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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Political thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posthumous_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posthumous_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Posthumous reputation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posthumous_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works_in_English_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works_in_English_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selected works in English translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works_in_English_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nicole Oresme</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_von_Oresme" title="Nikolaus von Oresme – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Nikolaus von Oresme" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87" title="نيكول أورسمه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيكول أورسمه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Orem" title="Nikola Orem – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nikola Orem" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87" title="নিকোল ওরেসমে – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিকোল ওরেসমে" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolau_Oresme" title="Nicolau Oresme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nicolau Oresme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C3%A1%C5%A1_Oresme" title="Mikuláš Oresme – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mikuláš Oresme" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_von_Oresme" title="Nikolaus von Oresme – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nikolaus von Oresme" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Νικόλαος Ορέσμιος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νικόλαος Ορέσμιος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Oresme" title="Nicolás Oresme – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nicolás Oresme" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolao_de_Oresme" title="Nikolao de Oresme – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nikolao de Oresme" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_d%27Oresme" title="Nicole d'Oresme – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nicole d'Oresme" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85" title="نیکل اورسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیکل اورسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%88%EC%BD%9C%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4_%EC%98%A4%EB%A0%98" title="니콜라스 오렘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="니콜라스 오렘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B5_%D5%95%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B4" title="Նիկոլայ Օրեսմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նիկոլայ Օրեսմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87" title="निकोल ओरेसमे – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="निकोल ओरेसमे" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Oresmius" title="Nicolaus Oresmius – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nicolaus Oresmius" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_d%27Oresme" title="Nicola d'Oresme – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nicola d'Oresme" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Oresmius" title="Nicolaus Oresmius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nicolaus Oresmius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%92%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86" title="നിക്കോൾ ഒരെസ്മെ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നിക്കോൾ ഒരെസ്മെ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87" title="نيكول اورسمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نيكول اورسمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaas_van_Oresme" title="Nicolaas van Oresme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nicolaas van Oresme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B3%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0" title="ニコル・オレーム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニコル・オレーム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%90%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%90" title="نیکول اورېسمې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نیکول اورېسمې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_z_Oresme" title="Mikołaj z Oresme – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mikołaj z Oresme" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolau_de_Oresme" title="Nicolau de Oresme – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nicolau de Oresme" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Орем, Николай – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Орем, Николай" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C3%A1%C5%A1_z_Oresme" title="Mikuláš z Oresme – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mikuláš z Oresme" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nicole Oresme" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nicole Oresme" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French philosopher</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Nicole Oresme</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Oresme.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Oresme.jpg/220px-Oresme.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Oresme.jpg/330px-Oresme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Oresme.jpg/440px-Oresme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3787" data-file-height="3742" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait of Nicole Oresme: Miniature from Oresme's <i>Traité de l'espère</i>, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France, fonds français 565, fol. 1r.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1325-01-01</span>)</span>1 January 1325<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Fleury-sur-Orne" title="Fleury-sur-Orne">Fleury-sur-Orne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Normandy" title="Lower Normandy">Normandy</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">11 July 1382<span style="display:none">(1382-07-11)</span> (aged 57)<sup id="cite_ref-advent_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-advent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Lisieux" title="Lisieux">Lisieux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Normandy" title="Lower Normandy">Normandy</a>, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/College_of_Navarre" title="College of Navarre">College of Navarre</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/College_of_Navarre" title="College of Navarre">College of Navarre</a> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Natural philosophy, astronomy, theology, mathematics</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Rectangular <a href="/wiki/Co-ordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-ordinates">co-ordinates</a>, first proof of the <a href="/wiki/Divergent_series" title="Divergent series">divergence</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">harmonic series</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mean_speed_theorem" title="Mean speed theorem">mean speed theorem</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nicole Oresme</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[nikɔl<span class="wrap"> </span>ɔʁɛm]</a></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1 January 1325 – 11 July 1382), also known as <b>Nicolas Oresme</b>, <b>Nicholas Oresme</b>, or <b>Nicolas d'Oresme</b>, was a French <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> of the later <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. He wrote influential works on <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>; was <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Lisieux" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Lisieux">Bishop of Lisieux</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Translator" class="mw-redirect" title="Translator">translator</a>, a counselor of King <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V of France</a>, and one of the most original thinkers of 14th-century Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallace_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nicole Oresme was born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1320–1325</span> in the village of Allemagnes (today's <a href="/wiki/Fleury-sur-Orne" title="Fleury-sur-Orne">Fleury-sur-Orne</a>) in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Bayeux" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Bayeux">diocese of Bayeux</a>. Practically nothing is known concerning his family. The fact that Oresme attended the royally sponsored and subsidised <a href="/wiki/College_of_Navarre" title="College of Navarre">College of Navarre</a>, an institution for students too poor to pay their expenses while studying at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, makes it probable that he came from a peasant family.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oresme studied the "arts" in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a> (the so-called founder of the French school of natural philosophy), <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a> and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a>, and there received the <a href="/wiki/Magister_Artium" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister Artium">Magister Artium</a>. He was already a <a href="/wiki/Regent_master" title="Regent master">regent master</a> in arts by 1342, during the crisis over <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1348, he was a student of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> in Paris. </p><p>In 1356, he received his doctorate and in the same year he became grand master (<i>grand-maître</i>) of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Navarre" title="College of Navarre">College of Navarre</a>. </p><p>In 1364, he was appointed dean of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">Cathedral</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>. Around 1369, he began a series of translations of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> works at the request of <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">Charles V</a>, who granted him a <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a> in 1371 and, with royal support, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Lisieux" title="Ancient Diocese of Lisieux">bishop of Lisieux</a> in 1377. In 1382, he died in Lisieux.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_work">Scientific work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scientific work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oresme_Spheres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Oresme_Spheres.jpg/220px-Oresme_Spheres.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Oresme_Spheres.jpg/330px-Oresme_Spheres.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Oresme_Spheres.jpg/440px-Oresme_Spheres.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3311" data-file-height="4917" /></a><figcaption>A page from Oresme's <i>Livre du ciel et du monde</i>, 1377, showing the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">celestial spheres</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In his <i>Livre du ciel et du monde</i> Oresme discussed a range of evidence for and against the daily <a href="/wiki/Rotation_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotation of the Earth">rotation of the Earth</a> on its axis.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From astronomical considerations, he maintained that if the Earth were moving and not the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">celestial spheres</a>, all the movements that we see in the heavens that are computed by the astronomers would appear exactly the same as if the spheres were rotating around the Earth. He rejected the physical argument that if the Earth were moving the air would be left behind causing a great wind from east to west. In his view the <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">Water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">Air</a> would all share the same motion.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As to the scriptural passage that speaks of the motion of the Sun, he concludes that "this passage conforms to the customary usage of popular speech" and is not to be taken literally.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also noted that it would be more economical for the small Earth to rotate on its axis than the immense sphere of the stars.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, he concluded that none of these arguments were conclusive and "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the Earth."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critiques_of_astrology">Critiques of astrology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Critiques of astrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his mathematical work, Oresme developed the notion of incommensurate fractions, fractions that could not be expressed as powers of one another, and made probabilistic, statistical arguments as to their relative frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this, he argued that it was very probable that the length of the day and the year were incommensurate (<a href="/wiki/Irrational_number" title="Irrational number">irrational</a>), as indeed were the periods of the motions of the moon and the planets. From this, he noted that planetary <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(astronomy_and_astrology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)">conjunctions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opposition_(planets)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition (planets)">oppositions</a> would never recur in quite exactly the same way. Oresme maintained that this disproves the claims of astrologers who, thinking "they know with punctual exactness the motions, <a href="/wiki/Astrological_aspect" title="Astrological aspect">aspects</a>, conjunctions and oppositions… [judge] rashly and erroneously about future events."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oresme's critique of <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> in his <i>Livre de divinacions</i> treats it as having six parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Coopland_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coopland-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first, essentially astronomy, the movements of heavenly bodies, he considers good science but not precisely knowable. The second part deals with the influences of the heavenly bodies on earthly events at all scales. Oresme does not deny such influence, but states, in line with a commonly held opinion,<sup id="cite_ref-Wood9_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that it could either be that arrangements of heavenly bodies signify events, purely <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolically</a>, or that they actually cause such events, deterministically. Mediaevalist Chauncey Wood remarks that this major elision "makes it very difficult to determine who believed what about astrology".<sup id="cite_ref-Wood9_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third part concerns predictiveness, covering events at three different scales: great events such as plagues, famines, floods and wars; weather, winds and storms; and medicine, with influences on the <a href="/wiki/Humours" class="mw-redirect" title="Humours">humours</a>, the four <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> fluids of the body. Oresme criticizes all of these as misdirected, though he accepts that prediction is a legitimate area of study, and argues that the effect on the weather is less well known than the effect on great events. He observes that sailors and farmers are better at predicting weather than astrologers, and specifically attacks the astrological basis of prediction, noting correctly that the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">zodiac</a> has moved relative to the fixed stars (because of <a href="/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession of the equinoxes">precession of the equinoxes</a>) since the zodiac was first described in ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood9_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These first three parts are what Oresme considers the physical influences of the stars and planets (including sun and moon) on the earth, and while he offers critiques of them, he accepts that effects exist. The last three parts are what Oresme considers to concern (good or bad) fortune. They are interrogations, meaning asking the stars when to do things such as business deals; elections, meaning choosing the best time to do things such as getting married or fighting a war and nativities, meaning the natal astrology with birth charts that forms much of modern astrological practice. Oresme classifies interrogations and elections as "totally false" arts, but his critique of nativities is more measured. He denies that any path is predetermined by the heavenly bodies, because humans have <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, but he accepts that the heavenly bodies can influence behaviour and habitual mood, via the combination of humours in each person. Overall, Oresme's skepticism is strongly shaped by his understanding of the scope of astrology. He accepts things a modern skeptic would reject, and rejects some things — such as the knowability of planetary movements, and effects on weather — that are accepted by modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood8_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood8-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sense_perception">Sense perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sense perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In discussing the propagation of light and sound, Oresme adopted the common medieval doctrine of the multiplication of species,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it had been developed by optical writers such as <a href="/wiki/Alhacen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhacen">Alhacen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Pecham" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pecham">John Pecham</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Witelo" class="mw-redirect" title="Witelo">Witelo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oresme maintained that these species were immaterial, but corporeal (i.e., three-dimensional) entities.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum,_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg/220px-Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg/330px-Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg/440px-Nicolas_d%27Oresme_%E2%80%93_De_latitudinibus_formarum%2C_1486_%E2%80%93_BEIC_164981.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1347" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption><i>De latitudinibus formarum</i>, 1486</figcaption></figure> <p>Oresme's most important contributions to mathematics are contained in <i>Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum</i>. In a quality, or accidental form, such as heat, he distinguished the <i>intensio</i> (the degree of heat at each point) and the <i>extensio</i> (as the length of the heated rod). These two terms were often replaced by <i>latitudo</i> and <i>longitudo</i>. For the sake of clarity, Oresme conceived the idea of visualizing these concepts by plane figures, approaching what we would now call rectangular <a href="/wiki/Coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinates">coordinates</a>. The intensity of the quality was represented by a length or <i>latitudo</i> proportional to the intensity erected perpendicular to the base at a given point on the base line, which represents the <i>longitudo</i>. Oresme proposed that the geometrical form of such a figure could be regarded as corresponding to a characteristic of the quality itself. Oresme defined a uniform quality as that which is represented by a line parallel to the longitude, and any other quality as difform. Uniformly varying qualities are represented by a straight line inclined to the axis of the longitude, while he described many cases of nonuniformly varying qualities. Oresme extended this doctrine to figures of three dimensions. He considered this analysis applicable to many different qualities such as hotness, whiteness, and sweetness. Significantly for later developments, Oresme applied this concept to the analysis of local motion where the <i>latitudo</i> or intensity represented the speed, the <i>longitudo</i> represented the time, and the area of the figure represented the distance travelled.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He shows that his method of figuring the latitude of forms is applicable to the movement of a point, on condition that the time is taken as longitude and the speed as latitude; quantity is, then, the space covered in a given time. In virtue of this transposition, the theorem of the <i>latitudo uniformiter difformis</i> became the law of the space traversed in case of uniformly varied motion; thus Oresme published what was taught over two centuries prior to <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>'s making it famous.<sup id="cite_ref-advent_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-advent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diagrams of the velocity of an accelerating object against time in <i>On the Latitude of Forms</i> by Oresme<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been cited to credit Oresme with the discovery of "proto bar charts".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-handbook_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handbook-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>De configurationibus</i> Oresme introduces the concept of <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> as a measure of departure from straightness, for <a href="/wiki/Circle" title="Circle">circles</a> he has the curvature as being inversely proportional to radius and attempts to extend this to other curves as a continuously varying magnitude.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significantly, Oresme developed the first proof of the <a href="/wiki/Divergent_series" title="Divergent series">divergence</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">harmonic series</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His proof, requiring less advanced mathematics than current standard tests for divergence (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Integral_test_for_convergence" title="Integral test for convergence">integral test</a>), begins by noting that for any <i>n</i> that is a <a href="/wiki/Power_of_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Power of 2">power of 2</a>, there are <i>n</i>/2 − 1 terms in the series between 1/(<i>n</i>/2) and 1/<i>n</i>. Each of these terms is at least 1/<i>n</i>, and since there are <i>n</i>/2 of them they sum to at least 1/2. For instance, there is one term 1/2, then two terms 1/3 + 1/4 that together sum to at least 1/2, then four terms 1/5 + 1/6 + 1/7 + 1/8 that also sum to at least 1/2, and so on. Thus the series must be greater than the series 1 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 + ..., which does not have a finite limit. This proves that the harmonic series must be divergent. This argument shows that the sum of the first <i>n</i> terms grows at least as fast as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (1/2)\log _{2}n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (1/2)\log _{2}n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/21262d43b83a5d4d0101b7eb9aebf817dbb40fb5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.492ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (1/2)\log _{2}n}"></span>. (See also <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)#Comparison_test" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">Harmonic series</a>) </p><p>Oresme was the first mathematician to prove this fact, and (after his proof was lost) it was not proven again until the 17th century by <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Mengoli" title="Pietro Mengoli">Pietro Mengoli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He also worked on fractional powers, and the notion of probability over infinite sequences, ideas which would not be further developed for the next three and five centuries, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142–3">: 142–3 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_local_motion">On local motion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: On local motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oresme, like many of his contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Buridan">John Buridan</a> and Albert of Saxony, shaped and critiqued Aristotle's and Averroes's theories of motion to their own liking.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking inspiration from the theories of <i>forma fluens</i> and <i>fluxus formae</i>, Oresme would suggest his own descriptions for change and motion in his commentary of <i>Physics</i>. <i>Forma fluens</i> is described by William of Ockham as "Every thing that is moved is moved by a mover," and <i>fluxus formae</i> as "Every motion is produced by a mover."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buridan and Albert of Saxony each subscribed to the classic interpretation of flux being an innate part of an object, but Oresme differs from his contemporaries in this aspect.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oresme agrees with <i>fluxus formae</i> in that motion is attributed to an object, but that an object is “set into” motion, rather than “given” motion, denying a distinction between a motionless object and an object in motion. To Oresme, an object moves, but it is not a moving object.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once an object begins movement through the three dimensions it has a new “modus rei” or “way of being,” which should only be described through the perspective of the moving object, rather than a distinct point.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This line of thought coincides with Oresme's challenge to the structure of the universe. Oresme's description of motion was not popular, although it was thorough.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Richard Brinkley is thought to be an inspiration for the modus-rei description, but this is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_thought">Political thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Political thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Livre_de_Politiques" title="Livre de Politiques">Livre de Politiques</a></div> <p>Oresme provided the first modern vernacular translations of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s moral works that are still extant today. Between 1371 and 1377 he translated Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Ethics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></i> (the last of which is nowadays considered to be pseudo-Aristotelian) into <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a>. He also extensively <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)" title="Gloss (annotation)">commented</a> on these texts, thereby expressing some of his political views. Like his predecessors <a href="/wiki/Albert_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert the Great">Albert the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Auvergne" title="Peter of Auvergne">Peter of Auvergne</a> (and quite unlike Aristotle), Oresme favours <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> as the best form of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His criterion for good government is the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>. A <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">king</a> (by definition good) takes care of the common good, whereas a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a> works for his own profit. A monarch can ensure the stability and durability of his reign by letting the <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> <a href="/wiki/Participation_(decision_making)" class="mw-redirect" title="Participation (decision making)">participate in government</a>. This has rather confusingly and <a href="/wiki/Anachronism" title="Anachronism">anachronistically</a> been called <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Peter of Auvergne and especially <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius of Padua</a>, whom he occasionally quotes, Oresme conceives of this popular participation as rather restrictive: only the multitude of reasonable, wise and virtuous men should be allowed political participation by electing and correcting the prince, changing the law and passing judgement.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oresme, however, categorically denies the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">right of rebellion</a> since it endangers the common good.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike earlier commentators, however, Oresme prescribes the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> as superior to the king's will.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It must only be changed in cases of extreme necessity.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oresme favours moderate kingship,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thereby negating contemporary <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutist</a> thought, usually promoted by adherents of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Oresme doesn't comply to contemporary conceptions of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">French king</a> as <a href="/wiki/Style_of_the_French_sovereign#Most_Christian_King" title="Style of the French sovereign">sacred</a>, as promoted by <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89vrart_de_Tr%C3%A9maugon" class="extiw" title="fr:Évrart de Trémaugon">Évrart de Trémaugon</a> in his <i><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Songe_du_verger" class="extiw" title="fr:Le Songe du verger">Songe du vergier</a></i> or <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Golein" class="extiw" title="fr:Jean Golein">Jean Golein</a> in his <i>Traité du sacre</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he heavily criticises the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Church</a> as corrupt, tyrannical and oligarchical, he never fundamentally questions its necessity for the spiritual well-being of the faithful.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has traditionally been thought that Oresme's Aristotelian translations had a major influence on <a href="/wiki/Charles_V_of_France" title="Charles V of France">King Charles V's</a> politics: Charles' laws concerning the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Line of succession">line of succession</a> and the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Regency" class="mw-redirect" title="Regency">regency</a> for an <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">underage king</a> have been accredited to Oresme, as has the election of several high-ranking officials by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Conseil" title="Grand Conseil">king's council</a> in the early 1370s.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oresme may have conveyed Marsilian and conciliarist thought to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Gerson" title="Jean Gerson">Jean Gerson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With his <i>Treatise on the origin, nature, law, and alterations of money</i> (<i>De origine, natura, jure et mutationibus monetarum</i>), one of the earliest manuscripts devoted to an <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> matter, Oresme brings an interesting insight on the medieval conception of money. Oresme's viewpoints of theoretical architecture are outlined in Part 3 and 4 of his work from <i>De moneta,</i> which he completed between 1356 and 1360. His belief is that humans have a natural right to own property; this property belongs to the individual and community.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Part 4, Oresme provides a solution to a political problem as to how a monarch can be held accountable to put the common good before any private affairs. Though the monarchy rightfully has claims on all money given an emergency, Oresme states that any ruler that goes through this is a “Tyrant dominating slaves”. Oresme was one of the first medieval theorists that did not accept the right of the monarch to have claims on all money as well as “his subjects’ right to own private property.” </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oresme was known to be a well rounded psychologist. He practiced the technique of “inner senses” and studied the perception of the world. Oresme contributed to 19th and 20th century psychology in the fields of cognitive psychology, perception psychology, psychology of consciousness, and psychophysics. Oresme discovered the psychology of unconscious and came up with the theory of unconscious conclusion of perception. He developed many ideas beyond quality, quantity, categories and terms which were labeled “theory of cognition”.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Posthumous_reputation">Posthumous reputation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Posthumous reputation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oresme's economic thought remained well regarded centuries after his death. In a 1920 <i>Essay on Medieval Economic Teaching</i>, Irish economist <a href="/wiki/George_O%27Brien_(Irish_politician)" title="George O'Brien (Irish politician)">George O'Brien</a> summed up the favorable academic consensus over Oresme's <i>Treatise on the origin, nature, law, and alterations of money</i>: </p> <blockquote><p>The merits of this work have excited the unanimous admiration of all who have studied it. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Georg_Friedrich_Roscher" title="Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher">Roscher</a> says that it contains 'a theory of money, elaborated in the fourteenth century, which remains perfectly correct to-day, under the test of the principles applied in the nineteenth century, and that with a brevity, a precision, a clarity, and a simplicity of language which is a striking proof of the superior genius of its author.' According to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Brants" title="Victor Brants">Brants</a>, 'the treatise of Oresme is one of the first to be devoted <i>ex professo</i> to an economic subject, and it expresses many ideas which are very just, more just than those which held the field for a long period after him, under the name of mercantilism, and more just than those which allowed of the reduction of money as if it were nothing more than a counter of exchange.' 'Oresme's treatise on money,' says <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dunning_Macleod" title="Henry Dunning Macleod">Macleod</a>, 'may be justly said to stand at the head of modern economic literature. This treatise laid the foundations of monetary science, which are now accepted by all sound economists.' 'Oresme's completely secular and naturalistic method of treating one of the most important problems of political economy,' says <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Espinas" title="Alfred Espinas">Espinas</a>, 'is a signal of the approaching end of the Middle Ages and the dawn of the Renaissance.' <a href="/wiki/William_Cunningham_(economist)" title="William Cunningham (economist)">Dr. Cunningham</a> adds his tribute of praise: 'The conceptions of national wealth and national power were ruling ideas in economic matters for several centuries, and Oresme appears to be the earliest of the economic writers by whom they were explicitly adopted as the very basis of his argument…. A large number of points of economic doctrine in regard to coinage are discussed with much judgment and clearness.' <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Endemann" title="Wilhelm Endemann">Endemann</a> alone is inclined to quarrel with the pre-eminence of Oresme; but on this question, he is in a minority of one.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Brien_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Brien-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works_in_English_translation">Selected works in English translation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Selected works in English translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Nicole Oresme's De visione stellarum (On seeing the stars): a critical edition of Oresme's treatise on optics and atmospheric refraction</i>, translated by Dan Burton, (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2007, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004153707" title="Special:BookSources/9789004153707">9789004153707</a>)</li> <li><i>Nicole Oresme and the marvels of nature: a study of his De causis mirabilium</i>, translated by Bert Hansen, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888440686" title="Special:BookSources/9780888440686">9780888440686</a>)</li> <li><i>Questiones super quatuor libros meteororum</i>, in SC McCluskey, ed, <i>Nicole Oresme on Light, Color and the Rainbow: An Edition and Translation, with introduction and critical notes, of Part of Book Three of his Questiones super quatuor libros meteororum</i> (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1974, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3PJAAAAMAAJ">Google Books</a>)</li> <li><i>Nicole Oresme and the kinematics of circular motion: Tractatus de commensurabilitate vel incommensurabilitate motuum celi</i>, translated by Edward Grant, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971)</li> <li><i>Nicole Oresme and the medieval geometry of qualities and motions: a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum</i>, translated by Marshall Clagett, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/894">894</a>)</li> <li><i>Le Livre du ciel et du monde</i>. A. D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, ed. and trans. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780783797878" title="Special:BookSources/9780783797878">9780783797878</a>)</li> <li><i>De proportionibus proportionum</i> and <i>Ad pauca respicientes</i>. Edward Grant, ed. and trans. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299040000" title="Special:BookSources/9780299040000">9780299040000</a>)</li> <li><i>The De moneta of N. Oresme, and English Mint documents</i>, translated by C. Johnson, (London, 1956)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries#14th_century" title="List of multiple discoveries">List of multiple discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in the Middle Ages">Science in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oresme_(crater)" title="Oresme (crater)">Oresme (crater)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_Catholic_scientist-clerics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics">List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Blumenberg" title="Hans Blumenberg">Hans Blumenberg</a>, <i>The Genesis of the Copernican World</i>, MIT Press, 1987, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-advent-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-advent_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-advent_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuhem1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Duhem, Pierre (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Nicole_Oresme" class="extiw" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a>". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nicole+Oresme&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Duhem&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clagett_522-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clagett_522_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall Clagett, <i>The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages</i>, Madison. 1959, p. 522.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Marshall Clagett</a> (ed.), <i>Critical Problems in the History of Science</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, 1969, p. 95: "[W]hen one asks more specifically what, for example, Galileo or Descartes actually knew and what use they made of the dynamics of impetus or of fourteenth-century Oxford kinematics or of Oresme's graphical methods, the evidence becomes difficult and unsatisfactory."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dan Burton (ed.), <i>De Visione Stellarum</i>, BRILL, 2007, p. 19 n. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLéon_Warnant1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Léon Warnant (1987). <i>Dictionnaire de la prononciation française dans sa norme actuelle</i> (in French) (3rd ed.). Gembloux: J. Duculot, S. A. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8011-0581-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8011-0581-8"><bdi>978-2-8011-0581-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+prononciation+fran%C3%A7aise+dans+sa+norme+actuelle&rft.place=Gembloux&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=J.+Duculot%2C+S.+A.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-2-8011-0581-8&rft.au=L%C3%A9on+Warnant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace1981" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, William A. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Ix6kR6iN-UC&pg=PA42"><i>Prelude to Galileo: essays on medieval and sixteenth-century sources of Galileo's thought</i></a>. Springer Science & Business. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027712158" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027712158"><bdi>978-9027712158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prelude+to+Galileo%3A+essays+on+medieval+and+sixteenth-century+sources+of+Galileo%27s+thought&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-9027712158&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Ix6kR6iN-UC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Grant, ed., <i>De proportionibus proportionum and Ad pauca respicientes,</i> (Madison: University of Wisconsin Pr., 1966), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William J. Courtenay, The Early Career of Nicole Oresme, <i>Isis</i>, Vol. 91, No.3 (Sept. 2000), pp 542–548.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Grant, ed., <i>De proportionibus proportionum and Ad pauca respicientes,</i> (Madison: University of Wisconsin Pr., 1966), pp. 4–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Grant, <i>The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages</i>, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 114–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oresme, <i>Le Livre du ciel et du monde</i>, pp. 521–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oresme, <i>Le Livre du ciel et du monde</i>, p. 531</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oresme, <i>Le Livre du ciel et du monde</i>, p. 535</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oresme, <i>Le Livre du ciel et du monde</i>, p. 537</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franklin-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(philosopher)" title="James Franklin (philosopher)">Franklin, James</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zDECQAAQBAJ"><i>The Science of Conjecture, Evidence and Probability before Pascal</i></a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 140–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801865695" title="Special:BookSources/9780801865695"><bdi>9780801865695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Conjecture%2C+Evidence+and+Probability+before+Pascal&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=140-145&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780801865695&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1zDECQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oresme, <i>Ad pauca respicientes</i>, p. 383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coopland-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coopland_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoopland,_G._W.1952" class="citation book cs1">Coopland, G. W. (1952). <i>Nicole Oresme and the Astrologers: A Study of his Livre de Divinacions</i>. Harvard University Press; Liverpool University Press. pp. 53–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Astrologers%3A+A+Study+of+his+Livre+de+Divinacions&rft.pages=53-57&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press%3B+Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.au=Coopland%2C+G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood9-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood9_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood9_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood9_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, 1970. p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood8-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wood8_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, 1970. pp. 8–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bert Hansen, <i>Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of Nature</i> (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1985), pp. 89–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David C. Lindberg, <i>Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler</i>, (Chicago: University of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 78–80, 98, 113–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Marshall, "Nicole Oresme on the Nature, Reflection, and Speed of Light," <i>Isis</i>, 72 (1981): 357–374, pp. 360–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Clagett, Marshall</a> (1968), <i>Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as </i>Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum<i><span></span></i>, Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, pp. 177–128, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2"><bdi>0-299-04880-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Medieval+Geometry+of+Qualities+and+Motions%3B+a+treatise+on+the+uniformity+and+difformity+of+intensities+known+as+Tractatus+de+configurationibus+qualitatum+et+motuum&rft.place=Madison&rft.pages=177-128&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-299-04880-2&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Clagett, Marshall</a> (1968), <i>Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as </i>Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum<i><span></span></i>, Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2"><bdi>0-299-04880-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Medieval+Geometry+of+Qualities+and+Motions%3B+a+treatise+on+the+uniformity+and+difformity+of+intensities+known+as+Tractatus+de+configurationibus+qualitatum+et+motuum&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-299-04880-2&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Clagett, Marshall</a> (1968), <i>Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as </i>Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum<i><span></span></i>, Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, pp. 85–99, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-04880-2"><bdi>0-299-04880-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Medieval+Geometry+of+Qualities+and+Motions%3B+a+treatise+on+the+uniformity+and+difformity+of+intensities+known+as+Tractatus+de+configurationibus+qualitatum+et+motuum&rft.place=Madison&rft.pages=85-99&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-299-04880-2&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenigerRobyn1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_R._Beniger" title="James R. Beniger">Beniger, James R.</a>; Robyn, Dorothy L. (1978), "Quantitative Graphics in Statistics: A Brief History", <i>The American Statistician</i>, <b>32</b> (1), Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 1–11, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00031305.1978.10479235">10.1080/00031305.1978.10479235</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2683467">2683467</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Statistician&rft.atitle=Quantitative+Graphics+in+Statistics%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-11&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00031305.1978.10479235&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2683467%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Beniger&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft.au=Robyn%2C+Dorothy+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-handbook-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-handbook_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerEveritt2014" class="citation book cs1">Der, Geoff; Everitt, Brian S. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kB8bBAAAQBAJ"><i>A Handbook of Statistical Graphics Using SAS ODS</i></a>. Chapman and Hall - CRC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-584-88784-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-584-88784-3"><bdi>978-1-584-88784-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Statistical+Graphics+Using+SAS+ODS&rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall+-+CRC&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-584-88784-3&rft.aulast=Der&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft.au=Everitt%2C+Brian+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkB8bBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerranoSuceavă2015" class="citation journal cs1">Serrano, Isabel; Suceavă, Bogdan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/notices/201509/rnoti-p1030.pdf">"A Medieval Mystery: Nicole Oresme's Concept of <i>Curvitas</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Notices of the American Mathematical Society</i>. <b>62</b> (9): 1030–1034. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fnoti1275">10.1090/noti1275</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notices+of+the+American+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=A+Medieval+Mystery%3A+Nicole+Oresme%27s+Concept+of+Curvitas&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1030-1034&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1090%2Fnoti1275&rft.aulast=Serrano&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rft.au=Suceav%C4%83%2C+Bogdan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ams.org%2Fnotices%2F201509%2Frnoti-p1030.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOresmec._1360" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oresme, Nicole</a> (c. 1360). <i>Quaestiones super Geometriam Euclidis</i> [<i>Questions concerning Euclid's Geometry</i>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quaestiones+super+Geometriam+Euclidis&rft.aulast=Oresme&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickover2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Pickover, Clifford A.</a> (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA104"><i>The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics</i></a>, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., p. 104, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402757969" title="Special:BookSources/9781402757969"><bdi>9781402757969</bdi></a>, <q>Nicole Oresme ... was the first to prove the divergence of the harmonic series (c. 1350). His results were lost for several centuries, and the result was proved again by Italian mathematician Pietro Mengoli in 1647 and by Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli in 1687.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Math+Book%3A+From+Pythagoras+to+the+57th+Dimension%2C+250+Milestones+in+the+History+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Sterling+Publishing+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781402757969&rft.aulast=Pickover&rft.aufirst=Clifford+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJrslMKTgSZwC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThijssen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Thijssen, Johannes (2009). "The Debate over the Nature of Motion: John Buridan, Nicole Oresme and Albert of Saxony. With an Edition of John Buridan's 'Quaestiones Super Libros Physicorum, Secundum Ultimam Lecturam', Book III, Q. 7". <i>Early Science and Medicine</i>. <b>14</b> (1–3): 186–210. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338209X425551">10.1163/157338209X425551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Science+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Debate+over+the+Nature+of+Motion%3A+John+Buridan%2C+Nicole+Oresme+and+Albert+of+Saxony.+With+an+Edition+of+John+Buridan%27s+%27Quaestiones+Super+Libros+Physicorum%2C+Secundum+Ultimam+Lecturam%27%2C+Book+III%2C+Q.+7.&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=186-210&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157338209X425551&rft.aulast=Thijssen&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nasc400.pbworks.com/w/page/9501684/Mechanics%20and%20Motion%20in%20the%20Middle%20Ages">"NASC 400 History of Science to 1700 / Mechanics and Motion in the Middle Ages"</a>. <i>nasc400.pbworks.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasc400.pbworks.com&rft.atitle=NASC+400+History+of+Science+to+1700+%2F+Mechanics+and+Motion+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnasc400.pbworks.com%2Fw%2Fpage%2F9501684%2FMechanics%2520and%2520Motion%2520in%2520the%2520Middle%2520Ages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaroti1993" class="citation journal cs1">Caroti, Stefano (1993). "Oresme on Motion (Questiones Super Physicam, III, 2–7)". <i>Vivarium: Journal for Mediaeval Philosophy and the Intellectual Life of the Middle Ages</i>. <b>31</b>: 8–36 – via EBSCOhost.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vivarium%3A+Journal+for+Mediaeval+Philosophy+and+the+Intellectual+Life+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.atitle=Oresme+on+Motion+%28Questiones+Super+Physicam%2C+III%2C+2%E2%80%937%29&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=8-36&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Caroti&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Grignaschi: Nicolas Oresme et son commentaire à la «Politique» d'Aristote, in: <i>Album Helen Maud Cam</i>, Louvain 1960 (Studies Presented to the International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions, 23), 95–151, esp. 99–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shulamith Shahar: Nicolas Oresme, un penseur politique indépendant de l'entourage du roi Charles V, in: <i>L'information historique</i> 32 (1970), 203–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Grignaschi: Nicolas Oresme et son commentaire à la «Politique» d'Aristote, in: <i>Album Helen Maud Cam</i>, Louvain 1960 (Studies Presented to the International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions, 23), 95–151, esp. 111–112; Jacques Krynen: Aristotélisme et réforme de l'Etat, en France, au XIVe siècle, in: Jürgen Miethke (ed.): <i>Das Publikum politischer Theorie im 14. Jahrhundert</i>, München 1992 (Schriften des Historischen Kollegs, 21), 225–236, esp. 231–232; James M. Blythe: <i>Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages</i>, Princeton, New Jersey 1992, 221–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan M. Babbitt: Oresme's <i>Livre de Politiques</i> and the France of Charles V., in: <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i> 75,1 (1985), 1–158, esp. 83–84; Ulrich Meier: <i>Molte revoluzioni, molte novità</i>. Gesellschaftlicher Wandel im Spiegel der politischen Philosophie und im Urteil von städtischen Chronisten des späten Mittelalters, in: Jürgen Miethke, Klaus Schreiner (eds.): <i>Sozialer Wandel im Mittelalter. Wahrnehmungsformen, Erklärungsmuster, Regelungsmechanismen</i>, Sigmaringen 1994, 119–176, esp. 127–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James M. Blythe: <i>Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages</i>, Princeton, New Jersey 1992, 211–212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacques Krynen: <i>L'empire du roi. Ideés et croyances politiques en France. XIIIe–XVe siècle</i>, Paris 1993, 266–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James M. Blythe: <i>Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages</i>, Princeton, New Jersey 1992, 203–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacques Krynen: <i>L'empire du roi. Ideés et croyances politiques en France. XIIIe–XVe siècle</i>, Paris 1993, 110–124, 343–456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shulamith Shahar: Nicolas Oresme, un penseur politique indépendant de l'entourage du roi Charles V, in: <i>L'information historique</i> 32 (1970), 203–209; Vanina Kopp: <i>Der König und die Bücher. Sammlung, Nutzung und Funktion der königlichen Bibliothek am spätmittelalterlichen Hof in Frankreich</i>, Ostfildern 2016 (Beihefte der Fancia, 80).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan M. Babbitt: Oresme's <i>Livre de Politiques</i> and the France of Charles V., in: <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i> 75,1 (1985), 1–158, esp. 98–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Douglas Menut: Introduction, in: <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i> 60,6 (1970), 5–43, esp. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Douglas Menut: Introduction, in: <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i> 60,6 (1970), 30; Cary J. Nederman: A Heretic Hiding in Plain Sight. The Secret History of Marsiglio of Padua's <i>Defensor Pacis</i> in the Thought of Nicole Oresme, in: John Christian Laursen u.a. (eds.): <i>Heresy in Transition. Transforming Ideas of Heresy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe</i>, London 2005 (Catholic Christendom, 1300–1700), 71–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhouse2017–2018" class="citation journal cs1">Woodhouse, Adam (2017–2018). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Who Owns the Money?" Currency, Property, and Popular Sovereignty in Nicole Oresme's De moneta". <i>Speculum</i>. <b>92</b> (1): 85–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F689839">10.1086/689839</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-7134">0038-7134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159539712">159539712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=%22Who+Owns+the+Money%3F%22+Currency%2C+Property%2C+and+Popular+Sovereignty+in+Nicole+Oresme%27s+De+moneta&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-116&rft.date=2017%2F2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159539712%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0038-7134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F689839&rft.aulast=Woodhouse&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/oresme-biography.html">"Nicole Oresme"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nicole-oresme.com%2Fseiten%2Foresme-biography.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Brien-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Brien_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anessayonmediaev0000unse/page/217/mode/1up?view=theater">O'Brien, George, <i>An Essay on Medieval Economic Teaching</i>, pp.217-218.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFryde1958" class="citation journal cs1">Fryde, E. B. (1958). "Reviewed Work: The De Moneta of Nicholas Oresme and English Mint Documents. (Nelson's Mediaeval Texts) by Charles Johnson". <i>Medium Ævum</i>. <b>27</b> (1). Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature: 34–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F43626716">10.2307/43626716</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43626716">43626716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medium+%C3%86vum&rft.atitle=Reviewed+Work%3A+The+De+Moneta+of+Nicholas+Oresme+and+English+Mint+Documents.+%28Nelson%27s+Mediaeval+Texts%29+by+Charles+Johnson&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34-36&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F43626716&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43626716%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fryde&rft.aufirst=E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1970" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Clagett, Marshall</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/scholastic/Dictionary%20of%20Scientific%20Biography/Nicole%20Oresme%20(Clagett).pdf">"Nicole Oresme"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Gillispie, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scientific_Biography" title="Dictionary of Scientific Biography">Dictionary of Scientific Biography</a></i>. Vol. 10. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. pp. 223–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-10114-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-10114-9"><bdi>978-0-684-10114-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nicole+Oresme&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=223-240&rft.pub=Scribner+%26+American+Council+of+Learned+Societies&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-684-10114-9&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.u.arizona.edu%2F~aversa%2Fscholastic%2FDictionary%2520of%2520Scientific%2520Biography%2FNicole%2520Oresme%2520%28Clagett%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Clagett" title="Marshall Clagett">Clagett, Marshall</a> (1968). <i>Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions: A Treatise on the Uniformity and Difformity of Intensities Known as </i>Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum at motuum<i><span></span></i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Medieval+Geometry+of+Qualities+and+Motions%3A+A+Treatise+on+the+Uniformity+and+Difformity+of+Intensities+Known+as+Tractatus+de+configurationibus+qualitatum+at+motuum&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Clagett&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Grant" title="Edward Grant">Grant, Edward</a> (1971). <i>Nicole Oresme and the Kinematics of Circular Motion</i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-05830-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-05830-1"><bdi>0-299-05830-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Kinematics+of+Circular+Motion&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-299-05830-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen1985" class="citation book cs1">Hansen, Bert (1985). <i>Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of Nature: A Study of his </i>De causis mirabilium<i> with Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary</i>. Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88844-068-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88844-068-5"><bdi>0-88844-068-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Marvels+of+Nature%3A+A+Study+of+his+De+causis+mirabilium+with+Critical+Edition%2C+Translation%2C+and+Commentary&rft.pub=Pontifical+Institute+of+Medieval+Studies&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-88844-068-5&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Bert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMäkeler2003" class="citation journal cs1">Mäkeler, Hendrik (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hendrik.maekeler.eu/en/nicolas-oresme-und-gabriel-biel/">"Nicolas Oresme und Gabriel Biel: Zur Geldtheorie im späten Mittelalter"</a>. <i>Scripta Mercaturae: Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte</i>. <b>37</b> (1): 56–94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scripta+Mercaturae%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Wirtschafts-+und+Sozialgeschichte&rft.atitle=Nicolas+Oresme+und+Gabriel+Biel%3A+Zur+Geldtheorie+im+sp%C3%A4ten+Mittelalter&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-94&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=M%C3%A4keler&rft.aufirst=Hendrik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hendrik.maekeler.eu%2Fen%2Fnicolas-oresme-und-gabriel-biel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span> (covers Oresme's monetary theory).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1970" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Chauncey (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chausercountryof0000unse"><i>Chaucer and the Country of the Stars: Poetical Uses of Astrological Imagery</i></a></span>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-06172-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-06172-6"><bdi>0-691-06172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chaucer+and+the+Country+of+the+Stars%3A+Poetical+Uses+of+Astrological+Imagery&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-691-06172-6&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Chauncey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchausercountryof0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabellarte2016" class="citation book cs1">Labellarte, Alberto (a cura di) (2016). <i>Nicola Oresme. Trattato sull'origine, la natura, il diritto e i cambiamenti del denaro. Testo latino a fronte</i>. Bari: Stilo Editrice. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-6479-158-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-6479-158-6"><bdi>978-88-6479-158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicola+Oresme.+Trattato+sull%27origine%2C+la+natura%2C+il+diritto+e+i+cambiamenti+del+denaro.+Testo+latino+a+fronte&rft.place=Bari&rft.pub=Stilo+Editrice&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-88-6479-158-6&rft.aulast=Labellarte&rft.aufirst=Alberto+%28a+cura+di%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nicole_Oresme" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nicole_Oresme" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Oresme%2C%20Nicole%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Nicole%20Oresme%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Oresme%2C%20Nicole%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Nicole%20Oresme%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Oresme%2C%20N%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Nicole%20Oresme%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Oresme%2C%20Nicole%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Nicole%20Oresme%22%29%20OR%20%28%221320-1382%22%20AND%20Oresme%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Nicole Oresme</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0030/html/MSS_BH_100_COCH.html">(SPC) MSS BH 100 COCH Volume of works by Nicole Oresme, Maffeo Vegio, and Jordanus von Osnabrück at OPenn</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirschner2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kirschner, Stefan (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nicole-oresme/">"Nicole Oresme"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nicole+Oresme&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Kirschner&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fnicole-oresme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Oresme.html">"Nicole Oresme"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nicole+Oresme&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FOresme.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicole+Oresme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nicole-oresme.com">Oresme biography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hendrik.maekeler.eu/oresme-biel.en.htm">Article on Oresme's monetary theory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/books/oresme.pdf">The De Moneta of Nicholas Oresme and English Mint Documents</a> (pdf)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080422214420/http://phare.univ-paris1.fr/textes/Oresme/Tractatus.html">Tractatus de Origine, Natura, Jure et Mutationibus Monetarum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q310777#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q310777#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q310777#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/64010010">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/970159477751227990006">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/92320849">3</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1839538/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJbtpqhBPPhKmBMFWKFYfq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118734946">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=199357">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:oresme.nicole">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/316975">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/845157">Trove</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/939541">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span 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