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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Racism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orientalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orientalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Orientalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orientalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subaltern_native" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subaltern_native"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Subaltern native</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subaltern_native-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_and_sex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_and_sex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gender and sex</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gender_and_sex-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gender and sex subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gender_and_sex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-LGBT_identities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LGBT_identities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>LGBT identities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LGBT_identities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Woman_as_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Woman_as_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>Woman</i> as identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Woman_as_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Knowledge</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Knowledge-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Knowledge subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_representations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_representations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Cultural representations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_representations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Academia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Practical perspectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_difference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_difference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sexual difference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_difference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Other (philosophy)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ander_(filosofie)" title="Ander (filosofie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ander (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%AE%D8%B1_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9)" title="الآخر (فلسفة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الآخر (فلسفة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fqa" title="Başqa – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Başqa" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%BD" title="Druhý – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Druhý" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othering" title="Othering – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Othering" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teine" title="Teine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otro_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Otro (filosofía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Otro (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliulo" title="Aliulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aliulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestea" title="Bestea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bestea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87)" title="دیگری (فلسفه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیگری (فلسفه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autrui" title="Autrui – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Autrui" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outro" title="Outro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Outro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru" title="Altru – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Altru" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liyan_(filsafat)" title="Liyan (filsafat) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Liyan (filsafat)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalmente_Altro" title="Totalmente Altro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Totalmente Altro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%97%D7%A8_(%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94)" title="אחר (פילוסופיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אחר (פילוסופיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Башка (философия) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Башка (философия)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ander" title="Ander – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ander" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%96%E8%80%85" title="他者 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="他者" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_Andre" title="Den Andre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den Andre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE_(%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE)" title="ਦੂਸਰਾ (ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੂਸਰਾ (ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outro" title="Outro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Outro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cel%C4%83lalt_(filozofie)" title="Celălalt (filozofie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Celălalt (filozofie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Другой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Другой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugost" title="Drugost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Drugost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toiseus" title="Toiseus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Toiseus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_Andre" title="Den Andre – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Den Andre" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96teki_(felsefe)" title="Öteki (felsefe) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Öteki (felsefe)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Інший – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інший" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%96%E8%80%85" title="他者 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="他者" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1433373#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/The_Other_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="The Other (disambiguation)">The Other (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Concept in philosophy and psychology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/220px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/330px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/440px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="2421" /></a><figcaption>The founder of phenomenology, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, identified the Other as one of the conceptual bases of <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a>, of the relations among people.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Other</b> is a term used to define another person or people as separate from oneself. In <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, the terms <b>the Other</b> and <b>the Constitutive Other</b> distinguish other people from the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a>, as a cumulative, constituting factor in the <a href="/wiki/Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a> of a person; as acknowledgement of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">being real</a>; hence, the Other is dissimilar to and the opposite of the Self, of Us, and of the Same.<sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_p._673_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_p._673-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Constitutive Other is the relation between the <a href="/wiki/Personality" title="Personality">personality</a> (essential nature) and the person (body) of a human being; the relation of <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essential</a> and superficial characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a> that corresponds to the relationship between opposite, but correlative, characteristics of the Self, because the difference is inner-difference, within the Self.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The condition and quality of <b>Otherness</b> (the characteristics of the Other) is the state of being different from and alien to the <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">social identity</a> of a person and to the <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity of the Self</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> of philosophy, the term Otherness identifies and refers to the characteristics of <i>Who?</i> and <i>What?</i> of the Other, which are distinct and separate from <a href="/wiki/The_Symbolic" title="The Symbolic">the Symbolic</a> order of things; from <a href="/wiki/The_Real" title="The Real">the Real</a> (the authentic and unchangeable); from the <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">æsthetic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">taste</a>); from <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>; from <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">social norms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">social identity</a>; and from the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a>. Therefore, the condition of Otherness is a person's non-conformity to and with the social norms of society; and Otherness is the condition of <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement">disenfranchisement</a> (political exclusion), effected either by the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> or by the social institutions (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">professions</a>) invested with the corresponding socio-political <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>. Therefore, the imposition of Otherness <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">alienates</a> the person labelled as "the Other" from the centre of society, and places him or her at the margins of society, for being the Other.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <b>Othering</b> or <b>Otherizing</b><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes the reductive action of labelling and defining a person as a <a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">subaltern native</a>, as someone who belongs to the socially subordinate category of the Other. The practice of Othering excludes persons who do not fit the norm of the <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social group</a>, which is a version of the Self;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likewise, in <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, the practice of othering persons means to exclude and displace them from the social group to the margins of society, where mainstream social norms do not apply to them, for being the Other.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/170px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/255px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/340px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3674" data-file-height="4783" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a> introduced the concept of the Other as constituent part of human preoccupation with the Self.</figcaption></figure> <p>The concept of the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a> requires the existence of <b>the constitutive Other</b> as the counterpart entity required for <b>defining the Self</b>. Accordingly, in the late 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831) introduced the concept of the Other as a constituent part of <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a> (preoccupation with the Self),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which complemented the propositions about <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a> (capacity for introspection) proffered by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a> (1762–1814).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873) introduced the idea of the <b><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">other mind</a></b> in 1865 in <i>An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy</i>, the first formulation of the other after <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> (1859–1938) applied the concept of the Other as the basis for <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a>, the psychological relations among people. In <i><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_Meditations:_An_Introduction_to_Phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology">Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology</a></i> (1931), Husserl said that the Other is constituted as an <i>alter ego</i>, as an <i>other self</i>. As such, the Other person posed and was an epistemological problem—of being only a perception of the consciousness of the Self.<sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_p._637-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology</a></i> (1943), <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (1905–1980) applied the dialectic of intersubjectivity to describe how the world is altered by the appearance of the Other, of how the world then appears to be oriented to the Other person, and not to the Self. The Other appears as a psychological phenomenon in the course of a person's life, and not as a radical threat to the <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> of the Self. In that mode, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> (1949), <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> (1908–1986) applied the concept of Otherness to Hegel's dialectic of the "<a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Lord and Bondsman</a>" (<i>Herrschaft und Knechtschaft</i>, 1807) and found it to be like the dialectic of the Man–Woman relationship, thus a true explanation for society's treatment and mistreatment of women. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a> (1901–1981) and the philosopher of ethics <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a> (1906–1995) established the contemporary definitions, usages, and applications of the constitutive Other, as the radical counterpart of the Self. Lacan associated the Other with language and with <a href="/wiki/The_Symbolic" title="The Symbolic">the symbolic order</a> of things. Levinas associated the Other with the ethical metaphysics of <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">scripture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>; the ethical proposition is that the Other is superior and prior to the Self. </p><p>In the event, Levinas re-formulated the <a href="/wiki/Face-to-face_(philosophy)" title="Face-to-face (philosophy)">face-to-face</a> encounter (wherein a person is morally responsible to the Other person) to include the propositions of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> (1930–2004) about the impossibility of the Other (person) being an entirely <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_presence" title="Metaphysics of presence">metaphysical pure-presence</a>. That the Other could be an entity of pure Otherness (of <a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">alterity</a>) personified in a <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representation</a> created and depicted with language that identifies, describes, and classifies. The conceptual re-formulation of the nature of the Other also included Levinas's analysis of the distinction between "<a href="/wiki/The_saying_and_the_said" title="The saying and the said">the saying and the said</a>"; nonetheless, the nature of the Other retained the priority of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> over <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. </p><p>In the psychology of the mind (e.g. <a href="/wiki/R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">R. D. Laing</a>), the Other identifies and refers to <a href="/wiki/The_unconscious" class="mw-redirect" title="The unconscious">the unconscious mind</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Silence" title="Silence">silence</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a>, and to language ("to what is referred and to what is unsaid").<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, in such psychologic and analytic usages, there might arise a tendency to <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a> if the Other person (as a being of pure, abstract alterity) leads to ignoring the commonality of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>. Likewise, problems arise from unethical usages of the terms The Other, Otherness, and Othering to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological divisions</a> of reality: of <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Becoming_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Becoming (philosophy)">becoming</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_p._637-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/170px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/255px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/340px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption>The philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_L%C3%A9vinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel Lévinas">Emmanuel Lévinas</a> said that the infinite demand the Other places on the Self makes ethics the foundation of human existence and philosophy.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Totality_and_Infinity" title="Totality and Infinity">Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority</a></i> (1961), Emmanuel Lévinas said that previous philosophy had reduced the constitutive Other to an object of consciousness, by not preserving its absolute <i><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">alterity</a></i>—the innate condition of otherness, by which the Other radically transcends the Self and the totality of the human network, into which the Other is being placed. As a challenge to self-assurance, the existence of the Other is a matter of ethics, because the ethical priority of the Other equals the primacy of ethics over <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> in real life.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From that perspective, Lévinas described the nature of the Other as "insomnia and wakefulness"; an <a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">ecstasy</a> (an exteriority) towards the Other that forever remains beyond any attempt at fully capturing the Other, whose Otherness is infinite; even in the murder of an Other, the Otherness of the person remains uncontrolled and not negated. The infinity of the Other allowed Lévinas to derive other aspects of philosophy and science as secondary to that ethic; thus: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The others that obsess me in the Other do not affect me as examples of the same <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> united with my neighbor, by resemblance or common nature, <a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">individuations</a> of the human race, or chips off the old block. . . . The others concern me from the first. Here, fraternity precedes the commonness of a genus. My relationship with the Other as neighbor gives meaning to my relations with all the others.—<a href="/wiki/Otherwise_than_Being" title="Otherwise than Being"><i>Otherwise than Being, or Beyond Essence</i></a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232">: 232 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_theory">Critical theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Critical theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jacques Derrida said that the absolute <i><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">alterity</a></i> of the Other is compromised, because the Other person is <i>other than</i> the Self and the group. The logic of <i>alterity</i> (otherness) is especially negative in the realm of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, wherein the native Other is denied <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical priority</a> as a person with the right to participate in the geopolitical discourse with an empire who decides the colonial fate of the homeland of the Other. In that vein, the language of Otherness used in <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Studies">Oriental Studies</a> perpetuates the cultural perspective of the dominantor–dominated relation, which is characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>; likewise, the sociologic misrepresentation of <i>the feminine</i> as the sexual Other to man reasserts <a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male privilege</a> as the primary voice in social discourse between women and men.<sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_p._637-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq</i> (2004), the geographer <a href="/wiki/Derek_Gregory" title="Derek Gregory">Derek Gregory</a> said that the US government's ideologic answers to questions about reasons for the terrorist attacks against the U.S. (i.e. 11 September 2001) reinforced the imperial purpose of the negative representations of the Middle-Eastern Other; especially when President G. W. Bush (2001–2009) rhetorically asked: "Why do they hate us?" as political prelude to the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Terror">War on Terror</a> (2001).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bush's rhetorical interrogation of armed resistance to empire, by the non–Western Other, produced an Us-and-Them mentality in American relations with the non-white peoples of the Middle East; hence, as foreign policy, the War on Terror is fought for control of imaginary geographies, which originated from the <a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">fetishised</a> cultural representations of the Other invented by <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalists</a>; the cultural critic <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sa%C3%AFd" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Saïd">Edward Saïd</a> said that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To build a conceptual framework around a notion of Us-versus-Them is, in effect, to pretend that the principal consideration is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> and natural—our civilization is known and accepted, theirs is different and strange—whereas, in fact, the framework separating us from them is belligerent, constructed, and situational.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq</i> (2004), p. 24.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperialism_and_colonialism">Imperialism and colonialism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Imperialism and colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The contemporary, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">post-colonial</a> world system of nation-states (with interdependent politics and economies) was preceded by the European <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperial system</a> of economic and settler <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonies</a> in which "the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states, and often in the form of an empire, [was] based on <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">domination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">subordination</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the imperialist world system, political and economic affairs were fragmented, and the discrete empires "provided for most of their own needs ... [and disseminated] their influence solely through conquest [empire] or the threat of conquest [hegemony]."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racism">Racism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Races_and_skulls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/200px-Races_and_skulls.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/300px-Races_and_skulls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Races_and_skulls.png/400px-Races_and_skulls.png 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="3612" /></a><figcaption>A manifestation of the Other in the form of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>: In this 1857 illustration from his work <i>Indigenous Races of the Earth</i>, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a> justified anti-Black racism by claiming that the features of African-Americans had more in common with <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> than humans in comparison to white people.</figcaption></figure> <p>The racialist perspective of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> during the 18th and 19th centuries was invented with the Othering of non-white peoples, which also was supported with the fabrications of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>, such as the pseudo-science of <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>, which claimed that, in relation to a white-man's head, the head-size of the non-European Other indicated inferior intelligence; e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid-era</a> cultural representations of <a href="/wiki/Coloured_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Coloured people">coloured people</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (1948–94).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequent to <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> (1941–1945), with documents such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question">The Race Question</a></i> (1950) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination" title="Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination">Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination</a></i> (1963), the United Nations officially declared that racial differences are insignificant to anthropological likeness among human beings. Despite the United Nations' factual dismissal of <a href="/wiki/Racialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialism">racialism</a>, institutional Othering in the United States produces the cultural misrepresentation of political refugees as <i>illegal immigrants</i> (from overseas) and of immigrants as <i>illegal aliens</i> (usually from México). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orientalism">Orientalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Orientalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To European people, imperialism (military conquest of non-white people, annexation, and economic integration of their countries to the motherland) was intellectually justified by (among other reasons) <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalism</a>, the study and <a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">fetishization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a> as "primitive peoples" requiring modernisation the <a href="/wiki/Civilising_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilising mission">civilising mission</a>. Colonial empires were justified and realised with essentialist and reductive <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representations</a> (of people, places, and cultures) in books and pictures and fashion, which conflated different cultures and peoples into the binary relation of <a href="/wiki/The_Orient" class="mw-redirect" title="The Orient">the Orient</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Occident" class="mw-redirect" title="The Occident">the Occident</a>. Orientalism created the <a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">artificial existence</a> of the Western Self and the non–western Other.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orientalists rationalised the cultural artifice of a difference of <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> between white and non-white peoples to fetishize (identify, classify, subordinate) the peoples and cultures of Asia into "the Oriental Other"—who exists <i>in opposition to</i> the Western Self.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a function of imperial ideology, <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a> fetishizes people and things in three actions of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural imperialism</a>: (i) Homogenization (all Oriental peoples are one folk); (ii) Feminization (the Oriental always is subordinate in the East–West relation); and (iii) Essentialization (a people possess universal characteristics); thus established by Othering, the empire's <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">cultural hegemony</a> reduces to inferiority the people, places, and things of the Eastern world, as measured against the West, the standard of superior civilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subaltern_native">Subaltern native</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subaltern native"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gramsci.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gramsci.png/220px-Gramsci.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Gramsci.png 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>The <i>subaltern native</i> is a colonial identity for the Other, which conceptually derives from the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a> work of <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>, an Italian Marxist intellectual.</figcaption></figure> <p>Colonial stability requires the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural subordination</a> of the non-white Other for transformation into the <a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">subaltern native</a>; a colonised people who facilitate the <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">exploitation of their labour</a>, of their lands, and of the natural resources of their country. The practise of Othering justifies the physical domination and cultural subordination of the native people by degrading them—first from being a national-citizen to being a colonial-subject—and then by displacing them to the periphery of the colony, and of geopolitical enterprise that is imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using the <a href="/wiki/False_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="False dichotomy">false dichotomy</a> of "colonial strength" (imperial power) against "native weakness" (military, social, and economic), the coloniser invents the non-white Other in an artificial dominator-dominated relationship that can be resolved only through <a href="/wiki/Racialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialist">racialist</a> <i>noblesse oblige</i>, the "moral responsibility" that psychologically allows the colonialist Self to believe that imperialism is a <a href="/wiki/Civilising_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilising mission">civilising mission</a> to educate, convert, and then culturally assimilate the Other into the empire—thus transforming the "civilised" Other into the Self.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In establishing a colony, Othering a non-white people allowed the colonisers to physically subdue and "civilise" the natives to establish the <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">hierarchies of domination</a> (political and social) required for exploiting the subordinated natives and their country.<sup id="cite_ref-Mountz,_A._2016_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mountz,_A._2016-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a function of empire, a settler colony is an economic means for profitably disposing of two demographic groups: (i) the colonists (surplus population of the motherland) and (ii) the colonised (the subaltern native to be exploited) who antagonistically define and represent the Other as separate and apart from the colonial Self.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Culture_and_Imperialism_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Culture_and_Imperialism-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Othering establishes unequal relationships of power between the colonised natives and the colonisers, who believe themselves <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essentially superior</a> to the natives whom they othered into racial inferiority, as the non-white Other.<sup id="cite_ref-Colonialism._2016_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonialism._2016-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That dehumanisation maintains the false binary-relations of social class, <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, of sex and gender, and of nation and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Mountz,_A._2016_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mountz,_A._2016-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The profitable functioning of a colony (economic or settler) requires continual protection of the cultural demarcations that are basic to the unequal <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socio-economic relation</a> between the "civilised man" (the colonist) and the "savage man", thus the transformation of the Other into the colonial subaltern.<sup id="cite_ref-Colonialism._2016_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonialism._2016-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Culture_and_Imperialism_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Culture_and_Imperialism-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_and_sex">Gender and sex</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gender and sex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LGBT_identities">LGBT identities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: LGBT identities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social exclusion</a> function of Othering a person or a social group from mainstream society to the social margins—for being essentially different from the <a href="/wiki/Societal_norm" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal norm">societal norm</a> (the plural Self)—is a socio-economic function of gender. In a society wherein man–woman <a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">heterosexuality</a> is the sexual norm, the Other refers to and identifies <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbians</a> (women who love women) and <a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gays</a> (men who love men) as people of <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">same-sex orientation</a> whom society has othered as "sexually deviant" from the norms of binary-gender heterosexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practise, sexual Othering is realised by applying the negative denotations and connotations of the terms that describe lesbian, gay, <a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">bisexual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> people, in order to diminish their personal social status and <a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a>, and so displace their LGBT communities to the legal margin of society. To neutralise such cultural Othering, LGBT communities <i>queer</i> a city by creating social spaces that use the spatial and temporal plans of the city to allow the LGBT communities free expression of their <a href="/wiki/Social_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social identity">social identities</a>, e.g. a <a href="/wiki/Boystown,_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Boystown, Chicago">boystown</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pride_parade" title="Pride parade">gay-pride parade</a>, etc.; as such, <i>queering</i> urban spaces is a political means for the non-binary sexual Other to establish themselves as citizens integral to the <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> (cultural and socio-economic) of their city's <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">body politic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Woman_as_identity"><i>Woman</i> as identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Woman as identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg/170px-Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg/255px-Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg/340px-Simone_de_Beauvoir.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1158" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>The philosopher of existentialism Simone de Beauvoir developed the concept of The Other to explain the workings of the Man–Woman binary gender relation, as a critical base of the Dominator–Dominated relation, which characterises sexual inequality between men and women.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">philosopher of feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheshire_Calhoun" title="Cheshire Calhoun">Cheshire Calhoun</a> identified the female Other as the female-half of the binary-gender relation that is the Man and Woman relation. The <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> of the word <i>Woman</i> (the subordinate party in the Man <i>and</i> Woman relation) produced a <a href="/wiki/Reconstructivism" title="Reconstructivism">conceptual reconstruction</a> of the female Other as the Woman who exists independently of male definition, as <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalised</a> by patriarchy. That the female Other is a self-aware Woman who is <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomous</a> and independent of the patriarchy's formal subordination of the female sex with the institutional limitations of <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">social convention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a>; the social subordination of women is communicated (denoted and connoted) in the <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexist usages</a> of the word <i>Woman</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1949, the philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> applied <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>'s conception of "the Other" (as a constituent part of <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a>) to describe a male-dominated culture that <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">represents</a> Woman as the sexual Other to Man. In a patriarchal culture, the Man–Woman relation is society's normative binary-gender relation, wherein <i>the sexual Other</i> is a social <a href="/wiki/Minority_(philosophy)" title="Minority (philosophy)">minority</a> with the least <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">socio-political agency</a>, usually the women of the community, because patriarchal <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> established that "a man represents both the positive and the neutral, as indicated by the common use of [the word] <i>Man</i> to designate human beings in general; whereas [the word] <i>Woman</i> represents only the negative, defined by limiting criteria, without reciprocity" from the first sex, from Man.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1957, <a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Betty Friedan</a> reported that a woman's social identity is formally established by the sexual politics of the Ordinate–Subordinate nature of the Man–Woman sexual relation, the social norm in the patriarchal West. When queried about their post-graduate lives, the majority of women interviewed at a university-class reunion, used binary gender language, and referred to and identified themselves by their social roles (wife, mother, lover) in the private sphere of life; and did not identify themselves by their own achievements (job, career, business) in the public sphere of life. Unawares, the women had acted <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">conventionally</a>, and automatically identified and referred to themselves as the social Other to men. </p><p>Although the nature of the social Other is influenced by the society's social constructs (<a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>), as a human organisation, society holds the <a href="/wiki/Power_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (philosophy)">socio-political power</a> to formally change the social relation between the male-defined Self and <i>Woman</i>, the sexual Other, who is not male.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In feminist definition, women are the Other to men (but not the Other proposed by Hegel) and are not existentially defined by masculine demands; and also are the social Other who unknowingly accepts social subjugation as part of <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the gender identity of woman is constitutionally different from the gender identity of man. The harm of Othering is in the asymmetric nature of unequal roles in sexual and gender relations; the inequality arises from the social mechanics of <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge">Knowledge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_representations">Cultural representations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cultural representations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YellowTerror.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/YellowTerror.jpg/220px-YellowTerror.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/YellowTerror.jpg/330px-YellowTerror.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/YellowTerror.jpg/440px-YellowTerror.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption><i>The Yellow Terror in all His Glory</i>, an 1899 editorial cartoon depicting a Chinese man standing over a fallen white woman. The Chinese man, the "other", represents the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_movement" title="Boxer movement">Boxer movement</a> and the woman represents Christian Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>About the production of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> of the Other who is not <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">the Self</a>, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> said that <b>Othering</b> is the creation and maintenance of imaginary "knowledge of the Other"—which comprises cultural representations in service to <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">socio-political power</a> and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">hierarchies of domination</a>. That <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">cultural representations</a> of the Other (as a metaphor, as a metonym, and as an anthropomorphism) are manifestations of the xenophobia inherent to the European historiographies that defined and labelled non–European peoples as the Other who is not the European Self. Supported by the reductive discourses (academic and commercial, geopolitical and military) of the empire's <a href="/wiki/Dominant_ideology" title="Dominant ideology">dominant ideology</a>, the colonialist misrepresentations of the Other explain the Eastern world to the Western world as a binary relation of native weakness against colonial strength.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiographies</a> of the Orient as a cultural region, the Orientalists studied only what they said was the <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a> (languages and literatures, arts and philologies) of the Middle East, but did not study that geographic space as a place inhabited by different nations and societies.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About that Western version of the Orient, Edward Saïd said that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the Orient that appears in Orientalism, then, is a system of representations framed by a whole set of forces that brought the Orient into <a href="/wiki/Western_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Western learning">Western learning</a>, Western consciousness, and later, Western empire. If this definition of Orientalism seems more political than not, that is simply because I think Orientalism was, itself, a product of certain political forces and activities.<br /><br /> Orientalism is a school of interpretation whose material happens to be the Orient, its civilisations, peoples, and localities. Its objective discoveries – the work of innumerable devoted scholars who edited texts and translated them, codified grammars, wrote dictionaries, reconstructed dead epochs, produced <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivistically</a> verifiable learning – are and always have been conditioned by the fact that its truths, like any truths delivered by language, are embodied in language, and, what is the truth of language?, Nietzsche once said, but "a mobile army of <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Metonym">metonyms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphisms</a> – in short, a sum of human relations, which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically, and which, after long use, seem firm, canonical, and obligatory to a people: truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is what they are."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Orientalism</i> (1978) pp. 202–203.<sup id="cite_ref-Said_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Said-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 202">: 202 </span></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In so far as the Orient occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existential</a> awareness of the Western world, as a term, The Orient later accrued many meanings and associations, denotations, and connotations that did not refer to the real peoples, cultures, and geography of the Eastern world, but to <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">Oriental studies</a>, the academic field about the Orient as a word.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academia">Academia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Academia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/170px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/255px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/340px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1450" /></a><figcaption>In "<i><a href="/wiki/Cosmographia_(Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster)" title="Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)">Cosmographia</a></i>" (1570), by Sebastian Münster, "<a href="/wiki/Europa_regina" title="Europa regina">Europa regina</a>" is the cartographic centre of the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Eastern world, the field of <a href="/wiki/Occidentalism" title="Occidentalism">Occidentalism</a>, the investigation programme and academic curriculum of and about <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">the essence</a> of the West—Europe as a culturally homogeneous place—did not exist as a counterpart to Orientalism.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodern era</a>, the Orientalist practices of <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism_(negationism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical revisionism (negationism)">historical negationism</a>, the writing of distorted histories about the places and peoples of "The East", continues in contemporary journalism; e.g. in the Third World, political parties practice Othering with fabricated facts about threat-reports and non-existent threats (political, social, military) that are meant to politically delegitimise opponent political parties composed of people from the social and ethnic groups designated as the Other in that society.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Othering of a person or of a social group—by means of an ideal <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentricity">ethnocentricity</a> (the ethnic group of the Self) that evaluates and assigns negative, cultural <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(psychology)" title="Meaning (psychology)">meaning</a> to the ethnic Other—is realised through <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Fellman_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fellman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 179">: 179 </span></sup> hence, the maps of Western cartographers emphasised and bolstered artificial representations of the national-identities, the natural resources, and the cultures of the native inhabitants, as culturally inferior to the West. </p><p>Historically, Western cartography often featured distortions (proportionate, proximate, and commercial) of places and true distances by placing the cartographer's <a href="/wiki/Mother_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother country">homeland</a> in the centre of the <i>mapamundi</i>; these ideas were often utilized to support <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_Imperialism" title="Geography and Imperialism">imperialistic expansion</a>. In contemporary cartography, the polar-perspective maps of the northern hemisphere, drawn by U.S. cartographers, also frequently feature distorted spatial relations (distance, size, mass) of and between the U.S. and Russia which according to historian Jerome D. Fellman emphasise the perceived inferiority (military, cultural, geopolitical) of the Russian Other.<sup id="cite_ref-Fellman_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fellman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_perspectives">Practical perspectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Practical perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting,_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27,_1511,_the_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg/300px-Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg/450px-Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg/600px-Anonymous_Venetian_orientalist_painting%2C_The_Reception_of_the_Ambassadors_in_Damascus%27%2C_1511%2C_the_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Orientalist art: <i>The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus</i> (1511) features wildlife (the deer in the foreground) that is not native to Syria.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i>Key Concepts in Political Geography</i> (2009), <a href="/wiki/Alison_Mountz" title="Alison Mountz">Alison Mountz</a> proposed concrete definitions of the Other as a philosophic concept and as a term within <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>; as a noun, the Other identifies and refers to a person and to a group of persons; as a verb, the Other identifies and refers to a category and a label for persons and things. </p><p>Post-colonial scholarship demonstrated that, in pursuit of empire, "the colonizing powers narrated an 'Other' whom they set out to save, dominate, control, [and] civilize . . . [in order to] extract resources through colonization" of the country whose people the colonial power designated as the Other.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As facilitated by <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist representations</a> of the non–Western Other, <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonization</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Economic_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic exploitation">economic exploitation</a> of a people and their land—is misrepresented as a <a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">civilizing mission</a> launched for the material, cultural, and spiritual benefit of the colonized peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Counter to the post-colonial perspective of the Other as part of a Dominator–Dominated binary relationship, postmodern philosophy presents the Other and Otherness as <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> progress for Man and Society. Public knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Social_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social identity">social identity</a> of peoples <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">classified</a> as "Outsiders" is <i>de facto</i> acknowledgement of their being <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a>, thus they are part of the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">body politic</a>, especially in the cities. As such, "the post-modern city is a geographical celebration of <a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">difference</a> that moves sites once conceived of as 'marginal' to the [social] centre of discussion and analysis" of the <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">human relations</a> between the Outsiders and the Establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output 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class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allosemitism" title="Allosemitism">Allosemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_Identity_Disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociative Identity Disorder">Dissociative Identity Disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">Exoticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_other" title="Generalized other">Generalized other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">Markedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">Marx's theory of alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_individualism" title="Open individualism">Open individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otherness_of_childhood" title="Otherness of childhood">Otherness of childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_suction" title="Role suction">Role suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertiginous_question" title="Vertiginous question">Vertiginous question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocentrism" title="Xenocentrism">Xenocentrism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Orientalism_(book)" title="Orientalism (book)">Orientalism</a></i> (1978), by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sa%C3%AFd" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Saïd">Edward Saïd</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth#Strategic_Essentialism" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></i>, (1961), by <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><i>The Other</i> (2006), by <a href="/wiki/Ryszard_Kapu%C5%9Bci%C5%84ski" title="Ryszard Kapuściński">Ryszard Kapuściński</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Other_(1972_film)" title="The Other (1972 film)">The Other</a></i>, 1972 movie based on the novel by Thomas Tryon.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_difference">Sexual difference</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Julia Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Luce Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarojini_Sahoo" title="Sarojini Sahoo">Sarojini Sahoo</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Philosophy_p._673-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_p._673_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (1995) p. 673.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Other, <i>The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>, Third Edition, (1999) p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHegel,_G._W._F.Miller,_A._V.1977" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, G. W. F.; Miller, A. V. (1977). Hoffmeister, J. (ed.). <i>Force and the Understanding: Appearance and the Supersensible World: Phenomenology of Spirit</i> (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 98–9. <q>The relation of essential nature to outward manifestation in pure change ... to infinity ... as inner difference ... [is within] its own Self.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Force+and+the+Understanding%3A+Appearance+and+the+Supersensible+World%3A+Phenomenology+of+Spirit&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=98-9&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Hegel%2C+G.+W.+F.&rft.au=Miller%2C+A.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlay,_J._N.Hegel,_G._W._F.Miller,_A._V.1977" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, J. N.; Hegel, G. W. F.; Miller, A. V. (1977). Hoffmeister, J. (ed.). <i>Analysis of the Text: Phenomenology of Spirit</i> (5 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 517–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+the+Text%3A+Phenomenology+of+Spirit&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=517-18&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Findlay%2C+J.+N.&rft.au=Hegel%2C+G.+W.+F.&rft.au=Miller%2C+A.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiven2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Given, Lisa M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151121083928/http://www.sage-ereference.com/view/research/n304.xml">"Otherness"</a>. <i>The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 588–591. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412963909.n304">10.4135/9781412963909.n304</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412941631" title="Special:BookSources/9781412941631"><bdi>9781412941631</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sage-ereference.com/view/research/n304.xml">the original</a> on 21 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Otherness&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Encyclopedia+of+Qualitative+Research+Methods&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=588-591&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412963909.n304&rft.isbn=9781412941631&rft.aulast=Given&rft.aufirst=Lisa+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sage-ereference.com%2Fview%2Fresearch%2Fn304.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Otherness", <i>The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>, Third Edition (1999), p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/power-and-influence/202109/otherizing-and-the-death-persuasion">"Otherizing and the Death of Persuasion | Psychology Today"</a>. <i>www.psychologytoday.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.psychologytoday.com&rft.atitle=Otherizing+and+the+Death+of+Persuasion+%7C+Psychology+Today&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Fus%2Fblog%2Fpower-and-influence%2F202109%2Fotherizing-and-the-death-persuasion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2016/03/06/469420740/with-otherize-pundits-reach-outside-the-dictionary-to-describe-politics">"With 'Otherize,' Pundits Reach Outside The Dictionary To Describe Politics"</a>. <i>NPR</i>. <q>ZIMMER: Well, turning other into a verb does have a long history. Actually, it goes all the way back to the German philosopher Hegel, who wrote in the early 19th century about consciousness of the self versus the other. And by the early 20th century in English writing, you see the other being turned into a verb to describe the act of making a person or a group be excluded from a particular norm. And that's been called othering. So this otherize form has been showing up more frequently lately.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=With+%27Otherize%2C%27+Pundits+Reach+Outside+The+Dictionary+To+Describe+Politics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2016%2F03%2F06%2F469420740%2Fwith-otherize-pundits-reach-outside-the-dictionary-to-describe-politics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Othering", <i>The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i>, Third Edition (1999), p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountz" class="citation journal cs1">Mountz, Allison. "The Other". <i>Key Concepts in Human Geography</i>: 328.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Key+Concepts+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=The+Other&rft.pages=328&rft.aulast=Mountz&rft.aufirst=Allison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (1967) Vol. 1, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (1967) Vol. 8, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonderich,_Ted2005" class="citation book cs1">Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 673. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199264791" title="Special:BookSources/0199264791"><bdi>0199264791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=673&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0199264791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philosophy_p._637-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_p._637_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (1995) p. 637.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought</i> (1999 )p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (1967) p. 637.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lévinas, E., <i>Otherwise than Being, or Beyond Essence</i> (Berlin / Heidelberg: Springer Science+Business Media, 1974), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3eLdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT232">p. 232</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq</i> (2004), p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory, Derek. <i>The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq</i> (2004), p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnston, R.J., <i>et al</i>., <i>The Dictionary of Human Geography</i>, 4th Edition Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2000. p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gelvin, James L. <i>The Modern Middle East: A History</i>, 2nd ed. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountz2009" class="citation journal cs1">Mountz, Alison (2009). "The Other". <i>Key Concepts in Political Geography</i>: 332.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Key+Concepts+in+Political+Geography&rft.atitle=The+Other&rft.pages=332&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mountz&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orientalism, <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory</i> Third Edition (1991), Ja.A. Cuddon, Ed., pp. 660–661.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountz2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mountz, Alison (27 January 2016). "The Other". <i>Key Concepts in Political Geography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Key+Concepts+in+Political+Geography&rft.atitle=The+Other&rft.date=2016-01-27&rft.aulast=Mountz&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaid1978" class="citation book cs1">Said, Edward (1978). <i>Orientalism</i>. New York: Patheon Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orientalism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Patheon+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Said&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashcroft, B., <a href="/wiki/Gareth_Griffiths_(academic)" title="Gareth Griffiths (academic)">Griffiths, G.</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Helen_Tiffin" title="Helen Tiffin">Tiffin, H.</a>, <i>Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts</i> (London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jCSCAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA142">p. 142</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rieder, John. <i>Colonialism and the Emergence of Science Fiction </i> (2008) pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mountz,_A._2016-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mountz,_A._2016_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mountz,_A._2016_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mountz, A. (n.d.). <i>The Other</i>. Key Concepts in Political Geography, pp. 328–338. Retrieved 2 February 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wikiwash.metronews.ca/other/703349669-703223196">"WikiWash"</a>. <i>wikiwash.metronews.ca</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wikiwash.metronews.ca&rft.atitle=WikiWash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwikiwash.metronews.ca%2Fother%2F703349669-703223196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Culture_and_Imperialism-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Culture_and_Imperialism_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Culture_and_Imperialism_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaid1993" class="citation book cs1">Said, Edward (1993). <i>Culture and Imperialism</i>. New York: Vintage Books (Random House). p. xii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Imperialism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+%28Random+House%29&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Said&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colonialism._2016-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Colonialism._2016_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Colonialism._2016_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Colonialism", <i>Dictionary of Human Geography</i>, pp. 94–98. Retrieved 2 February 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallagher,_Carolyn_2009_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gallagher, Carolyn, Dahlman, Carl T., Gilmartin, Mary, Mountz, Alison, Shirlow, Peter. <i>Key Concepts in Political Geography.</i> SAGE Publications Ltd, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountz" class="citation journal cs1">Mountz, Allison. "The Other". <i>Key Concepts in Human Geography</i>: 335.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Key+Concepts+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=The+Other&rft.pages=335&rft.aulast=Mountz&rft.aufirst=Allison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCann, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCann, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haslanger</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sarojinisahoo.blogspot.com">"Sense & Sensuality"</a>. <i>sarojinisahoo.blogspot.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sarojinisahoo.blogspot.com&rft.atitle=Sense+%26+Sensuality&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsarojinisahoo.blogspot.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jemmer, Patrick. "The O(the)r (O)the(r)", <i>Engage Newcastle</i>, Vol. 1, August 2010 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2045-0567">2045-0567</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907926-00-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907926-00-6">978-1-907926-00-6</a>), Newcastle UK: NewPhilSoc Publishing, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=YlN_kz8th4cC&oi=fnd&pg=PA7">p. 7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://origins.osu.edu/article/image/yellow-terror-all-his-glory">"Yellow Terror in all His Glory"</a>. Ohio State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yellow+Terror+in+all+His+Glory&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forigins.osu.edu%2Farticle%2Fimage%2Fyellow-terror-all-his-glory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOther+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rieder, John. <i>Colonialism and the Emergence of Science Fiction </i> (2008) p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rieder, John. <i>Colonialism and the Emergence of Science Fiction </i> (2008) p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Said-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Said_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saïd, Edward W. <i>Orientalism</i>, 25th Anniversary Ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saïd, Edward W. <i>Orientalism</i> (1978) pp. 202–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Humphreys, Steven R. "The Historiography of the Modern Middle East: Transforming a Field of Study", <i>Middle East Historiographies: Narrating the Twentieth Century</i>, Israel Gershoni, Amy Singer, Y. Hakam Erdem, Eds. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006. pp. 19–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sehgal, Meera. "Manufacturing a Feminized Siege Mentality." <i>Journal of Contemporary Ethnography</i> <b>36</b> (2) (2007): p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fellman-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fellman_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fellmann, Jerome D., et al. <i>Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities</i>, 10th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Thomas_(critical_theorist)" title="Calvin Thomas (critical theorist)">Thomas, Calvin</a>, ed. (2000). "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", <i>Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality</i>. University of Illinois Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06813-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-06813-0">0-252-06813-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_Cahoone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lawrence Cahoone (page does not exist)">Cahoone, Lawrence</a> (1996). <i>From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.</li> <li>Colwill, Elizabeth. (2005). <i>Reader—Wmnst 590: Feminist Thought</i>. KB Books.</li> <li>Haslanger, Sally. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mit.edu/~shaslang/papers/fmnews/UHO.html"><i>Feminism and Metaphysics</i>: Unmasking Hidden Ontologies</a>. 28 November 2005.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2021">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_McCann" title="Carole McCann">McCann, Carole</a>. Kim, Seung-Kyung. (2003). <i>Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives</i>. Routledge. New York, NY.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Rimbaud, Arthur</a> (1966). "Letter to Georges Izambard", <i>Complete Works and Selected Letters</i>. Trans. <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Fowlie" title="Wallace Fowlie">Wallace Fowlie</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche, Friedrich</a> (1974). <i>The Gay Science</i>. Trans. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a>. New York: Vintage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure, Ferdinand de</a> (1986). <i>Course in General Linguistics</i>. Eds. Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye. Trans. Roy Harris. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan, Jacques</a> (1977). <i>Écrits: A Selection</i>. Trans. <a href="/wiki/Alan_Sheridan" title="Alan Sheridan">Alan Sheridan</a>. New York: Norton.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser, Louis</a> (1973). <i>Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays</i>. Trans. Ben Brewster. New York: Monthly Review Press.</li> <li>Warner, Michael (1990). "Homo-Narcissism; or, Heterosexuality", <i>Engendering Men</i>, p. 191. Eds. Boone and Cadden, London UK: Routledge.</li> <li>Tuttle, Howard (1996). <i>The Crowd is Untruth</i>, Peter Lang Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8204-2866-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8204-2866-3">0-8204-2866-3</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Levinas, Emmanuel (1974). <i>Autrement qu'être ou au-delà de l'essence</i>. (Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence).</li> <li>Levinas, Emmanuel (1972). <i>Humanism de l'autre homme</i>. Fata Morgana.</li> <li>Lacan, Jacques (1966). <i>Ecrits</i>. London: Tavistock, 1977.</li> <li>Lacan, Jacques (1964). <i>The Four Fondamental Concepts of Psycho-analysis</i>. London: Hogarth Press, 1977.</li> <li>Foucault, Michel (1990). <i>The History of Sexuality</i> vol. 1: <i>An Introduction</i>. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.</li> <li>Derrida, Jacques (1973). <i>Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs</i>. Trans. David B. Allison. Evanston: Ill.: Northwestern University Press.</li> <li>Kristeva, Julia (1982). <i>Powers of Horror: An Essay on <a href="/wiki/Abjection" title="Abjection">Abjection</a></i>. Trans. Leon S. Roudiez. New York: Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Butler, Judith (1990). <i>Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity</i>. New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Butler, Judith (1993). <i>Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex"</i>. New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", <i>Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion</i>, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237–258.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Other_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a 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