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldicott2017" class="citation cs2">Caldicott, R. L. (2017), The Life and Death of Hannah Wiltshire A Case Study of Bedminster Union Workhouse and Victorian Social Attitudes on Epilepsy, Bristol Radical Pamphleteer Pamphlet #35, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911522-34-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-911522-34-8"><bdi>978-1-911522-34-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Death+of+Hannah+Wiltshire+A+Case+Study+of+Bedminster+Union+Workhouse+and+Victorian+Social+Attitudes+on+Epilepsy&rft.pub=Bristol+Radical+Pamphleteer+Pamphlet+%2335&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-911522-34-8&rft.aulast=Caldicott&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeMorrison2016" class="citation cs2">Cole, Emily; Morrison, Kathryn (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.historicengland.org.uk/redirect.aspx?id=6604%7CRed%20House%20(formerly%20Framlingham%20Workhouse),%20Framlingham%20Castle,%20Suffolk">The Red House (formerly Framlingham Workhouse), Framlingham Castle, Suffolk</a>, Research Report Series No. 23/2016, London: English Heritage</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+House+%28formerly+Framlingham+Workhouse%29%2C+Framlingham+Castle%2C+Suffolk&rft.place=London&rft.series=Research+Report+Series+No.+23%2F2016&rft.pub=English+Heritage&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Morrison%2C+Kathryn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.historicengland.org.uk%2Fredirect.aspx%3Fid%3D6604%257CRed%2520House%2520%28formerly%2520Framlingham%2520Workhouse%29%2C%2520Framlingham%2520Castle%2C%2520Suffolk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowther1981" class="citation cs2">Crowther, A. C. (1981), The Workhouse System 1834–1929: The History of an English Social Institution, Batsford Academic and Educational, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3671-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3671-6"><bdi>978-0-7134-3671-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Workhouse+System+1834%E2%80%931929%3A+The+History+of+an+English+Social+Institution&rft.pub=Batsford+Academic+and+Educational&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-3671-6&rft.aulast=Crowther&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriver2004" class="citation cs2">Driver, Felix (2004), Power and Pauperism, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60747-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60747-6"><bdi>978-0-521-60747-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Pauperism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-60747-6&rft.aulast=Driver&rft.aufirst=Felix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2007" class="citation cs2">Fowler, Simon (2007), Workhouse: The People: The Places: The Life Behind Closed Doors, The National Archives, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905615-28-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905615-28-5"><bdi>978-1-905615-28-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouse%3A+The+People%3A+The+Places%3A+The+Life+Behind+Closed+Doors&rft.pub=The+National+Archives&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-905615-28-5&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2009" class="citation cs2">Fraser, Derek (2009), The Evolution of the British Welfare State (4 ed.), Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22466-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22466-7"><bdi>978-0-230-22466-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+the+British+Welfare+State&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-22466-7&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson1993" class="citation cs2">Gibson, Colin (1993), Dissolving Wedlock, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03226-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03226-1"><bdi>978-0-415-03226-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dissolving+Wedlock&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-415-03226-1&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2010" class="citation cs2">Green, David R. (2010), Pauper Capital: London and the Poor Law, 1790–1870, Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3008-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3008-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-3008-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pauper+Capital%3A+London+and+the+Poor+Law%2C+1790%E2%80%931870&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3008-1&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2006" class="citation cs2">Higginbotham, Peter (2006), Workhouses of the North, Tempus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4001-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4001-9"><bdi>978-0-7524-4001-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouses+of+the+North&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4001-9&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2012" class="citation cs2">Higginbotham, Peter (2012), The Workhouse Encyclopedia (eBook), The History Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-7719-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-7719-0"><bdi>978-0-7524-7719-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Workhouse+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-7719-0&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiggs2007" class="citation cs2">Higgs, Michelle (2007), Life in the Victorian & Edwardian Workhouse, Tempus Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4214-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4214-3"><bdi>978-0-7524-4214-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+the+Victorian+%26+Edwardian+Workhouse&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4214-3&rft.aulast=Higgs&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoneyman2007" class="citation cs2">Honeyman, Katrina (2007), Child Workers in England, 1780–1820, Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6272-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6272-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-6272-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Child+Workers+in+England%2C+1780%E2%80%931820&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6272-3&rft.aulast=Honeyman&rft.aufirst=Katrina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins1994" class="citation cs2">Hopkins, Eric (1994), Childhood Transformed, Manchester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-3867-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-3867-9"><bdi>978-0-7190-3867-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Childhood+Transformed&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-3867-9&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1980" class="citation cs2">Jones, Catherine (1980) [1977], Immigration and Social Policy in Britain, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-422-74680-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-422-74680-9"><bdi>978-0-422-74680-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigration+and+Social+Policy+in+Britain&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-422-74680-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnott1986" class="citation cs2">Knott, John (1986), Popular opposition to the 1834 Poor Law, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1532-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1532-4"><bdi>978-0-7099-1532-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+opposition+to+the+1834+Poor+Law&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-1532-4&rft.aulast=Knott&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2004" class="citation cs2">Levinson, David, ed. (2004), "An Act for the Amendment and better Administration of the Laws relating to the Poor in England and Wales (14th August 1834)", Encyclopedia of Homelessness, vol. 2, Sage, pp. 663–92, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2751-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2751-8"><bdi>978-0-7619-2751-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Act+for+the+Amendment+and+better+Administration+of+the+Laws+relating+to+the+Poor+in+England+and+Wales+%2814th+August+1834%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Homelessness&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E663-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2751-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongmate2003" class="citation cs2">Longmate, Norman (2003), The Workhouse, Pimlico, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0637-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0637-0"><bdi>978-0-7126-0637-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Workhouse&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-0637-0&rft.aulast=Longmate&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay1987" class="citation cs2">May, Trevor (1987), An Economic and Social History of Britain 1760–1970, Longman Group, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-35281-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-35281-0"><bdi>978-0-582-35281-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+Britain+1760%E2%80%931970&rft.pub=Longman+Group&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-582-35281-0&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2011" class="citation cs2">May, Trevor (2011), The Victorian Workhouse, Shire Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0355-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0355-3"><bdi>978-0-7478-0355-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Workhouse&rft.pub=Shire+Publications&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0355-3&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeansSmith1985" class="citation cs2">Means, Robin; Smith, Randall (1985), The Development of Welfare Services for Elderly People, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-3531-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-3531-5"><bdi>978-0-7099-3531-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Welfare+Services+for+Elderly+People&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-3531-5&rft.aulast=Means&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=Smith%2C+Randall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholls1854" class="citation cs2">Nicholls, Sir George (1854), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I37aAAAAMAAJ">A History of the English Poor Law</a>, vol. II, John Murray</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+Poor+Law&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=Sir+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI37aAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNixon2011" class="citation cs2">Nixon, Cheryl L. (2011), The Orphan in Eighteenth-Century Law and Literature, Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6424-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6424-6"><bdi>978-0-7546-6424-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orphan+in+Eighteenth-Century+Law+and+Literature&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6424-6&rft.aulast=Nixon&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoynter1969" class="citation cs2">Poynter, J. R. (1969), Society and Pauperism, Routledge and Kegan Paul, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1611-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1611-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-1611-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Pauperism&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-1611-9&rft.aulast=Poynter&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedford1976" class="citation cs2">Redford, Arthur (1976), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/labourmigrationi0000redf">Labour Migration in England, 1800–1850</a> (3rd ed.), Manchester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0636-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0636-4"><bdi>978-0-7190-0636-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labour+Migration+in+England%2C+1800%E2%80%931850&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-0636-4&rft.aulast=Redford&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flabourmigrationi0000redf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrompton1997" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, Frank (1997). Workhouse Children: Infant and Child Paupers Under the Worcestershire Poor Law, 1780–1871. Sutton Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-1429-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-1429-1"><bdi>978-0-7509-1429-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouse+Children%3A+Infant+and+Child+Paupers+Under+the+Worcestershire+Poor+Law%2C+1780%E2%80%931871&rft.pub=Sutton+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7509-1429-1&rft.aulast=Crompton&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowning1725" class="citation book cs1">Downing, J. (1725). An Account of Several Work-houses for Employing and Maintaining the Poor. Joseph Downing. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22843166M">22843166M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Account+of+Several+Work-houses+for+Employing+and+Maintaining+the+Poor&rft.pub=Joseph+Downing&rft.date=1725&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL22843166M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Downing&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2007" class="citation book cs1">Higginbotham, Peter (2007). Workhouses of the Midlands. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4488-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4488-8"><bdi>978-0-7524-4488-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouses+of+the+Midlands&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4488-8&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2008" class="citation book cs1">Higginbotham, Peter (2008). The Workhouse Cookbook. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4730-8"><bdi>978-0-7524-4730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Workhouse+Cookbook&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4730-8&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers1889" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Joseph (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/josephrogersmdre00roge">Reminiscences of a Workhouse Medical Officer</a>. T. F. Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reminiscences+of+a+Workhouse+Medical+Officer&rft.pub=T.+F.+Unwin&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjosephrogersmdre00roge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNightingale1867" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Nightingale, Florence</a> (1867). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Workhouse_nursing">Workhouse nursing </a>. Macmillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouse+nursing&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Nightingale&rft.aufirst=Florence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwining1858" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Twining" title="Louisa Twining">Twining, Louisa</a> (1858). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Workhouses_and_women%27s_work">Workhouses and women's work </a>. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans and Roberts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workhouses+and+women%27s+work&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+Longmans+and+Roberts&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Twining&rft.aufirst=Louisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkhouse" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Workhouse&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-workhouses">Victorian Workhouses</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.workhouses.org.uk">The Workhouse Website</a> An extensive history of the workhouse</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/workhouse.asp">Workhouse records on The National Archives' website.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyextra.com/workhouse">The Rise and Fall of the Workhouse</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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Last edited on 16 February 2025, at 01:56 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84" title="دار عمل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دار عمل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C5%9F_evl%C9%99ri" title="İş evləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İş evləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tloty" title="Tloty – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tloty" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeitshaus" title="Arbeitshaus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arbeitshaus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurkh%C3%BBs" title="Wurkhûs – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wurkhûs" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EB%B9%88%EC%9B%90" title="구빈원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구빈원" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumah_kerja" title="Rumah kerja – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumah kerja" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinnuh%C3%A6li" title="Vinnuhæli – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vinnuhæli" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94" title="בית עבודה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בית עבודה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dologh%C3%A1z" title="Dologház – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dologház" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werkhuis" title="Werkhuis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Werkhuis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%91%E8%B2%A7%E9%99%A2_(%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E3%83%8F%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9)" title="救貧院 (ワークハウス) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="救貧院 (ワークハウス)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeidshus" title="Arbeidshus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arbeidshus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Работный дом – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Работный дом" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Workhouse" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbetshus" title="Arbetshus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arbetshus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="వర్క్ హౌస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వర్క్ హౌస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="โรงทำงาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรงทำงาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A1i_t%E1%BA%BF_b%E1%BA%A7n" title="Trại tế bần – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trại tế bần" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%8E%E8%B4%AB%E9%99%A2" title="济贫院 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="济贫院" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 February 2025, at 01:56 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> 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