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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attribute_pattern_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Attribute pattern approach </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attribute_pattern_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavioral_and_style_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral_and_style_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Behavioral and style theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioral_and_style_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_reinforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_reinforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Positive reinforcement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_reinforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Situational_and_contingency_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Situational_and_contingency_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Situational and contingency theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Situational_and_contingency_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Functional theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_psychological_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_psychological_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Integrated psychological theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_psychological_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transactional_and_transformational_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transactional_and_transformational_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Transactional and transformational theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transactional_and_transformational_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leader–member_exchange_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leader–member_exchange_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Leader–member exchange theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leader–member_exchange_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In-group_members" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-group_members"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10.1 In-group members </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-group_members-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Out-group_members" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Out-group_members"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10.2 Out-group members </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Out-group_members-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Emotions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-emergent_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-emergent_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Neo-emergent theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-emergent_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 Constructivist analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivist_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership_emergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_emergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Leadership emergence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leadership_emergence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Leadership emergence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Leadership_emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assertiveness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assertiveness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Assertiveness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assertiveness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authenticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authenticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Authenticity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authenticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_Five_personality_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Five_personality_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Big Five personality factors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Five_personality_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Birth order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_strengths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_strengths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Character strengths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_strengths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Dominance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotional_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotional_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Emotional intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotional_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-efficacy_for_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-efficacy_for_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Self-efficacy for leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-efficacy_for_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Self-monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Social motivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Narcissism,_hubris_and_other_negative_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Narcissism,_hubris_and_other_negative_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Narcissism,_hubris_and_other_negative_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absentee_leader" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absentee_leader"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.13 Absentee leader </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absentee_leader-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Willingness_to_Participate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Willingness_to_Participate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.14 Willingness to Participate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Willingness_to_Participate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Leadership styles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leadership_styles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Leadership styles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Leadership_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autocratic_or_authoritarian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autocratic_or_authoritarian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Autocratic or authoritarian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autocratic_or_authoritarian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participative_or_democratic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participative_or_democratic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Participative or democratic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participative_or_democratic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laissez-faire_or_free-rein_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laissez-faire_or_free-rein_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laissez-faire_or_free-rein_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Task-oriented" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Task-oriented"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Task-oriented </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Task-oriented-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship-oriented" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship-oriented"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Relationship-oriented </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship-oriented-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paternalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paternalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Paternalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paternalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Servant_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Servant_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Servant leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Servant_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transactional_and_Transformational_Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transactional_and_Transformational_Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Transactional and Transformational Leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transactional_and_Transformational_Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership_differences_affected_by_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_differences_affected_by_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Leadership differences affected by gender </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leadership_differences_affected_by_gender-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Leadership differences affected by gender subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Leadership_differences_affected_by_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barriers_for_non-western_female_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barriers_for_non-western_female_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Barriers for non-western female leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barriers_for_non-western_female_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Performance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Performance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Performance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Measuring_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Measuring leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Traits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontological-phenomenological_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontological-phenomenological_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Ontological-phenomenological model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontological-phenomenological_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contexts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contexts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Contexts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contexts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contexts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contexts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Group </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Self-leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology_and_evolution_of_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology_and_evolution_of_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Biology and evolution of leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology_and_evolution_of_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Myths </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Myths-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Myths subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Myths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leadership_is_innate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_is_innate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Leadership is innate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership_is_innate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership_is_possessing_power_over_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_is_possessing_power_over_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Leadership is possessing power over others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership_is_possessing_power_over_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaders_are_positively_influential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaders_are_positively_influential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Leaders are positively influential </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaders_are_positively_influential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaders_entirely_control_group_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaders_entirely_control_group_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Leaders entirely control group outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaders_entirely_control_group_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-All_groups_have_a_designated_leader" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#All_groups_have_a_designated_leader"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 All groups have a designated leader </div> </a> <ul id="toc-All_groups_have_a_designated_leader-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_members_resist_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_members_resist_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Group members resist leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_members_resist_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Action-oriented_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Action-oriented_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Action-oriented environments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Action-oriented_environments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Critical thought </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Other Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Leadership</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" > 69 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leierskap" title="Leierskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Leierskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="قيادة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قيادة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lideralgu" title="Lideralgu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lideralgu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C9%99hb%C9%99rlik" title="Rəhbərlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rəhbərlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="নেতৃত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নেতৃত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A2u-l%C3%A2ng" title="Thâu-lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thâu-lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lideratge" title="Lideratge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lideratge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C5%AFdcovstv%C3%AD" title="Vůdcovství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vůdcovství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menschenf%C3%BChrung" title="Menschenführung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Menschenführung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ηγεσία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηγεσία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liderazgo" title="Liderazgo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Liderazgo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidergo" title="Lidergo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lidergo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="رهبری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رهبری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Leadership" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liderado" title="Liderado – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Liderado" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EB%8D%94%EC%8B%AD" title="리더십 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리더십" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Առաջնորդություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Առաջնորդություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="नेतृत्व – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नेतृत्व" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodstvo_(ekonomija)" title="Vodstvo (ekonomija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vodstvo (ekonomija)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chefeso" title="Chefeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Chefeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepemimpinan" title="Kepemimpinan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kepemimpinan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubunkokheli" title="Ubunkokheli – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ubunkokheli" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Leadership" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מנהיגות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מנהיגות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5" title="ನಾಯಕತ್ವ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನಾಯಕತ್ವ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Лидерлік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лидерлік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uongozi" title="Uongozi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uongozi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Лидерчилик (философия) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Лидерчилик (философия)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducatus" title="Ducatus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ducatus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%ABderis" title="Līderis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Līderis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leider" title="Leider – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Leider" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezet%C3%A9selm%C3%A9let" title="Vezetéselmélet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vezetéselmélet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Водство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Водство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="नेतृत्व – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नेतृत्व" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepimpinan" title="Kepimpinan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kepimpinan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Манлайлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Манлайлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ခေါင်းဆောင်မှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ခေါင်းဆောင်မှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiderschap" title="Leiderschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Leiderschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%80%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%83%E3%83%97" title="リーダーシップ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リーダーシップ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lederskap" title="Lederskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lederskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lideratge" title="Lideratge – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lideratge" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%83%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%B1" title="ନେତୃତ୍ୱ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ନେତୃତ୍ୱ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liderlik" title="Liderlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Liderlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਨੇਤਾਗਿਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੇਤਾਗਿਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%88%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B9%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9F%86" title="លក្ខណៈសម្បត្តិនៃអ្នកដឹកនាំ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="លក្ខណៈសម្បត្តិនៃអ្នកដឹកនាំ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przyw%C3%B3dztwo" title="Przywództwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przywództwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lideran%C3%A7a" title="Liderança – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Liderança" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Лидерство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лидерство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udh%C3%ABheqja" title="Udhëheqja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Udhëheqja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="නායකත්‍වය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නායකත්‍වය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Leadership" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedenie_%C4%BEud%C3%AD" title="Vedenie ľudí – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedenie ľudí" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodenje" title="Vodenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vodenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8E%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ڕێبەرایەتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕێبەرایەتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukovodstvo" title="Rukovodstvo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Rukovodstvo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukovodstvo" title="Rukovodstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Quality of one individual or group influencing or guiding others based on authority</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Leader_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Leader (disambiguation)">Leader (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Leadership_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Leadership (disambiguation)">Leadership (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a 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of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg/200px-Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg/300px-Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg/400px-Wishnu_Wardhana_-_Opening_APEC_CEO_Summit_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption> An <a href="/wiki/APEC" class="mw-redirect" title="APEC">APEC</a> leader setting the tone for the <a href="/wiki/APEC_Indonesia_2013" title="APEC Indonesia 2013">2013 APEC CEO summit</a> with an opening speech</figcaption></figure> Leadership, is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> to "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lead" class="extiw" title="wikt:lead">lead</a>", influence, or guide other individuals, <a href="/wiki/Team" title="Team">teams</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> "Leadership" is a contested term.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North American</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> approaches.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of <a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">social influence</a> in which a person can enlist the aid and <a href="/wiki/Peer_support" title="Peer support">support</a> of others in the accomplishment of a common and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> <a href="/wiki/Task_(project_management)" title="Task (project management)">task</a>".<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> In other words, leadership is an influential <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>-relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers").<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Some have challenged the more traditional <a href="/wiki/Managerial" class="mw-redirect" title="Managerial">managerial</a> views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or <a href="/wiki/Authority_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Authority (sociology)">authority</a>), and instead advocate the complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within <a href="/wiki/Professional" title="Professional">formal</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and informal roles.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] <a href="/wiki/Leadership_studies" title="Leadership studies">Studies of leadership</a> have produced theories involving (for example) <a href="/wiki/Trait_leadership" title="Trait leadership">traits</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> situational interaction,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> function, <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">vision</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic leadership">charisma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-Chin_2015-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_views">Historical views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical views">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption> Florentine Secretary <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> detailed his ideas on rulership in <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a>, which is a popular and controversial work on government rule.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></figcaption></figure> The Chinese doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and the right of subordinates to overthrow <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperors</a> who appeared to lack divine sanction.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Pro-<a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> thinkers<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a> takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Right of Kings">divine right of kings</a>). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a> leaders, such as the <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleonic</a> marshals profiting from <a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">careers</a> open to <a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">talent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalistic</a> strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a>. <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminist</a> thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathetic</a> guidance, which is sometimes associated with <a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">matriarchies</a>".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>P.K. Saxena<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jia Lin, in commentary on <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>, Art of War<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Machiavelli's <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a>, written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep political <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Prior to the 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today—society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821, when the term referred to the position or office of a designated leader.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The abstract notion of "leadership" as embodying the qualities and behaviors associated with leaders and influencers developed only later during the 19th and 20th centuries - possibly traceable from 1870 onwards.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Historically, <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien regime">ancien regime</a>, and the phasing out of chattel <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> meant that some newly developing <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republics</a>, commercial <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>) evolved a need for a new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers—thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed. Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89litism" class="mw-redirect" title="Élitism">élitism</a> came with <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a>—<a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a> (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined <a href="/wiki/Professional_revolutionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional revolutionaries">cadres</a> to act as the <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard party">vanguard</a> of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>. Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Caesaro-papism" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesaro-papism">Caesaro-papism</a> have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. <a href="/wiki/Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian">Christian</a> thinking on leadership has often emphasized <a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">stewardship</a> of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with a <a href="/wiki/Divine_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine plan">Divine plan</a>. Compare this with <a href="/wiki/Servant_leadership" title="Servant leadership">servant leadership</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> For a more general view on leadership in <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, compare the concept of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/statesperson" class="extiw" title="wikt:statesperson">statesperson</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories">edit</a>]</div> Anecdotal and incidental observations aside, the serious discipline of theorising leadership began in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Western_history">Early Western history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Western history">edit</a>]</div> The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">Republic</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Plutarch%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutarch's">Plutarch's</a> <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Lives</a> have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Trait_leadership" title="Trait leadership">trait theory of leadership</a>". A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a>. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarships" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodes Scholarships">Rhodes Scholarships</a>, which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_alternative_theories">Rise of alternative theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise of alternative theories">edit</a>]</div> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reemergence_of_trait_theory">Reemergence of trait theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reemergence of trait theory">edit</a>]</div> New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">trait theory</a> as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the <a href="/wiki/Round-robin_test" title="Round-robin test">round-robin research design methodology</a> allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Kenny,_D.A._1983-35">[35]</a> Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analyses</a>, in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following: <ul><li>Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Kenny,_D.A._1983-35">[35]</a></li> <li>Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a><a href="#cite_note-Lord,_R.G._1986-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_(psychology)" title="Adjustment (psychology)">Adjustment</a><a href="#cite_note-Lord,_R.G._1986-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Extraversion">Extraversion</a><a href="#cite_note-Lord,_R.G._1986-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Judge,_T.A._2002-38">[38]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Openness_to_experience" title="Openness to experience">Openness to experience</a><a href="#cite_note-Judge,_T.A._2002-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>General <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Foti,_R.J._2007-41">[41]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.<a href="#cite_note-Zaccaro,_S._J._2007-42">[42]</a> Specifically, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Zaccaro" title="Stephen Zaccaro">Stephen Zaccaro</a> noted that trait theories still:<a href="#cite_note-Zaccaro,_S._J._2007-42">[42]</a> <ul><li>focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "<a href="/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits" title="Big Five personality traits">Big Five</a>" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, <a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">social skills</a>, expertise, and problem-solving skills</li> <li>fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes</li> <li>do not distinguish between the leadership attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences</li> <li>do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attribute_pattern_approach">Attribute pattern approach</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Attribute pattern approach">edit</a>]</div> Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach.<a href="#cite_note-Foti,_R.J._2007-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mumford,_M._D._2000-44">[44]</a> In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.<a href="#cite_note-Mumford,_M._D._2000-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioral_and_style_theories">Behavioral and style theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Behavioral and style theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Managerial_grid_model" title="Managerial grid model">Managerial grid model</a></div> In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a>, for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Management_Grid.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Management_Grid.PNG/200px-Management_Grid.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Management_Grid.PNG/300px-Management_Grid.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Management_Grid.PNG/400px-Management_Grid.PNG 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A graphical representation of the managerial grid model</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a>, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of <a href="/wiki/Group_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Group decision making">group decision making</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">criticism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a>), and the management of the group tasks (<a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>) according to three styles: <a href="#Autocratic_or_authoritarian">authoritarian</a>, <a href="#Participative_or_democratic">democratic</a>, and <a href="#Laissez-faire_or_free-rein_leadership">laissez-faire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blake_(management)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Blake (management)">Robert Blake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jane_Mouton" title="Jane Mouton">Jane Mouton</a> in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positive_reinforcement">Positive reinforcement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Positive reinforcement">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a> is the father of <a href="/wiki/Behavior_modification" title="Behavior modification">behavior modification</a> and developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">positive reinforcement</a>. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praise</a> is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Empirical research covering the last 20 years[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] suggests that applying <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_theory" title="Reinforcement theory">reinforcement theory</a> leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Situational_and_contingency_theories">Situational and contingency theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Situational and contingency theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fiedler_contingency_model" title="Fiedler contingency model">Fiedler contingency model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vroom%E2%80%93Yetton_decision_model" title="Vroom–Yetton decision model">Vroom–Yetton decision model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Path%E2%80%93goal_theory" title="Path–goal theory">path–goal theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Substitutes_for_Leadership_Theory" title="Substitutes for Leadership Theory">Substitutes for Leadership Theory</a></div> Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social scientists</a> argued that history was more than the result of intervention of <a href="/wiki/Great_man_theory" title="Great man theory">great men</a> as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a> suggested. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> (1884) (and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Some theorists synthesized the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Contingency_theory" title="Contingency theory">contingency theory</a>. Three contingency leadership theories are the Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory. The <a href="/wiki/Fiedler_contingency_model" title="Fiedler contingency model">Fiedler contingency model</a> bases the leader's effectiveness on what <a href="/wiki/Fred_Fiedler" title="Fred Fiedler">Fred Fiedler</a> called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Vroom" title="Victor Vroom">Victor Vroom</a>, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> and later with Arthur Jago,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> developed a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> for describing leadership situations. They used this in a normative <a href="/wiki/Vroom-Yetton_decision_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Vroom-Yetton decision model">decision model</a> in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different <a href="/wiki/Group_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Group decision making">group decision making</a> approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Path-goal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Path-goal theory">path-goal theory</a> of leadership was developed by Robert House and was based on the <a href="/wiki/Expectancy_theory" title="Expectancy theory">expectancy theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Vroom" title="Victor Vroom">Victor Vroom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance".<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Fiedler_contingency_model" title="Fiedler contingency model">Fiedler contingency model</a>, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a <a href="/wiki/Contingency_leadership_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Contingency leadership theory">contingency theory</a>, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a <a href="/wiki/Transactional_leadership" title="Transactional leadership">transactional leadership theory</a>, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_theory">Functional theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Functional theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Functional_leadership_model" title="Functional leadership model">Functional leadership model</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_100805-F-7552L-211_-_Commander_of_the_International_Security_Assistance_Force_Gen._David_H._Petraeus_center_U.S._Army_talks_with_U.S._soldiers_of_the_2nd_Battalion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Defense.gov_News_Photo_100805-F-7552L-211_-_Commander_of_the_International_Security_Assistance_Force_Gen._David_H._Petraeus_center_U.S._Army_talks_with_U.S._soldiers_of_the_2nd_Battalion.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Defense.gov_News_Photo_100805-F-7552L-211_-_Commander_of_the_International_Security_Assistance_Force_Gen._David_H._Petraeus_center_U.S._Army_talks_with_U.S._soldiers_of_the_2nd_Battalion.jpg/375px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Defense.gov_News_Photo_100805-F-7552L-211_-_Commander_of_the_International_Security_Assistance_Force_Gen._David_H._Petraeus_center_U.S._Army_talks_with_U.S._soldiers_of_the_2nd_Battalion.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>General Petraeus talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan.</figcaption></figure> Functional leadership theory<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work. Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as <a href="/wiki/Consideration_and_initiating_structure" title="Consideration and initiating structure">consideration and initiating structure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrated_psychological_theory">Integrated psychological theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Integrated psychological theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">Three Levels of Leadership model</a></div> The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Servant_leadership" title="Servant leadership">servant leadership</a> and <a href="/wiki/Authentic_leadership" title="Authentic leadership">authentic leadership</a>. Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's <a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">Three Levels of Leadership model</a> (2011).<a href="#cite_note-Scouller-73">[73]</a> Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively.<a href="#cite_note-Scouller-73">[73]</a>: 34–35  He pointed out, for example, that: <ul><li>Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.</li> <li>An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances.</li> <li>Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears, or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology.</li> <li>None of the older theories successfully addressed the challenge of developing "<a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model#Leadership_presence" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">leadership presence</a>"—that certain "something" in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust, and makes followers want to work with them.</li></ul> Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership: <ul><li>The first two—public and private leadership—are "outer" or behavioral levels. These behaviors address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; and (4) individual selection and motivation. <a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model#Public_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">Public leadership</a> focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. <a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model#Private_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">Private leadership</a> covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one-to-one.</li> <li>The third—<a href="/wiki/Three_Levels_of_Leadership_model#Personal_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Levels of Leadership model">personal leadership</a>—is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, know-how, and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical know-how and skill, (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people, which is the basis of servant leadership, and (3) Psychological self-mastery, the foundation for authentic leadership.</li></ul> Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness#Mindfulness_meditation_in_organizations" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness meditation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Scouller-73">[73]</a>: 137–237  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transactional_and_transformational_theories">Transactional and transformational theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transactional and transformational theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transactional_leadership" title="Transactional leadership">Transactional leadership</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transformational_leadership" title="Transformational leadership">Transformational leadership</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bass" title="Bernard Bass">Bernard Bass</a> and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: transactional which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The transactional leader<a href="#cite_note-Burns-75">[75]</a> is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leader–member_exchange_theory">Leader–member exchange theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Leader–member exchange theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leader%E2%80%93member_exchange_theory" title="Leader–member exchange theory">Leader–member exchange theory</a></div> Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P.-78">[78]</a> LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In-group_members">In-group members</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In-group members">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/In-group" class="mw-redirect" title="In-group">In-group</a> members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P.-78">[78]</a> In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Out-group_members">Out-group members</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Out-group members">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">Out-group</a> members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate <a href="/wiki/Job_performance" title="Job performance">job performance</a>, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a <a href="/wiki/Living_wage" title="Living wage">fair wage</a> and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P.-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotions">Emotions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Emotions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></div> Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:<a href="#cite_note-cote-81">[81]</a> <dl><dt>The mood of individual group members</dt> <dd>Members of groups whose leaders are in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. Leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">emotional contagion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cote-81">[81]</a> Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which <a href="/wiki/Charismatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic">charismatic</a> leaders influence followers.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></dd> <dt>The affective tone of the group</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Group_affective_tone" title="Group affective tone">Group affective tone</a> represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.<a href="#cite_note-cote-81">[81]</a></dd> <dt>Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and <a href="/wiki/Task_(project_management)" title="Task (project management)">task</a> <a href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">strategy</a></dt> <dd>Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.<a href="#cite_note-cote-81">[81]</a></dd></dl> In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the <a href="/wiki/Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader">leader</a> improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.<a href="#cite_note-george-83">[83]</a> Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a> at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations.<a href="#cite_note-george-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-emergent_theory">Neo-emergent theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Neo-emergent theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Functional_leadership_model" title="Functional leadership model">Functional leadership model</a></div> The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of <a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">information</a> by the leader or by other stakeholders,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> not through the actions of the leader.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In other words, the reproduction of information or <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">stories</a> form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Lord Nelson</a> often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In modern society, various media outlets, including the press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like <a href="/wiki/Royal_blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal blood">royal lineage</a>, which once stood as a substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivist_analysis">Constructivist analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Constructivist analysis">edit</a>]</div> Some <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">constructivists</a> question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership_emergence">Leadership emergence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Leadership emergence">edit</a>]</div> Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders. Many personality characteristics are reliably associated with leadership emergence.<a href="#cite_note-:0-89">[89]</a> The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring, and social motivation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-89">[89]</a> Other areas of study in relation to how and why leaders emerge include narcissistic traits, absentee leaders, and participation[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>]. Today's sophisticated research methods look at personality characteristics in combination to determine patterns of leadership emergence.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela share traits that an average person does not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> No research has found a “leadership gene”; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Using a large international sample researchers found three factors that motivate leaders: affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assertiveness">Assertiveness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Assertiveness">edit</a>]</div> The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear: individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authenticity">Authenticity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Authenticity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Authentic_leadership" title="Authentic leadership">authentic leadership</a></div> Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_Five_personality_factors">Big Five personality factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Big Five personality factors">edit</a>]</div> Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.<a href="#cite_note-Judge,_T.A._2002-38">[38]</a> However, introversion–extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence; specifically, leaders tend to be high in extroversion.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> Introversion–extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily among those in the Big Five Traits.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence.<a href="#cite_note-Judge,_T.A._2002-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_order">Birth order</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Birth order">edit</a>]</div> Those born first in their families, and only children, are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative.<a href="#cite_note-:0-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Character_strengths">Character strengths</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Character strengths">edit</a>]</div> Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dominance">Dominance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dominance">edit</a>]</div> Individuals with dominant personalities (they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way) are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotional_intelligence">Emotional intelligence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Emotional intelligence">edit</a>]</div> Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.<a href="#cite_note-:0-89">[89]</a> Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence">Intelligence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Intelligence">edit</a>]</div> Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:0-89">[89]</a> Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed in intelligence the prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests, and values<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-efficacy_for_leadership">Self-efficacy for leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Self-efficacy for leadership">edit</a>]</div> An individual's belief in their ability to lead is associated with an increased willingness to accept a leadership role and find success in its pursuit.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> There are no set conditions for this characteristic to become emergent. However, it must be sustained by an individual's belief that they have the ability to learn and improve it with time. Individuals partly evaluate their own capabilities by observing others; working with a superior who is seen as an effective leader may help the individual develop a belief that he or she can perform in a similar manner.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-monitoring">Self-monitoring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Self-monitoring">edit</a>]</div> Individuals who closely manage and adjust their behavior based on the social context, often referred to as high self-monitors, have a greater tendency to assume leadership roles within a group. This propensity is attributed to their heightened interest in elevating their status and their readiness to conform their actions to match the requirements of the given situation.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_motivation">Social motivation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Social motivation">edit</a>]</div> People who exhibit both a drive for achievement and a desire for social connections tend to participate actively in group-based efforts to solve problems. Additionally, they have a higher likelihood of being chosen as leaders within these groups.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narcissism,_hubris_and_other_negative_traits">Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits">edit</a>]</div> A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absentee_leader">Absentee leader</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Absentee leader">edit</a>]</div> Existing research has shown that absentee leaders—those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and who are marginally engaging with their role—are actually worse than destructive leaders, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Willingness_to_Participate">Willingness to Participate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Willingness to Participate">edit</a>]</div> A willingness to participate in a group can indicate a person's interest as well as their willingness to take responsibility for how the group performs.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> Those who do not say much during a group meeting are less likely to emerge as a leader than those who speak up.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> There is however some debate over whether the quality of participation in a group matters more than the quantity. A hypothesis termed <a href="/wiki/Babble_hypothesis" title="Babble hypothesis">the ‘babble effect’ or the ‘babble hypothesis’</a> has been studied as a factor in the emergence of leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:2-107">[107]</a> It posits that leader emergence is highly correlated with the quantity of speaking time—specifically, those who speak a lot in a group setting are more likely to become a group leader.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-107">[107]</a> The quantity of participation is more important that the quality of these contributions when it comes to leader emergence.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> However, some studies indicate that there must be some element of quality combined with quantity to support leader emergence. Thus, while sheer quantity does matter to leadership, when the contributions made are also of high-quality leader emergence is further facilitated.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership_styles">Leadership styles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Leadership styles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leadership_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership styles">Leadership styles</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">Forms of government</a></div> A leadership style is a leader's way of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> style may be more effective. The best style is one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.<a href="#cite_note-Lewin-111">[111]</a> A field in which leadership style has gained attention is that of military science, which expresses a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and <a href="/wiki/Domain_knowledge" title="Domain knowledge">domain knowledge</a>. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autocratic_or_authoritarian">Autocratic or authoritarian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Autocratic or authoritarian">edit</a>]</div> Under the <a href="/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with <a href="/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">dictators</a>. Autocratic leaders do not ask for or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. Autocratic management can be been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group.<a href="#cite_note-Lewin-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participative_or_democratic">Participative or democratic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Participative or democratic">edit</a>]</div> The democratic or participative leadership style involves the leader actively sharing decision-making responsibilities with group members. This approach emphasizes collaboration and values the input of all team members, fostering a sense of ownership and inclusivity within the group. By promoting the interests and well-being of the team, democratic leaders encourage open communication and social equality. This style, also known as <a href="/wiki/Shared_leadership" title="Shared leadership">shared leadership</a>, distributes authority and decision-making power among all members rather than centralizing it with the leader alone. This method enhances team morale and engagement and leverages diverse perspectives to drive more well-rounded and informed decisions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laissez-faire_or_free-rein_leadership">Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership">edit</a>]</div> In laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the subordinates. (The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let them do"). Subordinates are given the right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles, and are given a high degree of independence and freedom to formulate their own objectives and ways to achieve them.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Task-oriented">Task-oriented</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Task-oriented">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Task-oriented_and_relationship-oriented_leadership" title="Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership">Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Leadership" title="Special:EditPage/Leadership">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Task-oriented leadership is a style characterized by a leader's concentration on the necessary tasks to achieve specific production objectives. Leaders following this approach emphasize the creation of systematic solutions for given problems or goals, ensuring strict adherence to deadlines, and achieving targeted outcomes. Unlike leaders who prioritize accommodating group members, those with a task-oriented approach concentrate on obtaining precise solutions to fulfill production aims. Consequently, they are skilled at ensuring timely goal attainment, although the well-being of their group members might be compromised. These leaders maintain an unwavering focus on both the overall goal and the assigned tasks for each team member. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship-oriented">Relationship-oriented</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Relationship-oriented">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Task-oriented_and_relationship-oriented_leadership" title="Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership">Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership</a></div> Relationship-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader focuses on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paternalism">Paternalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Paternalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></div> Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the members.<a href="#cite_note-Aycan-115">[115]</a> Members' choices are limited due to the rigid direction given by the leader. The term paternalism is from the Latin pater meaning "father". The leader is most often a male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies.<a href="#cite_note-Aycan-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Servant_leadership">Servant leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Servant leadership">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Leadership" title="Special:EditPage/Leadership">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Servant_leadership" title="Servant leadership">Servant leadership</a></div> With the transformation into a knowledge society, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Servant_leadership" title="Servant leadership">servant leadership</a> has become more popular, notably through modern technology management styles such as <a href="/wiki/Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a>. In this style, the leadership is externalized from the leader who serves as a guardian of the methodology and a "servant" or service provider to the team they lead. The cohesion and common direction of the team is dictated by a common culture, common goals and sometimes a specific methodology. This style is different from the laissez-faire in that the leader constantly works towards reaching the common goals as a team, but without giving explicit directions on tasks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transactional_and_Transformational_Leadership">Transactional and Transformational Leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Transactional and Transformational Leadership">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transactional_leadership" title="Transactional leadership">Transactional leadership</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transformational_leadership" title="Transformational leadership">Transformational leadership</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Transactional_leadership" title="Transactional leadership">Transactional leadership</a> refers to an exchange relationship between a leader and followers in which they both strive to meet their own self-interests. The term transactional leadership was introduced by Weber in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> There are several forms of transactional leadership, the first being contingent reward, in which the leader outlines what the follower must do to be rewarded for the effort. The second form of transactional leadership is <a href="/wiki/Management_by_exception" title="Management by exception">management-by-exception</a>, in which the leader monitors performance of the follower and takes corrective action if standards are not met. Finally transactional leaders may be laissez-faire, avoiding taking any action at all.<a href="#cite_note-:3-117">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Transformational_leadership" title="Transformational leadership">Transformational leadership</a> refers to a leader who moves beyond immediate self interests using idealized influence (<a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">charisma</a>), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation (<a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>), or individualized consideration. Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are when a leader is able to envision and communicate a mutually desirable future state. Intellectual stimulation is when a leader helps their followers to become more creative and innovative. Individualized consideration is when a leader pays attention to the developmental needs of their followers, supporting and coaching them.<a href="#cite_note-:3-117">[117]</a> A transformational leader is one who lead others to lead themselves. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership_differences_affected_by_gender">Leadership differences affected by gender</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Leadership differences affected by gender">edit</a>]</div> Another factor that affects leadership style is whether the leader is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an <a href="/wiki/Agentic_leadership" title="Agentic leadership">agentic leadership</a> style. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent, and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact, and responding tactfully to others' comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful, and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-90">[90]</a> Meta-analyses show that people associate masculinity and agency more strongly with leadership than femininity and communion.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Such <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a> may have an effect on leadership evaluations of men and women.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Psychologist Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic proposes that incompetent men are disproportionately promoted into leadership positions because instead of testing rigorously for competence, employers are attracted to <a href="/wiki/Confidence" title="Confidence">confidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">charisma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> He points out that even as most bosses are men, most employees dislike them and often quit jobs because of them, and many political and business leaders are disliked and demonstrably fail.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Chamorro-Premuzic advocates that instead of teaching women to be more like men, people of both genders should be educated in and selected for leadership on the basis of traits that evidence shows make good leaders, including emotional intelligence, calmness, resilience, self-awareness, and humility.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barriers_for_non-western_female_leaders">Barriers for non-western female leaders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Barriers for non-western female leaders">edit</a>]</div> Many things contribute to barriers to women's entrance into leadership. These barriers also differ among cultures. Despite the increasing number of female leaders in the world, only a small fraction come from non-<a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">westernized cultures</a>. Although the barriers listed below may be more severe in non-western cultures, this does not imply that westernized cultures do not have these barriers as well. These subsections aim to compare the differences between the two: Research and Literature Although there have been many studies done on leadership in women, comparatively little research has been done on women in <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalistic cultures</a>. The literature and research done on women emerging as leaders in a society that prefers men is lacking. This hinders women from knowing how to reach their leadership goals, and fails to educate men about this disparity.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Maternity Leave Studies have shown the importance of longer[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">compared to?</a>] paid <a href="/wiki/Parental_leave" title="Parental leave">maternity leave</a> and the positive effects it has on a female employee's mental health and return to work. In Sweden, it was shown that the increased flexibility in timing for mothers to return to work decreased the odds of poor mental health reports. In non-western cultures that mostly follow paternalism, lack of knowledge on the benefits of maternity leave impacts the support given to the women during an important time in their life.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Society and Laws Countries that follow paternalism, such as India, allow for women to be treated unjustly. Issues such as child marriage and minor punishments for perpetrators in crimes against women shape society's view on how women should be treated. This can prevent women from feeling comfortable speaking out in personal and professional settings.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Glass Ceilings and Glass Cliffs Women who work in a very paternalistic culture or industry (e.g. the oil or engineering industry), often deal with limitations in their careers that prevent them from advancing into leadership positions. This may be due to a mentality that insists only males carry leadership characteristics. The term <a href="/wiki/Glass_cliff" title="Glass cliff">glass cliff</a> refers to undesired projects that are often given to women because they have an increased risk of failure. These undesired projects are given to female employees where they are more likely to fail and leave the organization.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance">Performance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Performance">edit</a>]</div> Some researchers argued that the influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] <a href="#cite_note-Kaiser08-130">[130]</a> To facilitate successful leadership <a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">performance</a> it is important to understand and accurately measure it. <a href="/wiki/Job_performance" title="Job performance">Job performance</a> generally refers to behavior that contributes to organizational success.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of them. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance.<a href="#cite_note-Kaiser08-130">[130]</a> "Leadership performance" may refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While they may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Another way to conceptualize leader performance is to focus on the outcomes of the leader's followers, group, team, unit, or organization. In evaluating this type of leader performance, two general strategies are typically used. The first relies on subjective perceptions of the leader's performance from subordinates, superiors, or occasionally peers or other parties. The other type of effectiveness measures are more objective indicators of follower or unit performance, such as measures of productivity, goal attainment, sales figures, or unit financial performance.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>B.M. Bass & R.E. Riggio<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></cite></div></blockquote> A <a href="/wiki/Toxic_leader" title="Toxic leader">toxic leader</a> is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_leadership">Measuring leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Measuring leadership">edit</a>]</div> Measuring leadership has proven difficult and complex—even impossible.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Attempts to assess leadership performance via group performance bring in multifarious different factors. Different perceptions of leadership itself may lead to differing measuring methods.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Nevertheless, leadership theoreticians have proven perversely reluctant to abandon the vague subjective qualitative popular concept of "leaders".<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traits">Traits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Traits">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies largely or entirely upon a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources">single source</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Leadership##" title="Talk:Leadership">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit">improve this article</a> by introducing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to additional sources at this section. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup_reorganize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/40px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/60px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/80px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">layout guidelines</a>. The reason given is: it belongs under "Theories: Reemergence of trait theory". Please help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit">editing the article</a> to make improvements to the overall structure. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg/200px-0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg/300px-0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg/400px-0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, one of the world's greatest military leaders</figcaption></figure> Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Later studies indicated that leadership is more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual: One such trait or set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. Scholars have found leadership traits of an individual that do not change from situation to situation—traits such as intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P._4-6-139">[139]</a> However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance, and sometimes dominance. People with these traits wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits can formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln had the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P._4-6-139">[139]</a> Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance. Leaders who are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions. They also can project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in leaders who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. These leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts. Sociability describes leaders who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, and adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. Mother Teresa was an exceptional example who embodied integrity, assertiveness, and <a href="/wiki/Soft_skills" title="Soft skills">social abilities</a> in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Howell,_Jon_P._4-6-139">[139]</a> Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ontological-phenomenological_model">Ontological-phenomenological model</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Ontological-phenomenological model">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup_reorganize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/40px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/60px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/80px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">layout guidelines</a>. The reason given is: it belongs under "Theories". Please help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit">editing the article</a> to make improvements to the overall structure. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Werner_Erhard" title="Werner Erhard">Werner Erhard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Jensen" title="Michael C. Jensen">Michael C. Jensen</a>, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger described leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that was not going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties." In this definition leadership concerns the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that was not going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contexts">Contexts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Contexts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Organizations">edit</a>]</div> An organization that is established as an <a href="/wiki/Legal_instrument" title="Legal instrument">instrument</a> or as a means for achieving defined <a href="/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">objectives</a> has been referred to by sociologists as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and this is reflected in subdivisions of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structure</a>. The formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. This bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The informal organization expresses the personal <a href="/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">objectives and goals</a> of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life—the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves. In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Now humanity spends a major portion of its waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Henry-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">jargon</a>]. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.<a href="#cite_note-Henry-145">[145]</a> A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. In this scenario, leadership is not dependent on title or formal authority.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society".<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] John Hoyle argues that leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> A person who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, they must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to them. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in a hierarchy, with commensurate authority.<a href="#cite_note-Henry-145">[145]</a> Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management">Management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> The terms "<a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. However Bennis and Nanus were clear in their distinction in their frequently quoted phrase "Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing".<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Debate is common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, and management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by charisma, personal relationships, and creativity).<a href="#cite_note-Burns-75">[75]</a> The role of leader is one in which one can try to deal with trust issues and issues derived from lacking trust.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group">Group</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Group">edit</a>]</div> In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called <a href="/wiki/Shared_leadership" title="Shared leadership">shared leadership</a>, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation, and mutual influence among team members.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner <a href="/wiki/Mentorship" title="Mentorship">mentors</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_School_Boards_Association" title="National School Boards Association">National School Boards Association</a> (U.S.A.), these group leaderships or leadership teams have these specific characteristics:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <dl><dt>Characteristics of a Team</dt></dl> <ul><li>There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.</li> <li>There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and to learn from and work with others.</li> <li>The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams</dt></dl> <ol><li>Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.</li> <li>Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals.</li> <li>Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task.</li> <li>Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.</li> <li>Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.</li> <li>Personal traits: Members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.</li> <li>Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups.</li> <li>Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together.</li> <li>Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly.</li> <li>Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-leadership">Self-leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Self-leadership">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Communication_and_Leadership_During_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication and Leadership During Change">Self-leadership</a> is a process that occurs within an individual.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] Self-leadership is having a developed sense of who you are, what you can achieve, and what are your goals are, coupled with the ability to affect your emotions, behaviors, and communication. At the center of leadership is the person who is motivated to make the difference. Self-leadership is a way toward more effectively leading other people.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biology_and_evolution_of_leadership">Biology and evolution of leadership</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Biology and evolution of leadership">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mark_van_Vugt" title="Mark van Vugt">Mark van Vugt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anjana_Ahuja" title="Anjana Ahuja">Anjana Ahuja</a> in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In one study, van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wrangham" title="Richard Wrangham">Richard Wrangham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dale_Peterson" title="Dale Peterson">Dale Peterson</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Demonic_Males:_Apes_and_the_Origins_of_Human_Violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence">Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence</a>, present evidence that only humans and <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, <a href="/wiki/Territory_(animal)" title="Territory (animal)">territoriality</a>, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> This position is contentious.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many animals apart from apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:EDITORIALIZING" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:EDITORIALIZING">editorializing</a>] examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (which are likewise matriarchal), sheep (which "follow" in some sense castrated <a href="/wiki/Wether_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Wether (disambiguation)">bellwethers</a>), and many others. By comparison, <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a>, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. Bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or with its reputation as a "<a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">hippie</a> chimp".<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a>) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths">Myths</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Myths">edit</a>]</div> Leadership has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership interfere with people's conception of what leadership is about.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership_is_innate">Leadership is innate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Leadership is innate">edit</a>]</div> According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive <a href="/wiki/Dispositional_affect" title="Dispositional affect">dispositional characteristics</a> present at birth (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion" title="Extraversion and introversion">extraversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, or ingenuity). However, evidence shows that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.<a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-163">[163]</a> Thus, effective leadership can result from <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">nature</a> (i.e., innate talents) as well as <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">nurture</a> (i.e., acquired skills). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership_is_possessing_power_over_others">Leadership is possessing power over others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Leadership is possessing power over others">edit</a>]</div> Although leadership is certainly a form of <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>, it is not demarcated by power over people. Rather, it is a power with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers.<a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-163">[163]</a> Despite popular belief, the use of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">coercion</a>, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. People who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaders_are_positively_influential">Leaders are positively influential</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Leaders are positively influential">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a> of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Bystander_effect" title="Bystander effect">bystander effect</a> (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Moreover, group performance,<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Efficiency" title="Efficiency">efficiency</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs. The difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including their own followers. Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaders_entirely_control_group_outcomes">Leaders entirely control group outcomes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Leaders entirely control group outcomes">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western cultures</a> it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This view relates to reverence for leadership per se or for "heroic charismatic leadership" - a "cult of leadership" in the abstract (as distinct from the cult of a given leader/leadership-group or from some individual-oriented <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>).<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> This romanticized view of leadership—the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes—ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">group cohesion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">communication patterns</a>, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">behavioral norms</a> and established standards influence group functionality. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="All_groups_have_a_designated_leader">All groups have a designated leader</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: All groups have a designated leader">edit</a>]</div> Not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women,<a href="#cite_note-SBA-173">[173]</a> are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,<a href="#cite_note-guastello-174">[174]</a> or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility" title="Diffusion of responsibility">diffusion of responsibility</a>, in which leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members.<a href="#cite_note-SBA-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-guastello-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_members_resist_leaders">Group members resist leaders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Group members resist leaders">edit</a>]</div> Group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">ambiguous</a>] overall group strength.<a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-163">[163]</a> Most people prefer to be led than to be without a leader.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Action-oriented_environments">Action-oriented environments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Action-oriented environments">edit</a>]</div> One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. Some examples of action-oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Leadership of small groups is often created to respond to a situation or critical incident. In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup ("action environments"). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of leaders in front-line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized <a href="/wiki/Information_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Technology">IT</a> teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands-on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought-out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home-base decision-makers. Early adoption of <a href="/wiki/Scrum_(software_development)" title="Scrum (software development)">Scrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kanban" title="Kanban">Kanban</a> branch development methodologies helped to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on <a href="/wiki/Trunk-based_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Trunk-based development">trunk-based development</a>. This method of <a href="/wiki/Lean_manufacturing" title="Lean manufacturing">just-in-time</a> action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules, satisfying the clients' needs to rapidly patch production environment bugs.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">importance?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critical_thought">Critical thought</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Critical thought">edit</a>]</div> The ideas of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> (1729–1797) on <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative</a> (as opposed to delegate-based) <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> have echoes in the attitudes of elected representatives who regard themselves - and even portray themselves - as "leaders".<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a>'s 1840 "<a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a>", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition (from <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, and others) in the 19th and 20th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> noted in 1945 that leaders can <a href="/wiki/Mislead" class="mw-redirect" title="Mislead">mislead</a> and make mistakes—he warns against deferring to "great men".<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> and others<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> have subjected the concept of leadership to <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a> and assert that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question subjection to a will or intellect other than one's own if the leader is not a <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_expert" title="Subject-matter expert">subject-matter expert</a>. Concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">autogestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employeeship" title="Employeeship">employeeship</a>, and common <a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">civic virtue</a> challenge the fundamentally <a href="/wiki/Anti-democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-democratic">anti-democratic</a> nature of the <a href="/wiki/Leadership_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership principle">leadership principle</a> by stressing <a href="/wiki/Individual_responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual responsibility">individual responsibility</a> and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out "leadership" as the basis of a special class of individuals. Various historical calamities (such as <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>) can be attributed<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> to a misplaced reliance on the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">principle of leadership</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Führerprinzip) as exhibited in <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>. <a href="/wiki/David_John_Farmer" title="David John Farmer">David John Farmer</a> writes critically of the <a href="/wiki/Leader_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader principle">leader principle</a> and of the cult in which elements throughout society - even in democratic countries - pay deference to the idea of leadership.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The idea of <a href="/wiki/Leaderism" title="Leaderism">leaderism</a> paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_performance" title="Adaptive performance">Adaptive performance</a> – Adjusting to and understanding change in a workplace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a> – Charm that can inspire devotion in others</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a> – Branch of social psychology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-leadership" title="E-leadership">E-leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Followership" title="Followership">Followership</a> – Actions of someone in a subordinate role</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Range_Leadership_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Full Range Leadership Model">Full Range Leadership Model</a> – Theory of leadershipPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_accountability" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership accountability">Leadership accountability</a> – Concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-makingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_school" title="Leadership school">Leadership school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiteam_system" title="Multiteam system">Multiteam system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_leadership" title="Narcissistic leadership">Narcissistic leadership</a> – Leadership style</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> – Aristotle's theory of virtue ethics grounded in natural philosophy and human teleology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_development" title="Professional development">Professional development</a> – Learning to earn or maintain professional credentials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realistic_Job_Preview" class="mw-redirect" title="Realistic Job Preview">Realistic Job Preview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-team" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-team">Super-team</a> – Concept within organization developmentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_theological_virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Three theological virtues">Three theological virtues</a> – Christian ethicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uli_al-amr" class="mw-redirect" title="Uli al-amr">Uli al-amr</a> – Those charged with authority in IslamPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leadership">"Definition of LEADERSHIP"</a>. www.merriam-webster.com. 2024-10-16. Retrieved 2024-10-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+LEADERSHIP&rft.date=2024-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fleadership&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond1992" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, Walter John (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1dtn0olA8PcC&dq=dictionary%20of%20politics&pg=PA276">Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms</a>. Brunswick Publishing Corp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55618-008-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55618-008-8"><bdi>978-1-55618-008-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Politics%3A+Selected+American+and+Foreign+Political+and+Legal+Terms&rft.pub=Brunswick+Publishing+Corp&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-55618-008-8&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Walter+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1dtn0olA8PcC%26dq%3Ddictionary%2520of%2520politics%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrint2005" class="citation book cs1">Grint, Keith (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tf3ZCgAAQBAJ">Leadership: Limits and Possibilities</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333963876" title="Special:BookSources/9780333963876"><bdi>9780333963876</bdi></a>. <q>Moral leadership is not the way to secure democracy, morality and justice because morality, like power and leadership is an <a href="/wiki/Essentially_contested_concept" title="Essentially contested concept">essentially contested concept</a>....</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership%3A+Limits+and+Possibilities&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780333963876&rft.aulast=Grint&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTf3ZCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestern2013" class="citation book cs1">Western, Simon (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnDAQAAQBAJ">Leadership: A critical text</a>. London: Sage. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781446294208" title="Special:BookSources/9781446294208"><bdi>9781446294208</bdi></a>. <q>Leadership is a contested term with multiple meanings and diverse practical applications.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership%3A+A+critical+text&rft.place=London&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781446294208&rft.aulast=Western&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbcnDAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosset1970" class="citation book cs1">Grosset, Serge (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=03xEAAAAIAAJ">Management: European and American Styles</a>. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Retrieved 20 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management%3A+European+and+American+Styles&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Grosset&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D03xEAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChemers1997" class="citation book cs1">Chemers, M. (1997). An integrative theory of leadership. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-2679-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-2679-1"><bdi>978-0-8058-2679-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+integrative+theory+of+leadership&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates%2C+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-2679-1&rft.aulast=Chemers&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthouse2018" class="citation book cs1">Northouse, Peter G. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJ08DwAAQBAJ">Leadership: Theory and Practice</a> (8 ed.). California: Sage Publication. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781506362298" title="Special:BookSources/9781506362298"><bdi>9781506362298</bdi></a>. <q>...some define leadership in terms of the power relationship that exists between leaders and followers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=California&rft.edition=8&rft.pub=Sage+Publication&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781506362298&rft.aulast=Northouse&rft.aufirst=Peter+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJ08DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashingtonBoalDavis2020" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Marvin; Boal, Kimberly; Davis, John (18 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237345189">"Institutional Leadership: past, present, and future"</a>. In Greenwood, Royston; Oliver, Christine; Lawrence, Thomas B; Meyer, Renate E. (eds.). The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. SAGE Publications, Limited. pp. 719–733. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781529712117" title="Special:BookSources/9781529712117"><bdi>9781529712117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Institutional+Leadership%3A+past%2C+present%2C+and+future&rft.btitle=The+Sage+Handbook+of+Organizational+Institutionalism&rft.pages=719-733&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Limited&rft.date=2020-02-18&rft.isbn=9781529712117&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.au=Boal%2C+Kimberly&rft.au=Davis%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F237345189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolemanBoyatzisMcKee2003" class="citation book cs1">Goleman, D.; Boyatzis, R.E.; McKee, A. (2003). The New Leaders: Transforming the art of leadership. London: Sphere. Sphere. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780751533811" title="Special:BookSources/9780751533811"><bdi>9780751533811</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Leaders%3A+Transforming+the+art+of+leadership.+London%3A+Sphere&rft.pub=Sphere&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780751533811&rft.aulast=Goleman&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Boyatzis%2C+R.E.&rft.au=McKee%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkpatrickLocke1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kirkpatrick, Shelley A.; <a href="/wiki/Edwin_A._Locke" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin A. Locke">Locke, Edwin A.</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100627235908/http://sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/Org_Mgmt_Materials/Leadership%20-%20Do%20Traits%20Matgter.pdf">"Leadership: Do traits matter?"</a> (PDF). Academy of Management Executive. 5 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/Org_Mgmt_Materials/Leadership%20-%20Do%20Traits%20Matgter.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-06-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Executive&rft.atitle=Leadership%3A+Do+traits+matter%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Kirkpatrick&rft.aufirst=Shelley+A.&rft.au=Locke%2C+Edwin+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsbuweb.tcu.edu%2Fjmathis%2FOrg_Mgmt_Materials%2FLeadership%2520-%2520Do%2520Traits%2520Matgter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeyranian2010" class="citation book cs1">Seyranian, Viviane (2010). "Interactionist Theories of Leadership". In Levine, John M; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hogg" title="Michael Hogg">Hogg, Michael A.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wrQ5DQAAQBAJ">Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations</a>. Sage reference. Vol. 1. Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 458. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412942089" title="Special:BookSources/9781412942089"><bdi>9781412942089</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 August 2023. <q>Interactionist leadership scholars also have argued that trait-based or situational accounts of leadership ignore how a leader can affect a situation or how a situation may influence leaders. [...] Interactionist theories of leadership link person–situation variables in a network of multidirectional relationships that attempt to capture the evolving nature of leadership.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interactionist+Theories+of+Leadership&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Group+Processes+and+Intergroup+Relations&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.series=Sage+reference&rft.pages=458&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781412942089&rft.aulast=Seyranian&rft.aufirst=Viviane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwrQ5DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsmith2016" class="citation web cs1">Goldsmith, Marshall (2016). Dekel, Gil (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.designtoolbox.co.uk/strategies/leaders-make-values-visible/">"Leaders Make Values Visible"</a>. Design Toolbox.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Design+Toolbox&rft.atitle=Leaders+Make+Values+Visible&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Goldsmith&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.designtoolbox.co.uk%2Fstrategies%2Fleaders-make-values-visible%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaffold2005" class="citation book cs1">Saffold, Guy (2005). "Leadership Through Vision". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RKhizYSv9RoC">Strategic Planning: Leadership through Vision</a>. Nairobi: Evangel Publishing House. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789966201225" title="Special:BookSources/9789966201225"><bdi>9789966201225</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <q>...leadership is about the future; and the future is about vision.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leadership+Through+Vision&rft.btitle=Strategic+Planning%3A+Leadership+through+Vision&rft.place=Nairobi&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Evangel+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9789966201225&rft.aulast=Saffold&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRKhizYSv9RoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsEngel2005" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Dick; Engel, Sarah (2005) [1986]. "After the vision: suggestions to corporate visionaries and vision champions". In Adams, John D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Im7BBAAAQBAJ">Transforming Leadership</a> (2nd ed.). New York: Cosimo. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596053656" title="Special:BookSources/9781596053656"><bdi>9781596053656</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=After+the+vision%3A+suggestions+to+corporate+visionaries+and+vision+champions&rft.btitle=Transforming+Leadership&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=206&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cosimo&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781596053656&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft.au=Engel%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIm7BBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggioMurphyPirozzolo2001" class="citation book cs1">Riggio, Ronald E.; Murphy, Susan Elaine; Pirozzolo, Francis J., eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YSx5AgAAQBAJ">Multiple Intelligences and Leadership</a>. Organization and Management Series. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135662431" title="Special:BookSources/9781135662431"><bdi>9781135662431</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiple+Intelligences+and+Leadership&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+New+Jersey&rft.series=Organization+and+Management+Series&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781135662431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYSx5AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chin_2015-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Chin_2015_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chin, Roger (2015). "Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management". Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199–216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FTPM-07-2014-0037">10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Team+Performance+Management&rft.atitle=Examining+teamwork+and+leadership+in+the+fields+of+public+administration%2C+leadership%2C+and+management&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=199-216&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FTPM-07-2014-0037&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Giorgini, Giovanni (2013). "Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli's Prince". Review of Politics. 75 (4): 625–640. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2019" class="citation book cs1">Guo, Xuezhi (2019). "Traditional Political Thought and Imperial Legacy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hm2MDwAAQBAJ">The Politics of the Core Leader in China: Culture, Institution, Legitimacy, and Power</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108480499" title="Special:BookSources/9781108480499"><bdi>9781108480499</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 May 2019. <q>The Mandate of Heaven implies that the legitimacy of political leadership as well as its leading figures come from not only their political power derived from their positions and de facto dominance in the leadership but also their roles in bringing voluntary compliance from the high-ranking leaders and the population at large.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Traditional+Political+Thought+and+Imperial+Legacy&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+the+Core+Leader+in+China%3A+Culture%2C+Institution%2C+Legitimacy%2C+and+Power&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781108480499&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Xuezhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhm2MDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta1991" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Ashok Kumar (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJEXDF7XxzUC">Emerging Pattern of Political Leadership: A Case Study of Punjab</a>. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170992561" title="Special:BookSources/9788170992561"><bdi>9788170992561</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 May 2019. <q>The main theme of [José Ortega y Gasset's] theory of elite is that 'when the masses in a country believe that they can do without aristocracy, the nation inevitably declines. In their disillusionment the masses again turn to the new leadership and a new aristocracy emerges.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emerging+Pattern+of+Political+Leadership%3A+A+Case+Study+of+Punjab&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Mittal+Publications&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9788170992561&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Ashok+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJEXDF7XxzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarstillerJoerding_Fickeler2005" class="citation book cs1">Marstiller, James K.; Joerding Fickeler, Jennifer (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YUCzmu3_5vsC">The Power to Innovate: Rewiring the Minds of Individuals and Organizations</a>. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420835106" title="Special:BookSources/9781420835106"><bdi>9781420835106</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 May 2019. <q>Throughout the ages it was believed that leaders were born, that the ability to lead was somehow inherited through the blood. [...] In spite of many examples throughout history of blue-blood leadership ineptitude, birthright and competency became intertwined in the human psyche. This perception remained until the 20th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+to+Innovate%3A+Rewiring+the+Minds+of+Individuals+and+Organizations&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781420835106&rft.aulast=Marstiller&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rft.au=Joerding+Fickeler%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYUCzmu3_5vsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCano2010" class="citation book cs1">Cano, Librado F. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8D8sanxRQR8C">Transformation Of An Individual Family Community Nation And The World</a>. Trafford Publishing. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781426947667" title="Special:BookSources/9781426947667"><bdi>9781426947667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformation+Of+An+Individual+Family+Community+Nation+And+The+World&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781426947667&rft.aulast=Cano&rft.aufirst=Librado+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8D8sanxRQR8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinghRani2017" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Ravinder; Rani, Ajita (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GZKiDgAAQBAJ">Human Behaviour</a>. Notion Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-946983-31-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-946983-31-2"><bdi>978-1-946983-31-2</bdi></a>. <q>...emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies, where the women rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Behaviour&rft.pub=Notion+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-946983-31-2&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Ravinder&rft.au=Rani%2C+Ajita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGZKiDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaym1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nina_Baym" title="Nina Baym">Baym, Nina</a> (1992). "Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Mother: A Biographical Speculation". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EnglvDhekpIC">Feminism and American Literary History: Essays</a>. Women's studies / American literature. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813518558" title="Special:BookSources/9780813518558"><bdi>9780813518558</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 July 2020. <q>The image [...] is the Garden of Eden, the benign matriarchy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nathaniel+Hawthorne+and+His+Mother%3A+A+Biographical+Speculation&rft.btitle=Feminism+and+American+Literary+History%3A+Essays&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey&rft.series=Women%27s+studies+%2F+American+literature&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780813518558&rft.aulast=Baym&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEnglvDhekpIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxena2009" class="citation book cs1">Saxena, P.K. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dudAB3uReq4C">Principles of Management, A Modern Approach</a>. New Delhi: Global India Publications PVT LTD. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-907941-5-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-907941-5-2"><bdi>978-81-907941-5-2</bdi></a>. <q>Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Management%2C+A+Modern+Approach&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Global+India+Publications+PVT+LTD&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-907941-5-2&rft.aulast=Saxena&rft.aufirst=P.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdudAB3uReq4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSun_Tzu2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War: Complete Texts and Commentaries</a>. Translated by Cleary, Thomas. Shambhala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590300541" title="Special:BookSources/9781590300541"><bdi>9781590300541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+War%3A+Complete+Texts+and+Commentaries&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781590300541&rft.au=Sun+Tzu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Rahe, P. A. (Ed.). (2005). Machiavelli's liberal republican legacy. Cambridge University Press., pg .3 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_leadership" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=leadership">"leadership"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=leadership&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dleadership&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) - "1821 [...] Tierney has regularly resigned the Leadership of the Opposition." </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_leadership" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=leadership">"leadership"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=leadership&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dleadership&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) - "1870 [...] Nothing is wanted but military leadership and military means." </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Note the relative changes in terminology in American English since 1800: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?year_end=2019&year_start=1800&corpus=28&content=leader%2Cmaster%2Cleadership&smoothing=3&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cleader%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cmaster%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cleadership%3B%2Cc0#t1%3B%2Cleader%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cmaster%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cleadership%3B%2Cc0">"leader, master, leadership—1800–2019"</a>. Google Books Ngram Viewer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Books+Ngram+Viewer&rft.atitle=leader%2C+master%2C+leadership%E2%80%941800%E2%80%932019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fngrams%2Fgraph%3Fyear_end%3D2019%26year_start%3D1800%26corpus%3D28%26content%3Dleader%252Cmaster%252Cleadership%26smoothing%3D3%26direct_url%3Dt1%253B%252Cleader%253B%252Cc0%253B.t1%253B%252Cmaster%253B%252Cc0%253B.t1%253B%252Cleadership%253B%252Cc0%23t1%253B%252Cleader%253B%252Cc0%253B.t1%253B%252Cmaster%253B%252Cc0%253B.t1%253B%252Cleadership%253B%252Cc0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2012" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Carl (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OHWJtzdeyeEC">Is Slavery Christian?</a>. AuthorHouse. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781477274958" title="Special:BookSources/9781477274958"><bdi>9781477274958</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 July 2020. <q>Any of a dozen factors can make the position of master, employer, or leader, very difficult and frustrating. How refreshing it must be for a slave master, or employer, or leader to run into a person who treats him with respect whether he's present or absent, who works diligently at all times, who need not be watched like a hawk, who is a self-started with a tongue well under control: the Christian slave or worker! What honor to Christ is brought by such a slave or worker! Such a person's Christianity is real.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Is+Slavery+Christian%3F&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781477274958&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOHWJtzdeyeEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenleaf2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Greenleaf" title="Robert K. Greenleaf">Greenleaf, Robert K.</a> (2002) [1977]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AfjUgMJlDK4C">Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness</a>. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780809105540" title="Special:BookSources/9780809105540"><bdi>9780809105540</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2014-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Servant+Leadership%3A+A+Journey+Into+the+Nature+of+Legitimate+Power+and+Greatness&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780809105540&rft.aulast=Greenleaf&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAfjUgMJlDK4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLedlowCoppola2010" class="citation book cs1">Ledlow, Gerald (Jerry) R.; Coppola, M. Nicholas (23 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=53wEIUfjSmUC">Leadership for Health Professionals: Theory, Skills, and Applications</a>. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781449619602" title="Special:BookSources/9781449619602"><bdi>9781449619602</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 June 2024. <q>[...] leadership theory and research is a relatively modern discipline. Indeed, the first relevant theories were not proposed until the mid-1800s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership+for+Health+Professionals%3A+Theory%2C+Skills%2C+and+Applications&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2010-08-23&rft.isbn=9781449619602&rft.aulast=Ledlow&rft.aufirst=Gerald+%28Jerry%29+R.&rft.au=Coppola%2C+M.+Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D53wEIUfjSmUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Benjamin Jowett's translation of Plato's Republic does not use the word "leadership"; Plato discusses primarily a "<a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">guardian</a>" class. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato1892" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/dialoguesofplato02platuoft">The Dialogues of Plato translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A.</a> Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-09-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dialogues+of+Plato+translated+into+English+with+Analyses+and+Introductions+by+B.+Jowett%2C+M.A.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1892&rft.au=Plato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fdialoguesofplato02platuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2012" class="citation news cs1">Evans, Jules (2012-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/business-learn-from-ancient-philosophers">"What can business leaders learn from ancient philosophers?"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=What+can+business+leaders+learn+from+ancient+philosophers%3F&rft.date=2012-05-04&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Jules&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsustainable-business%2Fbusiness-learn-from-ancient-philosophers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Markwell2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instinctstoleado0000mark">"Instincts to lead": on leadership, peace, and education</a>. Australia: <a href="/wiki/Connor_Court_Publishing" title="Connor Court Publishing">Connor Court Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-922168-70-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-922168-70-2"><bdi>978-1-922168-70-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/865544191">865544191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Instincts+to+lead%22%3A+on+leadership%2C+peace%2C+and+education&rft.place=Australia&rft.pub=Connor+Court+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F865544191&rft.isbn=978-1-922168-70-2&rft.au=Donald+Markwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstinctstoleado0000mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird1940" class="citation book cs1">Bird, Charles (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000bird">Social Psychology</a>. The Century Psychology Series. New York: Appleton-Century.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Century+Psychology+Series&rft.pub=Appleton-Century&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialpsychology0000bird&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStogdill1948" class="citation journal cs1">Stogdill, R. M. (1948). "Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature". Journal of Psychology. 25: 35–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223980.1948.9917362">10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18901913">18901913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Personal+factors+associated+with+leadership%3A+A+survey+of+the+literature&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=35-71&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00223980.1948.9917362&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18901913&rft.aulast=Stogdill&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann1959" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, R. D. (1959). "A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups". 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In Godbole, Prasad; Burke, Derek; Aylott, Jill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjUqDwAAQBAJ">Why Hospitals Fail: Between Theory and Practice</a>. Cham (Switzerland): Springer International Publishing. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319562247" title="Special:BookSources/9783319562247"><bdi>9783319562247</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 December 2019. <q>Neo-emergent theory describes the use of intelligent information management to account for stewardship to benefit the leader. 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Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership. Springer (published 2016). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137347084" title="Special:BookSources/9781137347084"><bdi>9781137347084</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 December 2019. <q>[...] some constructivists [...] question whether any such thing as leadership exists out there in the world. So for Gemmill and Oakley (2002), leadership is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs. 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[...] But the current cult of leadership reveals two particular ironies [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Competences+of+managers%2C+competences+of+leaders&rft.btitle=Leadership+in+Organizations%3A+Current+issues+and+key+trends&rft.place=London&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781134388752&rft.aulast=Salaman&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgFxMaFQz1ToC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_John_Farmer" title="David John Farmer">Farmer, David John</a> (18 December 2014) [2005]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ">To Kill the King: Post-Traditional Governance and Bureaucracy</a> (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317453550" title="Special:BookSources/9781317453550"><bdi>9781317453550</bdi></a>. Retrieved 16 September 2024. <q>There is a systemic character in the urge for the cult of leadership, and it extends throughout governance. It is crystallized in the deference to leadership in public bureaucracy [...]. The <a href="/wiki/Leader_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader principle">leader principle</a> pervades bureaucratic thinking, just as it pervades economic theory and practice, politics, and personal lives. [...] Practice as art should refuse the one-dimensionality of the thinking that regards the leadership cult as mere common sense.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Kill+the+King%3A+Post-Traditional+Governance+and+Bureaucracy&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft.isbn=9781317453550&rft.aulast=Farmer&rft.aufirst=David+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXDLfBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen2017" class="citation book cs1">Owen, Jo (3 October 2017). "Myth 4: Managers are leaders". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ESA3DwAAQBAJ">Myths of Leadership</a>. Business Myths. London: Kogan Page. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780749480752" title="Special:BookSources/9780749480752"><bdi>9780749480752</bdi></a>. Retrieved 16 September 2024. <q>[...] the cult of leadership undervalues both leadership and management, and is a source of mismatched expectations. [...] much of what is deemed to be 'leadership' is not leadership at all: it is highly effective management.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myth+4%3A+Managers+are+leaders&rft.btitle=Myths+of+Leadership&rft.place=London&rft.series=Business+Myths&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Kogan+Page&rft.date=2017-10-03&rft.isbn=9780749480752&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DESA3DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeindlEhrlichDukerich1985" class="citation journal cs1">Meindl, J. R.; Ehrlich, S. B.; Dukerich, J. M. (1985). "The romance of leadership". 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L.; Manz, C. C. (1995). "Leadership for self-managing work teams: A typology and integrative model". 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpaed.edu.tum.de/fileadmin/tueds02/www/pdfs/publikationen/riedl/2002handoutvariantsriedl.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-03-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Variants+of+an+Action+Oriented+Learning+Environment+for+Technical+Vocational+Training&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Schelten&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Geiger%2C+Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpaed.edu.tum.de%2Ffileadmin%2Ftueds02%2Fwww%2Fpdfs%2Fpublikationen%2Friedl%2F2002handoutvariantsriedl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm1991" class="citation journal cs1">Boehm, B.W. (1991). "Software risk management: principles and practices". IEEE Software. 8: 32–41. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.381.466">10.1.1.381.466</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F52.62930">10.1109/52.62930</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5832015">5832015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Software&rft.atitle=Software+risk+management%3A+principles+and+practices&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=32-41&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.381.466%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5832015%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F52.62930&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=B.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrish2010" class="citation book cs1">Parrish, John M. (14 September 2010). "Philosophical Foundations of Political Leadership". In <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Couto" title="Richard A. Couto">Couto, Richard A.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EgNzAwAAQBAJ">Political and Civic Leadership: A Reference Handbook</a>. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781452266343" title="Special:BookSources/9781452266343"><bdi>9781452266343</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 November 2024. <q>This leader-know-best justification for representative government may be best captured in the thought of Edmund Burke [...], whose celebrated "Speech to the Electors at Bristol" admirably sums up the normative underpinnings of the theory of elite leadership justifying representative democracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophical+Foundations+of+Political+Leadership&rft.btitle=Political+and+Civic+Leadership%3A+A+Reference+Handbook&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2010-09-14&rft.isbn=9781452266343&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEgNzAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1945" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl</a> (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw9wV2Unpe8C">"Preface to the First Edition"</a>. The Open Society and Its Enemies (7 ed.). London: Routledge (published 2012). p. xxxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136749773" title="Special:BookSources/9781136749773"><bdi>9781136749773</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2017-08-20. <q>[...] if our civilisation is to survive, we must break with the habit of deference to great men. Great men may make great mistakes; and [...] some of the greatest leaders of the past supported the perennial attack on freedom and reason. Their influence, too rarely challenged, continues to mislead [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface+to+the+First+Edition&rft.btitle=The+Open+Society+and+Its+Enemies&rft.place=London&rft.pages=xxxiii&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=9781136749773&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGw9wV2Unpe8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1999" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (1999). 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New York: Seven Stories Press (published 2011). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781609802912" title="Special:BookSources/9781609802912"><bdi>9781609802912</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Consent+without+Consent%3A+Regimenting+the+Public+Mind&rft.btitle=Profit+Over+People%3A+Neoliberalism+and+Global+Order&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Seven+Stories+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781609802912&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeX4DAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannhauser2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Dannhauser, Zani (2007). The Relationship between Servant Leadership, Follower Trust, Team Commitment and Unit Effectiveness (PhD thesis). 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New York: Viking.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eichmann+in+Jerusalem%3A+A+Report+on+the+Banality+of+Evil&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Arendt&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroftOvery1989" class="citation book cs1">Wheatcroft, Andrew; <a href="/wiki/Richard_Overy" title="Richard Overy">Overy, Richard</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m8t4Xi2Ljt4C">The Road to War: The Origins of World War II</a> (Revised ed.). London: Random House (published 2012). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781448112395" title="Special:BookSources/9781448112395"><bdi>9781448112395</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2017-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+War%3A+The+Origins+of+World+War+II&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9781448112395&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Overy%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm8t4Xi2Ljt4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_John_Farmer" title="David John Farmer">Farmer, David John</a> (18 December 2014) [2005]. "Start with Michelangelo: What I, a Bureaucrat, Expect". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ">To Kill the King: Post-Traditional Governance and Bureaucracy</a> (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315698670">10.4324/9781315698670</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317453550" title="Special:BookSources/9781317453550"><bdi>9781317453550</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 November 2024. <q>[...] practice as art should embrace elimination of society's dependence on the idea of leader. [...] [A]s long as society demands leaders, the post-traditional practitioner should adopt the model of just leadership [...]. The post traditional practitioner should engage her day-to-day activities with consciousness of opposition to an ethic of power-down. [...] The violence of the cult of the leader is ill-understood, [...] oddly, in many democratic countries that pride themselves on the practice of democracy. The cult is so ingrained psychologically and socially that most cannot imagine a society without hierarchy. [...] There is a systematic character in the urge for the cult of leadership, and it extends throughout governance. It is crystallized in the deference to leadership in public bureaucracy and in thinking about bureaucracy [...]. The leader principle pervades bureaucratic thinking, just as it pervades economic theory and practice, politics, and personal lives. [...] Practice as art should refuse the one-dimensionality of the thinking that regards the leadership cult as mere common sense.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Start+with+Michelangelo%3A+What+I%2C+a+Bureaucrat%2C+Expect&rft.btitle=To+Kill+the+King%3A+Post-Traditional+Governance+and+Bureaucracy&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315698670&rft.isbn=9781317453550&rft.aulast=Farmer&rft.aufirst=David+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXDLfBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFActon2013" class="citation book cs1">Acton, Q. Ashton, ed. (10 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5rSoAfLODEC">Issues in Culture, Rights, and Governance Research</a>. Atlanta, Georgia: ScholarlyEditions (published 2013). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781481649261" title="Special:BookSources/9781481649261"><bdi>9781481649261</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 September 2020. <q>'[...] "leaderism" - as an emerging set of beliefs that frames and justifies certain innovatory changes in contemporary organizational and managerial practice - is a development of managerialism that has been utilized and applied within the policy discourse of public service reform in the UK [...]'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Issues+in+Culture%2C+Rights%2C+and+Governance+Research&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=ScholarlyEditions&rft.date=2013-01-10&rft.isbn=9781481649261&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh5rSoAfLODEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNageshwar2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._Nageshwar" title="K. Nageshwar">Nageshwar, K.</a> (3 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JW55DQAAQBAJ">Interpreting Contemporary India</a>. AuthorHouse (published 2016). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781524665319" title="Special:BookSources/9781524665319"><bdi>9781524665319</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 September 2020. <q>Thus like the 'Animalism' of Orwell, democracy is gradually slipping into a quagmire to be equated with 'Leaderism'. The leader frequently closets with a select band of confidants, aka coterie, and evolves the principles of leaderism. Thus the gospel of leaderism is then flown down to the party rank and file. Loyalty to the master is perpetuated in the name of Leaderism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Contemporary+India&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2016-11-03&rft.isbn=9781524665319&rft.aulast=Nageshwar&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJW55DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Sources">Other Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Other Sources">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBitar2020" class="citation book cs1">Bitar, Amer (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X4oBEAAAQBAJ">Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783030573973" title="Special:BookSources/9783030573973"><bdi>9783030573973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bedouin+Visual+Leadership+in+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Power+of+Aesthetics+and+Practical+Implications&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9783030573973&rft.aulast=Bitar&rft.aufirst=Amer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX4oBEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refCarlyle1841" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle, Thomas</a> (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4069-4419-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4069-4419-8"><bdi>978-1-4069-4419-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Heroes%2C+Hero-Worship%2C+and+the+Heroic+History&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1841&rft.isbn=978-1-4069-4419-8&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refLadkin2011" class="citation book cs1">Ladkin, Donna (2011). Rethinking Leadership : A New Look at Old Leadership Questions. <a href="/wiki/Cheltenham" title="Cheltenham">Cheltenham</a>: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-131-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85793-131-3"><bdi>978-0-85793-131-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Leadership+%3A+A+New+Look+at+Old+Leadership+Questions&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-85793-131-3&rft.aulast=Ladkin&rft.aufirst=Donna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refMiner2005" class="citation book cs1">Miner, J. B. (2005). Organizational Behavior: Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership. <a href="/wiki/Armonk" class="mw-redirect" title="Armonk">Armonk</a>: M. E. Sharpe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organizational+Behavior%3A+Behavior+1%3A+Essential+Theories+of+Motivation+and+Leadership&rft.place=Armonk&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Miner&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refCSUNCOBAE" class="citation book cs1">Montana, Patrick J.; Bruce H. (2008). Management. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-944740-04-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-944740-04-0"><bdi>978-0-944740-04-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management&rft.place=Hauppauge%2C+NY&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-944740-04-0&rft.aulast=Montana&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rft.au=Bruce+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiebertKlatt2000" class="citation book cs1">Hiebert, Murray; Klatt, Bruce (2000). The Encyclopedia of Leadership: A Practical Guide to Popular Leadership Theories and Techniques (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071363082" title="Special:BookSources/9780071363082"><bdi>9780071363082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Leadership%3A+A+Practical+Guide+to+Popular+Leadership+Theories+and+Techniques&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780071363082&rft.aulast=Hiebert&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft.au=Klatt%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2010" class="citation book cs1">Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and work today : an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205683581" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205683581"><bdi>978-0205683581</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology+and+work+today+%3A+an+introduction+to+industrial+and+organizational+psychology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=171&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0205683581&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Duane+P.+Schultz%2C+Sydney+Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refTittemore2003" class="citation book cs1">Tittemore, James A. (2003). Leadership at all Levels. Canada: Boskwa Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9732914-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9732914-0-7"><bdi>978-0-9732914-0-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership+at+all+Levels&rft.place=Canada&rft.pub=Boskwa+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-9732914-0-7&rft.aulast=Tittemore&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Journal articles</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Ahlquist, John S.; Levi, Margaret (2011). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042409-152654">Leadership: What It Means, What It Does, and What We Want to Know About It</a>". Annual Review of Political Science. 14 (1): 1–24</li> <li>Avolio, Bruce J.; Walumbwa, Fred O.; Weber, Todd J. (2009). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621?intcmp=trendmd">Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions</a>". Annual Review of Psychology. 60 (1): 421–449.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouilloudDeslandesMercier2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bouilloud, Jean-Philippe; Deslandes, Ghislain; Mercier, Guillaume (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10551-017-3678-0">"The Leader as Chief Truth Officer: The Ethical Responsibility of "Managing the Truth" in Organizations"</a>. Journal of Business Ethics. 157: 1–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10551-017-3678-0">10.1007/s10551-017-3678-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149433917">149433917</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Ethics&rft.atitle=The+Leader+as+Chief+Truth+Officer%3A+The+Ethical+Responsibility+of+%22Managing+the+Truth%22+in+Organizations&rft.volume=157&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10551-017-3678-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149433917%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bouilloud&rft.aufirst=Jean-Philippe&rft.au=Deslandes%2C+Ghislain&rft.au=Mercier%2C+Guillaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10551-017-3678-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeadership" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_Cantril" title="Hadley Cantril">Hadley Cantril</a> (1958) "Effective democratic leadership: a psychological interpretation", <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Individual_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Individual Psychology">Journal of Individual Psychology</a> 14: 128–38, and pages 139–49 in Psychology, Humanism and Scientific Inquiry (1988) edited by Albert H. Cantril, <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Transaction Books">Transaction Books</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leadership&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Leadership">Leadership</a> at Wikiquote</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Management" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Management" title="Template:Management"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Management" title="Template talk:Management"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Management" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Management"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Management" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_management" title="Outline of management">Outline of management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_management_articles" title="Index of management articles">Index of management articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By type of organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_administration" title="Academic administration">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_management" title="Association management">Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restaurant_management" title="Restaurant management">Restaurant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Court management">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_administration" title="Health administration">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By focus, within an organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a> (top-level)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capability_management" title="Capability management">Capability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On component</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facility_management" title="Facility management">Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">Product lifecycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_management" title="Program management">Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On activity or department managed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Line_management" title="Line management">Line</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>/<a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_process_management" title="Manufacturing process management">production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Staff_management" title="Staff management">Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting management">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On aspect or relationship</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception_management" title="Perception management">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On problem</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">On resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">Environmental resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_inventory_management" title="Field inventory management">Field inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_management" title="Information technology management">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skills_management" title="Skills management">Skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interim_management" title="Interim management">Interim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_management" title="Middle management">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senior_management" title="Senior management">Senior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Methods, approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_method" title="Collaborative method">Collaborative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_range_leadership_model" title="Full range leadership model">Full range leadership model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_by_objectives" title="Management by objectives">Management by objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_style" title="Management style">Management style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macromanagement" title="Macromanagement">Macromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromanagement" title="Micromanagement">Micromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_entrepreneurship" title="Social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Team_building" title="Team building">Team building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_management" title="Virtual management">Virtual management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Skills, activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leadership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Pioneers, scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_M._Goldratt" title="Eliyahu M. Goldratt">Eliyahu M. Goldratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Technology,_Management,_and_Applied_Engineering" title="Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering">Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_school" title="Business school">Business school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_Business_Manager" title="Certified Business Manager">Certified Business Manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Management_Institute" title="Chartered Management Institute">Chartered Management Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_management_studies" title="Critical management studies">Critical management studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Degrees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration" title="Bachelor of Business Administration">Bachelor of Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">Master of Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PhD_in_management" title="PhD in management">PhD in management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Business_Administration" title="Doctor of Business Administration">Doctor of Business Administration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">Collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_compensation" title="Executive compensation">Executive compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">Management consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_(management)" title="Control (management)">Management control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_development" title="Management development">Management development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_fad" title="Management fad">Management fad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_system" title="Management system">Management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_psychology" title="Managerial psychology">Managerial psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerialism" title="Managerialism">Managerialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_development" title="Organization development">Organization development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior_management" title="Organizational behavior management">Organizational behavior management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointy-haired_Boss" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointy-haired Boss">Pointy-haired Boss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Systems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Virtues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Virtues" title="Template:Virtues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Virtues" title="Template talk:Virtues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Virtues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_(philosophy)" title="Endowment (philosophy)">Endowment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">Trait theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virtue families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihārās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushidō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emi_Omo_Eso" title="Emi Omo Eso">Emi Omo Eso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_virtues" title="Five virtues">Five virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles_and_Eight_Virtues" title="Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues">Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Intellectual_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Moral_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Moral virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramīs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_courage" title="Civil courage">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy" title="Courtesy">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discernment_(Christianity)" title="Discernment (Christianity)">Discernment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">Equanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithfulness" title="Faithfulness">Faithfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">Generosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">Good faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_virtue" title="Heroic virtue">Heroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitality" title="Hospitality">Hospitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence" title="Innocence">Innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meekness" title="Meekness">Meekness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonattachment_(philosophy)" title="Nonattachment (philosophy)">Nonattachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspicacity" title="Perspicacity">Perspicacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness" title="Politeness">Politeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuality" title="Punctuality">Punctuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">Self-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-transcendence" title="Self-transcendence">Self-transcendence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportsmanship" title="Sportsmanship">Sportsmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquillity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">Workmanship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrapelia" title="Eutrapelia">Eutrapelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philotimo" title="Philotimo">Philotimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Adhiṭṭhāna">Adhiṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Ārjava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hr%C4%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Hrī (Buddhism)">Hrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">Kshama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">Kshanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Muditā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Śraddhā</a>/<a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Saddhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Caritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">Dignitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">Virtus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganbaru" title="Ganbaru">Ganbaru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giri_(Japanese)" title="Giri (Japanese)">Giri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seny" title="Seny">Seny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sisu" title="Sisu">Sisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù">Virtù</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox 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