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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-sided_cards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Two-sided cards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-sided_cards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-sided_cards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-sided_cards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Three-sided cards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-sided_cards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="بطاقة استذكار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطاقة استذكار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_(%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5)" title="Флашкарта (обучение) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Флашкарта (обучение)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targeta_d%27aprenentatge" title="Targeta d'aprenentatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Targeta d'aprenentatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashcard" title="Flashcard – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Flashcard" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lernkartei" title="Lernkartei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lernkartei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataloogikaart" title="Kataloogikaart – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kataloogikaart" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarjeta_de_aprendizaje" title="Tarjeta de aprendizaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tarjeta de aprendizaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulmokarto" title="Fulmokarto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fulmokarto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezkuntza-txartel" title="Hezkuntza-txartel – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hezkuntza-txartel" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="فلش‌کارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلش‌کارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carte_m%C3%A9moire_(apprentissage)" title="Carte mémoire (apprentissage) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Carte mémoire (apprentissage)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%8C%EB%9E%98%EC%8B%9C%EC%B9%B4%EB%93%9C" title="플래시카드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="플래시카드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashcard" title="Flashcard – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Flashcard" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%A7_%D7%91%D7%96%D7%A7_(%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%A8_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99)" title="פתק בזק (כלי עזר לימודי) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פתק בזק (כלי עזר לימודי)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanul%C3%B3k%C3%A1rtya" title="Tanulókártya – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tanulókártya" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashkaart" title="Flashkaart – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Flashkaart" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%98%E8%AA%9E%E5%B8%B3" title="単語帳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="単語帳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_karta" title="Flash karta – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Flash karta" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiszka" title="Fiszka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fiszka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoreringskort" title="Memoreringskort – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Memoreringskort" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashcard" title="Flashcard – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Flashcard" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%BD%E8%AE%A4%E5%8D%A1" title="抽认卡 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="抽认卡" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1820374#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Flashcard" title="View the content page [c]" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Flash_cartridge" title="Flash cartridge">Flash cartridge</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the form of digital memory sometimes called a "flash card", see <a 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/54px-Acap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/72px-Acap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="50" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Flashcard" title="Special:EditPage/Flashcard">editing it</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Tool for systematic learning</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flashcard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flashcard.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="123" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="123" /></a><figcaption>A set of flashcards demonstrating the <a href="/wiki/Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a>. Cards that the learner knows are promoted to a box for less frequent review (indicated by green arrows); cards for which the learner has forgotten the meaning are demoted to be studied more frequently (indicated by red arrows).</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>flashcard</b> or <b>flash card</b> is a card bearing <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> on both sides, which is intended to be used as an aid in <a href="/wiki/Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a>. Each flashcard typically bears a question or definition on one side and an answer or target term on the other. Flashcards are often used to memorize <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, historical dates, formulae or any subject matter that can be learned via a question-and-answer format. Flashcards can be virtual (part of a <a href="/wiki/List_of_flashcard_software" title="List of flashcard software">flashcard software</a>), or physical. </p><p>Flashcards are an application of the <a href="/wiki/Testing_effect" title="Testing effect">testing effect</a> − the finding that <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing with proper feedback. Study habits affect the rate at which a flashcard-user learns, and proper <a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spacing of flashcards</a> has been proven to accelerate learning.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flashcards exercise the mental process of <a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">active recall</a>: given a prompt, one produces the answer. Beyond the content of cards, which are collected in decks, there is the question of <i>use</i> – how does one use the cards, in particular, how frequently does one review, and how does one react to errors, either complete failures to recall or mistakes? Various <a href="#Systems">systems</a> have been developed, mostly based around <a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spaced repetition</a> – increasing the time intervals between reviews whenever a card is recalled correctly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spaced_repetition">Spaced repetition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Spaced repetition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></div><p>Spaced repetition is an <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based learning">evidence-based learning</a> technique which incorporates increasing time intervals between each review of a flashcard in order to exploit the psychological <a href="/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">spacing effect</a>. Newly introduced and more difficult flashcards are shown more frequently while older and less difficult flashcards are shown less frequently. The use of spaced repetition has been shown to increase rate of learning.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> acquisition in the course of second language learning. Spaced repetition software has been developed to aid the learning process.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Leitner_system">Leitner system</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Leitner system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leitner_system_alternative.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Leitner_system_alternative.svg/230px-Leitner_system_alternative.svg.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Leitner_system_alternative.svg/345px-Leitner_system_alternative.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Leitner_system_alternative.svg/460px-Leitner_system_alternative.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a>, correctly answered cards are advanced to the next, less frequent box, while incorrectly answered cards return to the first box for more aggressive review and repetition.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a> is a widely used method of efficiently using flashcards that was proposed by the German science journalist <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Leitner" title="Sebastian Leitner">Sebastian Leitner</a> in the 1970s. It is a simple implementation of the principle of spaced repetition, where cards are reviewed at increasing intervals. </p><p>In this method, flashcards are sorted into groups according to how well the learner knows each one in the Leitner's learning box. The learners try to recall the solution written on a flashcard. If they succeed, they send the card to the next group. If they fail, they send it back to the first group. Each succeeding group has a longer period of time before the learner is required to revisit the cards. In Leitner's original method, published in his book <i>So lernt man Lernen</i> (How to learn to learn), the schedule of repetition was governed by the size of the partitions in the learning box. These were 1, 2, 5, 8 and 14 cm. Only when a partition became full was the learner to review some of the cards it contained, moving them forward or back depending on whether they remembered them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Software">Software</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_flashcard_software" title="List of flashcard software">List of flashcard software</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif/220px-Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif/330px-Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif/440px-Anki_flashcard_question_and_answer_math.gif 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Example of a virtual flashcard: using <a href="/wiki/List_of_flashcard_software" title="List of flashcard software">flashcard software</a> <a href="/wiki/Anki_(software)" title="Anki (software)">Anki</a> to review a mathematical formula. First, only the question is displayed. Then the answer is displayed too, for verification.</figcaption></figure><p>There is a wide range of software (including <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a> and online services) available for creating and using virtual flashcards as an aid to learning. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two-sided_cards">Two-sided cards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Two-sided cards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Physical flashcards are two-sided; in some contexts one wishes to correctly produce the opposite side upon being presented with either side, such as in foreign language vocabulary; in other contexts one is content to go in only one direction, such as in producing a poem given its title or <a href="/wiki/Incipit" title="Incipit">incipit</a> (opening). For physical flashcards, one may either use a single card, flipping it according to the direction, or two parallel decks, such as one English-Japanese and one Japanese-English. They have a number of uses and can be simple or elaborate depending on the user. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example">Example</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An English-speaking student learning the Chinese word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA#Mandarin" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a> (rén, person or people): </p> <dl><dd>Q: person</dd> <dd>A: 人, rén</dd></dl> <p>Reverse: </p> <dl><dd>Q: 人</dd> <dd>A: rén, person</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-sided_cards">Three-sided cards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Three-sided cards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Physical flashcards are necessarily two-sided. A variant, found in electronic flashcards, is what is known as a <b>three-sided card</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a particular kind of asymmetric two-sided card; abstractly, such a card has three fields, Q, A, A*, where Q & A are reversed on flipping, but A* is always in the answer – the two "sides" are thus Q/A,A* and A/Q,A*. Concretely, these are most used for learning foreign vocabulary where the foreign pronunciation is not transparent from the foreign writing – in this case, the Question is the native word, the Answer is the foreign word (written), and the pronunciation is always part of the answer (Answer*). This is particularly the case for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanzi">hanzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a>, but can also be used for other non-phonetic spellings, including <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_second_language" class="mw-redirect" title="English as a second language">English as a second language</a>. </p><p>The purpose of three-sided cards is to provide the benefits of two-sided cards – ease of authoring (enter data once to create two cards), synchronized updates (changes to one are reflected in the other), and spacing between opposite sides (so opposite sides of the same card are not tested too close together) – without the card needing to be symmetric. </p><p>One can generalize this principle to an arbitrary number of data fields associated with a single record, with each field representing a different aspect of a fact or bundle of facts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paper flashcards have been used since at least the 19th century, with <i>Reading Disentangled</i> (1834), a set of <a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">phonics</a> flashcards by English educator <a href="/wiki/Favell_Lee_Mortimer" title="Favell Lee Mortimer">Favell Lee Mortimer</a> being credited by some as the first flashcards.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously, a single-sided <a href="/wiki/Hornbook" title="Hornbook">hornbook</a> had been used for early literacy education. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a> for scheduling flashcards was introduced by German scientific journalist <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Leitner" title="Sebastian Leitner">Sebastian Leitner</a> in the 1970s, specifically his 1972 <i>So lernt man lernen. Der Weg zum Erfolg (How to learn to learn),</i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/SuperMemo" title="SuperMemo">SuperMemo</a> program and algorithm (specifically the SM-2 algorithm, which is the most popular in other programs) was introduced on December 13, 1987, by Polish researcher <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)" title="Piotr Woźniak (researcher)">Piotr Woźniak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flashcard&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEndresRenkl2015" class="citation journal cs1">Endres, Tino; Renkl, Alexander (2015-07-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4513285">"Mechanisms behind the testing effect: an empirical investigation of retrieval practice in meaningful learning"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>6</b>: 1054. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2015.01054">10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01054</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4513285">4513285</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26257696">26257696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+behind+the+testing+effect%3A+an+empirical+investigation+of+retrieval+practice+in+meaningful+learning&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=1054&rft.date=2015-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4513285%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26257696&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2015.01054&rft.aulast=Endres&rft.aufirst=Tino&rft.au=Renkl%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4513285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlashcard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolenZhangByrne2016" class="citation journal cs1">Smolen, Paul; Zhang, Yili; Byrne, John H. (25 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5126970">"The right time to learn: mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Neuroscience</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 77–88. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.08370">1606.08370</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016arXiv160608370S">2016arXiv160608370S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn.2015.18">10.1038/nrn.2015.18</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5126970">5126970</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26806627">26806627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+right+time+to+learn%3A+mechanisms+and+optimization+of+spaced+learning&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=77-88&rft.date=2016-01-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5126970%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016arXiv160608370S&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1606.08370&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26806627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn.2015.18&rft.aulast=Smolen&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Yili&rft.au=Byrne%2C+John+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5126970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlashcard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnemosyne-proj.org/help/adding-media.php">Adding images, sounds, mathematical formulas, and three-sided cards</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mnemosyne_(software)" title="Mnemosyne (software)">The Mnemosyne Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Clumsiest People in Europe: Or, Mrs. Mortimer's Bad-Tempered Guide to the Victorian World,</i> <a href="/wiki/Favell_Lee_Mortimer" title="Favell Lee Mortimer">Favell Lee Mortimer</a>, foreword by Todd Pruzan, 2006 edition, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B_AC9ae6lzkC&pg=PA5&dq=favell+mortimer+flashcards">p. 5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>So lernt man lernen. Der Weg zum Erfolg (How to learn to learn),</i> Freiburg i. Br. 1972/2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-451-05060-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-451-05060-9">3-451-05060-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/beginning.htm">3. Account of research leading to the SuperMemo method, 3.1. The approximate function of optimal intervals</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190309172012/https://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/beginning.htm">Archived</a> 2019-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/sm2.htm">3.2. Application of a computer to improve the results obtained in working with the SuperMemo method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)" title="Piotr Woźniak (researcher)">P. A. Wozniak</a>, <i>Optimization of learning,</i> Master's Thesis, University of Technology in Poznan, 1990.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaced_repetition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaced_repetition" title="Template:Spaced repetition"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaced_repetition" title="Template talk:Spaced repetition"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spaced_repetition" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spaced repetition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaced_repetition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">Spacing effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_effect" title="Testing effect">Testing effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flashcard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_reading" title="Incremental reading">Incremental reading</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg/135px-Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg/203px-Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg/270px-Leitner_system_alternative_no_text.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="123" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Study_software" title="Study software">Study software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anki_(software)" title="Anki (software)">Anki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerego" title="Cerego">Cerego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobocards" title="Cobocards">Cobocards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Course_Hero" title="Course Hero">Course Hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cram_(software)" title="Cram (software)">Cram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cram.com" title="Cram.com">Cram.com</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duolingo" title="Duolingo">Duolingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESpindle_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="ESpindle Learning">eSpindle Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hello_English" title="Hello English">Hello English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahoot!" title="Kahoot!">Kahoot!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingopie" title="Lingopie">Lingopie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memrise" title="Memrise">Memrise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemosyne_(software)" title="Mnemosyne (software)">Mnemosyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenCards" title="OpenCards">OpenCards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quizlet" title="Quizlet">Quizlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SuperMemo" title="SuperMemo">SuperMemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synap" title="Synap">Synap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practitioners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Pimsleur" title="Paul Pimsleur">Paul Pimsleur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Leitner" title="Sebastian Leitner">Sebastian Leitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)" title="Piotr Woźniak (researcher)">Piotr Woźniak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Landauer" title="Thomas Landauer">Thomas Landauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. 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