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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_period_(August_1830_–_November_1830)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_period_(August_1830_–_November_1830)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Initial period (August 1830 – November 1830)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Initial_period_(August_1830_–_November_1830)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Initial period (August 1830 – November 1830) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Initial_period_(August_1830_–_November_1830)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_symbolic_establishment_of_the_new_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_symbolic_establishment_of_the_new_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The symbolic establishment of the new regime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_symbolic_establishment_of_the_new_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_permanent_disorder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_permanent_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>A permanent disorder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_permanent_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purge_of_the_Legitimists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purge_of_the_Legitimists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Purge of the Legitimists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purge_of_the_Legitimists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"Resistance"_and_the_"Movement"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Resistance"_and_the_"Movement""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The "Resistance" and the "Movement"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Resistance"_and_the_"Movement"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Laffitte_government_(2_November_1830_–_13_March_1831)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Laffitte_government_(2_November_1830_–_13_March_1831)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The <span><span>Laffitte</span></span> government (2 November 1830 – 13 March 1831)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Laffitte_government_(2_November_1830_–_13_March_1831)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The <span><span>Laffitte</span></span> government (2 November 1830 – 13 March 1831) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Laffitte_government_(2_November_1830_–_13_March_1831)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_February_1831_riots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_February_1831_riots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The February 1831 riots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_February_1831_riots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Casimir_Périer_government_(13_March_1831_–_16_May_1832)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Casimir_Périer_government_(13_March_1831_–_16_May_1832)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The <span><span>Casimir Périer</span></span> government (13 March 1831 – 16 May 1832)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Casimir_Périer_government_(13_March_1831_–_16_May_1832)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The <span><span>Casimir Périer</span></span> government (13 March 1831 – 16 May 1832) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Casimir_Périer_government_(13_March_1831_–_16_May_1832)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_unrest_(Canut_Revolt)_and_repression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_unrest_(Canut_Revolt)_and_repression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Civil unrest (Canut Revolt) and repression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_unrest_(Canut_Revolt)_and_repression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislative_elections_of_1831" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislative_elections_of_1831"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Legislative elections of 1831</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislative_elections_of_1831-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_1832_cholera_epidemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_1832_cholera_epidemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The 1832 cholera epidemic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_1832_cholera_epidemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_regime_(1832–1835)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_the_regime_(1832–1835)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Consolidation of the regime (1832–1835)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consolidation_of_the_regime_(1832–1835)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consolidation of the regime (1832–1835) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_the_regime_(1832–1835)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Soult_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Soult_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>First Soult government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Soult_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-April_1834_insurrections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#April_1834_insurrections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>April 1834 insurrections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-April_1834_insurrections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislative_elections_of_1834" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislative_elections_of_1834"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Legislative elections of 1834</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislative_elections_of_1834-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short-lived_governments_(July_1834_–_February_1835)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short-lived_governments_(July_1834_–_February_1835)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Short-lived governments (July 1834 – February 1835)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short-lived_governments_(July_1834_–_February_1835)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_(1835–1840)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_(1835–1840)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Evolution towards parliamentarianism (1835–1840)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_(1835–1840)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution towards parliamentarianism (1835–1840) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_(1835–1840)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Broglie_ministry_(March_1835_–_February_1836)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Broglie_ministry_(March_1835_–_February_1836)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>The <span><span>Broglie</span></span> ministry (March 1835 – February 1836)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Broglie_ministry_(March_1835_–_February_1836)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trial_of_the_April_insurgents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trial_of_the_April_insurgents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Trial of the April insurgents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trial_of_the_April_insurgents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Fieschi_attentat_(28_July_1835)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Fieschi_attentat_(28_July_1835)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>The <span><span>Fieschi</span></span> <span><i>attentat</i></span> (28 July 1835)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Fieschi_attentat_(28_July_1835)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_September_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_September_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>The September laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_September_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_final_consolidation_of_the_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_final_consolidation_of_the_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>The final consolidation of the regime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_final_consolidation_of_the_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first_Thiers_government_(February_–_September_1836)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_Thiers_government_(February_–_September_1836)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>The first <span><span>Thiers</span></span> government (February – September 1836)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_Thiers_government_(February_–_September_1836)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_two_Molé_governments_(September_1836_–_March_1839)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_two_Molé_governments_(September_1836_–_March_1839)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>The two <span><span>Molé</span></span> governments (September 1836 – March 1839)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_two_Molé_governments_(September_1836_–_March_1839)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1836_Bonapartist_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1836_Bonapartist_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>1836 Bonapartist uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1836_Bonapartist_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loi_de_disjonction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loi_de_disjonction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span><span><i>Loi de disjonction</i></span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loi_de_disjonction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_wedding_of_the_Duke_of_Orléans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_wedding_of_the_Duke_of_Orléans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>The wedding of the Duke of Orléans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_wedding_of_the_Duke_of_Orléans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_legislative_elections_of_4_November_1837" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_legislative_elections_of_4_November_1837"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.4</span> <span>The legislative elections of 4 November 1837</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_legislative_elections_of_4_November_1837-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_legislative_elections_of_2_March_1839" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_legislative_elections_of_2_March_1839"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.5</span> <span>The legislative elections of 2 March 1839</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_legislative_elections_of_2_March_1839-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Soult_government_(May_1839_–_February_1840)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Soult_government_(May_1839_–_February_1840)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Second Soult government (May 1839 – February 1840)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Soult_government_(May_1839_–_February_1840)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_Thiers_cabinet_(March_–_October_1840)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_Thiers_cabinet_(March_–_October_1840)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>The second <span><span>Thiers</span></span> cabinet (March – October 1840)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_second_Thiers_cabinet_(March_–_October_1840)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Return_of_Napoleon's_ashes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_of_Napoleon's_ashes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.1</span> <span>Return of Napoleon's ashes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_of_Napoleon's_ashes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_of_Algeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_of_Algeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.2</span> <span>Colonization of Algeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_of_Algeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Eastern_affairs,_a_pretext_for_Thiers's_fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Eastern_affairs,_a_pretext_for_Thiers's_fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5.3</span> <span>Middle Eastern affairs, a pretext for <span><span>Thiers</span></span>'s fall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Eastern_affairs,_a_pretext_for_Thiers's_fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Guizot_government_(1840–1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Guizot_government_(1840–1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The Guizot government (1840–1848)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Guizot_government_(1840–1848)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Guizot government (1840–1848) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Guizot_government_(1840–1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_threatened_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_threatened_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>A threatened system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_threatened_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Final_years_(1846–1848)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years_(1846–1848)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Final years (1846–1848)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years_(1846–1848)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>End of the monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_French_constitutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_French_constitutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Timeline of French constitutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_French_constitutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Cultural history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_economic_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_economic_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Social and economic history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_economic_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarchie" title="Julimonarchie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Julimonarchie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88" title="ملكية يوليو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملكية يوليو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarqu%C3%ADa_de_Xunetu" title="Monarquía de Xunetu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Monarquía de Xunetu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0yul_monarxiyas%C4%B1" title="İyul monarxiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İyul monarxiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تموز مونارشیسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تموز مونارشیسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="জুলাই রাজতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জুলাই রাজতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ліпеньская манархія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ліпеньская манархія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Юлска монархия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юлска монархия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarkiezh_Gouere" title="Monarkiezh Gouere – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Monarkiezh Gouere" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarquia_de_Juliol" title="Monarquia de Juliol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Monarquia de Juliol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cervencov%C3%A1_monarchie" title="Červencová monarchie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Červencová monarchie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarkiet" title="Julimonarkiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Julimonarkiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarchie" title="Julimonarchie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Julimonarchie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιουλιανή Μοναρχία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιουλιανή Μοναρχία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarqu%C3%ADa_de_Julio" title="Monarquía de Julio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Monarquía de Julio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_monarkio" title="Julia monarkio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Julia monarkio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uztaileko_monarkia" title="Uztaileko monarkia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Uztaileko monarkia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%DA%98%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="سلطنت ژوئیه فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سلطنت ژوئیه فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchie_de_Juillet" title="Monarchie de Juillet – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Monarchie de Juillet" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarqu%C3%ADa_de_Xullo" title="Monarquía de Xullo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Monarquía de Xullo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/7%EC%9B%94_%EC%99%95%EC%A0%95" title="7월 왕정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="7월 왕정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հուլիսյան միապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հուլիսյան միապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जुलाई राजतंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जुलाई राजतंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliala_Monarkio" title="Juliala Monarkio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Juliala Monarkio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarki_Juli" title="Monarki Juli – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Monarki Juli" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchia_di_luglio" title="Monarchia di luglio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Monarchia di luglio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99" title="המונרכיה של יולי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המונרכיה של יולי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ივლისის მონარქია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ივლისის მონარქია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABlija_monarhija" title="Jūlija monarhija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jūlija monarhija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კვირკვეშ მონარქია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კვირკვეშ მონარქია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarki_Julai" title="Monarki Julai – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Monarki Julai" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarchie" title="Julimonarchie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Julimonarchie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/7%E6%9C%88%E7%8E%8B%E6%94%BF" title="7月王政 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="7月王政" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julikonged%C3%B8mmet" title="Julikongedømmet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Julikongedømmet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarkiet" title="Julimonarkiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Julimonarkiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="جولائی بادشاہت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جولائی بادشاہت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchia_lipcowa" title="Monarchia lipcowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Monarchia lipcowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarquia_de_Julho" title="Monarquia de Julho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Monarquia de Julho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarhia_din_Iulie" title="Monarhia din Iulie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Monarhia din Iulie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Июльская монархия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Июльская монархия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="July Monarchy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јулска монархија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јулска монархија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julska_Monarhija" title="Julska Monarhija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Julska Monarhija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hein%C3%A4kuun_monarkia" title="Heinäkuun monarkia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Heinäkuun monarkia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julimonarkin" title="Julimonarkin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Julimonarkin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Kingdom governing France, 1830–1848</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output 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#a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of France<span style="font-size:85%;"><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Royaume de France</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1830–1848</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/125px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/188px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/250px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_(1831-48).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms (1831–1848) of France"><img alt="Coat of arms (1831–1848) of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/85px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/128px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1339" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/National_emblem_of_France#Previous_versions" class="mw-redirect" title="National emblem of France"> Coat of arms<br />(1831–1848)</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Ordre et liberté</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><div>"Order and Liberty"</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Parisienne_(song)" title="La Parisienne (song)">La Parisienne</a></i></span><br />("The Parisian")<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="76" data-mwtitle="La_Parisienne_(Lefébure-Wély_arrangement_published_1851).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ab/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg/La_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ALa_Parisienne_%28Lef%C3%A9bure-W%C3%A9ly_arrangement_published_1851%29.ogg&lang=yue&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="yue" label="粵語 ‪(yue)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of France in 1839"><img alt="The Kingdom of France in 1839" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg/250px-French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg/375px-French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg/500px-French_Kingdom_within_Europe_1839.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of France in 1839</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">King</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1830–1848 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1848 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Prince_Philippe,_Count_of_Paris" title="Prince Philippe, Count of Paris">Louis Philippe II</a><br />(disputed)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_France#Presidents_of_the_Council_of_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of France">President of the Council of Ministers</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1830 <span style="font-size:85%;">(first)</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Jacques Laffitte</a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1848 <span style="font-size:85%;">(last)</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Peers_(France)" title="Chamber of Peers (France)">Chamber of Peers</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Chamber of Deputies</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">26 July 1830</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1830" title="Charter of 1830">Constitution adopted</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7 August 1830</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 February 1848</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">French franc</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_France_%281814%E2%80%931830%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Kingdom of France</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">French Second Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; 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nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_France" title="Category:History of France">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of <span class="fn org label">France</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" class="mw-file-description" title="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)"><img alt="Carte de France dressée pour l'usage du Roy. Delisle Guillaume (1721)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/250px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/375px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG/500px-Carte_de_France_dress%C3%A9e_pour_l%27usage_du_Roy_Delisle_Guillaume_1721.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France#Ancient_history" title="History of France">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 600 BC – 49 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">   until 50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 50 BC – 486 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> settlement</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 843–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1328</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois_(direct)" title="House of Valois">Valois</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1328–1498</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans" title="House of Valois">Valois-Orléans kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1498–1515</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans-Angoulême" title="House of Valois">Valois-Angoulême kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1515–1589</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1589–1792</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long 19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–1799</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1791–1792</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1792–1804</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1804–1814</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1814–1830</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">July Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–1848</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1852</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1852–1870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1871–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">20th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940–1944</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1944–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1958–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_health_care_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_France" title="LGBTQ history in France">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_France" title="History of medicine in France">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs" title="List of French monarchs">Monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_royal_consorts" title="List of French royal consorts">Consorts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in France">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in France">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in France">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">Territory</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/16px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/24px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a> <b>·</b> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_France_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of France sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>July Monarchy</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Monarchie de Juillet</i>), officially the <b>Kingdom of France</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Royaume de France</i>), was a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> under <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></span></span>, starting on 26 July 1830, with the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> of 1830, and ending 23 February 1848, with the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">Revolution of 1848</a>. It marks the end of the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> (1814–1830). It began with the overthrow of the conservative government of <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>, the last king of the main line <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis Philippe</span></span>, a member of the more liberal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="House of Orléans">Orléans branch</a> of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Roi des Français</i></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Popular_monarchy" title="Popular monarchy">King of the French</a>") rather than "King of France", emphasizing the popular origins of his reign. The king promised to follow the <i><a href="/wiki/Juste_milieu" title="Juste milieu">juste milieu</a></i>, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of both the conservative supporters of Charles X and radicals on the left. </p><p>The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and numerous former <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleonic</a> officials. It followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>. The king promoted friendship with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a>. By 1848, <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">a year in which many European states had a revolution</a>, the king's popularity had collapsed, and he abdicated. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/250px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/375px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/500px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>After the July Revolution, the <a href="/wiki/French_tricolour" class="mw-redirect" title="French tricolour">French tricolour</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/White_flag" title="White flag">white flag</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a> once again. This was an attempt to link the new monarchy with the heritage of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_(1830-31).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281830-31%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1339" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of arms of France (1830–1831)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_(1831-48).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_July_Monarchy_%281831-48%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1339" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of arms of France (1831–1848)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_(Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="990" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of Arms of Louis Philippe I (Order of the Golden Fleece)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The July Monarchy (1830–1848) is generally seen as a period during which the <a href="/wiki/Haute_bourgeoisie" class="mw-redirect" title="Haute bourgeoisie">haute bourgeoisie</a> was dominant, and marked the shift from the counter-revolutionary Legitimists to the <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanists</a>. The Orléanists were willing to make some compromises with the changes brought by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">1789 Revolution</a>. For instance, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> was crowned "<a href="/wiki/Popular_monarchy" title="Popular monarchy">King of the French</a>", instead of "King of France": this marked his acceptance of popular sovereignty. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, who had flirted with <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">liberalism</a> in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a> and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, ruled during a time of turmoil. A large group of Legitimists on <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">the right</a> demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and later Socialism remained powerful forces. Late in his reign <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and refused to remove his deeply unpopular <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Council_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Council (France)">President of the Council</a> <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>. The situation gradually escalated until the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in France">Revolutions of 1848</a> resulted in the fall of the monarchy and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Republic">Second Republic</a>. </p><p>During the first few years of his reign, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> took actions to develop legitimate, broad-based reform. The government found its source of legitimacy within the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1830" title="Charter of 1830">Charter of 1830</a>, written by reform-minded members of <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies of France">Chamber of Deputies</a> and committed to a platform of religious equality among Catholics and Protestants; the empowerment of the citizenry through the reestablishment of the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">National Guard</a>, electoral reform, reform of the <a href="/wiki/Peers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Peers of France">peerage system</a>, and the lessening of royal authority. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution. However, the majority of these policies were veiled attempts to shore up the power and influence of the government and the bourgeoisie, rather than legitimate attempts to promote equality and empowerment for a broad constituency of the French population.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The sentence presents an argumentative claim as to the impact of policies. The information presented can be valuable to a reader once verified. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. </p><p>During the years of the July Monarchy, <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">enfranchisement</a> roughly doubled, from 94,000 under Charles X to more than 200,000 men by 1848.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> But, this number still represented only roughly one percent of population and a small number of those men of eligible age. The extended franchise tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group as the qualifications for <a href="/wiki/Suffrage#Census_suffrage" title="Suffrage">voting was related to payment of a certain level of taxes</a>. Beyond resulting in the election of more bourgeoisie to the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral expansion meant that the bourgeoisie could politically challenge the nobility on legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> acted primarily to empower his supporters and increase his hold over the French Parliament. The election of only the wealthiest men tended to undermine any possibility for growth of a radical faction in Parliament, and effectively served socially conservative ends. </p><p>The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the king, stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, as well as limiting his executive authority. However, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philipe</span></span> believed in a kind of monarchy in which the king was more than a figurehead for an elected Parliament, and as such, he was deeply involved in legislative affairs. One of his first acts in creating his government was to appoint the conservative <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Pierre_Perier" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir Pierre Perier">Casimir Pierre Perier</a></span></span> as the premier of his cabinet. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span>, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies and <a href="/wiki/Labor_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor union">labor unions</a> that had formed during the early years of the regime. In addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He conducted these actions with royal approval. He was once quoted as saying that the source of French misery was the belief that there had been a revolution. "No <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Monsieur</i></span>," he said to another minister, "there has not been a revolution: there is simply a change at the head of state." <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>, then <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of the Interior">Minister of the Interior</a>, enforced the conservatism of the July Monarchy. The regime acknowledged early on that <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radicalism</a> and republicanism threatened it, as they undermined its <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">laissez-faire</i></span> policies. In 1834 the Monarchy declared the term "republican" illegal. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> shut down republican clubs and disbanded republican publications. Republicans within the cabinet, such as the banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Dupont</span></span>, were all but excluded by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span> and his conservative clique. Distrusting the National Guard, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> increased the size of the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">army</a> and reformed it in order to ensure its loyalty to the government. </p><p>Two factions always persisted in the cabinet, split between liberal conservatives such as Guizot (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le parti de la Résistance</i></span>, the Party of Resistance) and liberal reformers such as the journalist <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a></span></span> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le parti du Mouvement</i></span>, the Party of Movement), the latter never gained prominence. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span> was succeeded as premier by <a href="/wiki/Louis-Mathieu_Mol%C3%A9" title="Louis-Mathieu Molé">Count Molé</a>, another conservative. Thiers, a reformer, succeeded <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> but was later sacked by Louis-Philippe after attempting to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. After Thiers the conservative <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> was selected as premier. </p><p>In particular, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> administration was marked by increasingly <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> crackdowns on republicanism and dissent, and an increasingly pro-business policy. This policy included protective <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> that defended the status quo and enriched French businessmen. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>'s government granted railway and mining contracts to the bourgeois supporters of the government, and contributed some of the start-up costs of these enterprises. As workers under these policies had no legal right to assemble, unionize, or petition the government for increased pay or decreased hours, the July Monarchy under <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>, and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> generally proved detrimental to the lower classes. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>'s advice to those who were disenfranchised by the tax-based electoral requirements was "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">enrichissez-vous</i></span>" (enrich yourselves). </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis Phillipe</span></span> was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris; the <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicans</a>, who had set up barricades in the capital; and the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>. However, at the end of his reign, the so-called "Citizen King" was overthrown by similar citizen uprisings and use of barricades during the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="February Revolution of 1848">February Revolution of 1848</a>. This resulted in the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s ousting and subsequent exile to Britain, the liberal <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a> faction (opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">counter-revolutionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Legitimist" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimist">Legitimists</a>) continued to support a return of the House of Orléans to the throne. But the July Monarchy proved to be the last Bourbon-Orleans monarchy of France (although monarchy was re-established under Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, who reigned as <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> from 1852 to 1870). The Legitimists withdrew from politics to their castles, leaving the way open for the struggle between the Orléanists and the Republicans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration in France</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_nineteenth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="France in the nineteenth century">France in the nineteenth century</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_(King_of_the_French)_by_Winterhalter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/250px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="387" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/375px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg/500px-1841_portrait_painting_of_Louis_Philippe_I_%28King_of_the_French%29_by_Winterhalter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><i>Louis-Philippe I, King of the French</i>. The King is depicted at the entrance of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Gallerie des batailles</i></span> which he had furnished in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Château de Versailles">Château de Versailles</a></span></span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/300px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/450px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/600px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3133" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a></i> (1830) by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a></span></span> commemorates the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> of 1830. The child with two pistols to the right of Liberty (who holds the <a href="/wiki/French_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="French flag">tricolor flag</a>) would be <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a></span></span>'s inspiration for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gavroche" title="Gavroche">Gavroche</a></span></span> in <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables" title="Les Misérables">Les Misérables</a></i></span>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Following the ouster of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon Bonaparte">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></span></span> in 1814, the Allies restored the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon Dynasty</a> to the French throne. The ensuing period, the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a>, was characterized by conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_France" title="Catholic Church in France">Roman Catholic Church</a> as a power in French politics. The relatively moderate <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Comte de Provence</span></span>, brother of the deposed-and-executed <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>, ruled as <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> from 1814 to 1824 and was succeeded by his more conservative younger brother, the former <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Comte d'Artois</span></span>, ruling as <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> from 1824. In May 1825 he had an <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Charles_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation of Charles X">elaborate coronation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Reims_Cathedral" title="Reims Cathedral">Reims Cathedral</a> which harkened back to the pre-revolutionary monarchy. </p><p>Despite the return of the House of Bourbon to power, France was much changed from the era of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">ancien régime</a></i></span>. The egalitarianism and liberalism of the revolutionaries remained an important force and the autocracy and hierarchy of the earlier era could not be fully restored. Economic changes, which had been underway long before the revolution, had progressed further during the years of turmoil and were firmly entrenched by 1815. These changes had seen power shift from the noble landowners to the urban merchants. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a> and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes produced a unified central government that was fiscally sound and had much control over all areas of French life, a sharp difference from the complicated mix of feudal and absolutist traditions and institutions of pre-Revolutionary Bourbons. </p><p>Louis XVIII, for the most part, accepted that much had changed. However, he was pushed on his <a href="/wiki/Right_wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Right wing">right</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-royalists">Ultra-royalists</a>, led by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Comte_de_Vill%C3%A8le" class="mw-redirect" title="Comte de Villèle">comte de Villèle</a></i></span>, who condemned the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">doctrinaires</a></span></span>' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. Instead, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chambre_introuvable" title="Chambre introuvable">Chambre introuvable</a></i></span>, elected in 1815, first banished all <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">Conventionnels</a></i></span> who had voted for Louis XVI's death and then passed similar <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> laws. Louis XVIII was forced to dissolve this Chamber, dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultras</a>, in 1816, fearing a popular uprising. The liberals thus governed until the 1820 assassination of the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Berry" title="Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry">Duke of Berry</a>, nephew of the king and known supporter of the Ultras, which brought <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Villèle</span></span>'s Ultras back to power (vote of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sacrilege_Act" title="Anti-Sacrilege Act">Anti-Sacrilege Act</a> in 1825, and of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loi_sur_le_milliard_des_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loi sur le milliard des émigrés (page does not exist)">loi sur le milliard des émigrés</a></i></span>, 'Act on the émigrés' billions'). His brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>, however, took a far more conservative approach. He attempted to compensate the aristocrats for what they had lost in the revolution, curbed the freedom of the press, and reasserted the power of the Church. In 1830 the discontent caused by these changes and Charles' authoritarian nomination of the Ultra <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jules,_prince_de_Polignac" class="mw-redirect" title="Jules, prince de Polignac">prince de Polignac</a></span></span> as minister culminated in an uprising in the streets of Paris, known as the 1830 <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a>. Charles was forced to flee and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Louis-Philippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe">Louis-Philippe</a> d'Orléans</i></span>, a member of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="House of Orléans">Orléans</a></span></span> branch of the family, and son of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Philippe_%C3%89galit%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe Égalité">Philippe Égalité</a></i></span> who had voted the death of his cousin Louis XVI, ascended the throne. Louis-Philippe ruled, not as "King of France" but as "King of the French" (an evocative difference for contemporaries). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initial_period_(August_1830_–_November_1830)"><span id="Initial_period_.28August_1830_.E2.80.93_November_1830.29"></span>Initial period (August 1830 – November 1830)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Initial period (August 1830 – November 1830)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_symbolic_establishment_of_the_new_regime">The symbolic establishment of the new regime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The symbolic establishment of the new regime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/19/Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg/250px-Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/19/Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg/375px-Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/19/Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg/500px-Louis_Philippe_Silver_Coin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Silver five-<a href="/wiki/French_Franc" class="mw-redirect" title="French Franc">franc</a> coin featuring <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe</a></span></span></figcaption></figure> <p>On 7 August 1830, the <a href="/wiki/1814_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="1814 Charter">1814 Charter</a> was revised. The preamble reviving the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span> was suppressed, and the <a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a> became the "<a href="/wiki/King_of_the_French" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the French">King of the French</a>", (also known as the "Citizen King") establishing the principle of <a href="/wiki/National_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="National sovereignty">national sovereignty</a> over the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right</a>. The new Charter was a compromise between the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a></i></span> opposition to Charles X and the Republicans. Laws enforcing Catholicism and <a href="/wiki/Censorship_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship (France)">censorship</a> were repealed and the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">tricolor flag</a> re-established. </p><p>Louis-Philippe pledged his oath to the <a href="/wiki/1830_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="1830 Charter">1830 Charter</a> on 9 August setting up the beginnings of the July Monarchy. Two days later, the first cabinet was formed, gathering the constitutionalist opposition to Charles X, including <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Pierre_Perier" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir Pierre Perier">Casimir Perier</a></span></span>, the banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Jacques Laffitte</a></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Louis-Mathieu_Mol%C3%A9" title="Louis-Mathieu Molé">Count Molé</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785-1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor de Broglie (1785-1870)">duke of Broglie</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>, etc. The new government's first aim was to restore public order, while at the same time appearing to acclaim the revolutionary forces which had just triumphed. Assisted by the people of Paris in overthrowing the Legitimists, the Orléanist bourgeoisie had to establish its new order. </p><p>Louis-Philippe decided on 13 August 1830 to adopt the arms of the House of Orléans as state symbols. Reviewing a parade of the Parisian National Guard on 29 August which acclaimed the adoption, he exclaimed to its leader, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a>: "This is worth more to me than <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_French_monarch" title="Coronation of the French monarch">coronation at Reims</a>!".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new regime then decided on 11 October that all people injured during the revolution (500 orphans, 500 widows and 3,850 people injured) would be given financial compensation and presented a draft law indemnifying them in the amount of 7 million francs, also creating a commemorative medal for the July Revolutionaries. </p><p>Ministers lost their <a href="/wiki/Style_(manner_of_address)" class="mw-redirect" title="Style (manner of address)">honorifics</a> of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Monseigneur" title="Monseigneur">Monseigneur</a></i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Excellency" title="Excellency">Excellence</a></i></span> and became simply <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Monsieur" title="Monsieur">Monsieur</a> le ministre</i></span>. The new king's older son, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand-Philippe_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans">Ferdinand-Philippe</a></span></span>, was given the title of <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Duke of Orléans">Duke of Orléans</a> and Prince Royal, while his daughters and his sister, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9la%C3%AFde_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Adélaïde d'Orléans">Adélaïde d'Orléans</a></span></span>, were named princesses of Orléans – and not of France, since there was no longer any "King of France" nor "House of France". </p><p>Unpopular laws passed during the Restoration were repealed, including the 1816 amnesty law which had banished the <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">regicides</a> – with the exception of article 4, concerning the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">Bonaparte</a> family. The Church of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sainte-Geneviève</span></span> was once again returned to its functions as a secular building, named the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></i></span>. Various budget restrictions were imposed on the Catholic Church, while the 1825 <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sacrilege_Act" title="Anti-Sacrilege Act">Anti-Sacrilege Act</a> which envisioned death penalties for sacrilege was repealed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_permanent_disorder">A permanent disorder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: A permanent disorder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Civil unrest continued for three months, supported by the <a href="/wiki/French_Left" title="French Left">left-wing press</a>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s government was not able to put an end to it, mostly because the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">National Guard</a> was headed by one of the Republican leaders, the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_La_Fayette" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis de La Fayette">Marquis de La Fayette</a>, who advocated a "popular throne surrounded by Republican institutions". The Republicans then gathered themselves in popular clubs, in the tradition established by the <a href="/wiki/1789_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1789 Revolution">1789 Revolution</a>. Some of those were fronts for <a href="/wiki/Secret_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret societies">secret societies</a> (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Blanquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanquist">Blanquist</a> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Amis_du_Peuple&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Société des Amis du Peuple (page does not exist)">Société des Amis du Peuple</a></i></span>), which sought political and social reforms, or the execution of Charles X's ministers (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jules_de_Polignac" title="Jules de Polignac">Jules de Polignac</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Chantelauze" title="Jean de Chantelauze">Jean de Chantelauze</a></span></span>, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Count_de_Peyronnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Count de Peyronnet">Count de Peyronnet</a></span></span> and the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Martial_de_Guernon-Ranville" title="Martial de Guernon-Ranville">Martial de Guernon-Ranville</a></span></span>). Strikes and demonstrations were permanent.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to stabilize the economy and finally secure public order, in the autumn of 1830 the government had the Assembly vote a credit of 5 million francs to subsidize public works, mostly roads. Then, to prevent bankruptcies and the increase of unemployment, especially in Paris, the government issued a guarantee for firms encountering difficulties, granting them 60 million francs. These subsidies mainly went into the pockets of big entrepreneurs aligned with the new regime, such as the printer <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Didot" title="Firmin Didot">Firmin Didot</a></span></span>. </p><p>The death of the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Henry_II,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Henry II, Prince of Condé">Prince of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Condé</span></span></a> on 27 August 1830, who was found hanged, caused the first scandal of the July Monarchy. Without proof, the Legitimists quickly accused <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> and the Queen <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Amalia_of_the_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies">Marie-Amélie</a></span></span> of having assassinated the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">ultra-royalist</a> Prince, with the alleged motive of allowing their son, the <a href="/wiki/Henri_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_Duke_of_Aumale" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale">Duke of Aumale</a>, to get his hands on his fortune. It is however commonly accepted that the Prince died as a result of sex games with his mistress, the <a href="/wiki/Baroness_de_Feuch%C3%A8res" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroness de Feuchères">Baroness <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">de Feuchères</span></span></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purge_of_the_Legitimists">Purge of the Legitimists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Purge of the Legitimists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrirte_Zeitung_(1843)_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG/290px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG" decoding="async" width="290" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG/435px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG/580px-Illustrirte_Zeitung_%281843%29_08_116_1_Der_Sitzungssaal_der_Deputirtenkammer_in_Paris.PNG 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption>Conference hall of the chamber of deputies at the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Palais_Bourbon" title="Palais Bourbon">Palais Bourbon</a></span></span></figcaption></figure> <p>Meanwhile, the government expelled from the administration all <a href="/wiki/Legitimist" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimist">Legitimist</a> supporters who refused to pledge allegiance to the new regime, leading to the return to political affairs of most of the personnel of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a>, who had themselves been expelled during the Second Restoration. This renewal of political and administrative staff was humorously illustrated by a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a></i></span> of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Bayard" title="Jean-François Bayard">Jean-François Bayard</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Minister of the Interior, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, re-appointed the entire <a href="/wiki/Prefects_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefects (France)">prefectoral administration</a> and the mayors of large cities. The Minister of Justice, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles_Dupont_de_l%27Eure" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Charles Dupont de l'Eure">Dupont de l'Eure</a></span></span>, assisted by his secretary general, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M%C3%A9rilhou" title="Joseph Mérilhou">Mérilhou</a></span></span>, dismissed most of the public prosecutors. In the Army, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Victor_de_Ghaisne_de_Bourmont" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne de Bourmont">General de Bourmont</a></span></span>, a follower of Charles X who was commanding the <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">invasion of Algeria</a>, was replaced by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Clauzel" title="Bertrand Clauzel">Bertrand Clauzel</a></span></span>. Generals, ambassadors, plenipotentiary ministers and half of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Conseil d'État</a></span></span> were replaced. In the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Chamber of Deputies</a>, a quarter of the seats (119) were submitted to a new election in October, leading to the defeat of the Legitimists. </p><p>In sociological terms, however, this renewal of political figures did not mark any great change of elites. The old land-owners, civil servants and liberal professions continued to dominate the state of affairs, leading the historian <a href="/wiki/David_H._Pinkney" title="David H. Pinkney">David H. Pinkney</a> to deny any claim of a "new regime of a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">grande bourgeoisie</i></span>".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"Resistance"_and_the_"Movement""><span id="The_.22Resistance.22_and_the_.22Movement.22"></span>The "Resistance" and the "Movement"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The "Resistance" and the "Movement""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some voices began to push for the closure of the Republican clubs, which fomented revolutionary agitation, the Minister of Justice, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles_Dupont_de_l%27Eure" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Charles Dupont de l'Eure">Dupont de l'Eure</a></span></span>, and the Parisian public prosecutor, Bernard, both Republicans, refused to prosecute revolutionary associations (the French law prohibited meetings of more than 20 persons). </p><p>However, on 25 September 1830, the Minister of Interior <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></span></span> responded to a deputy's question on the subject by stigmatizing the "revolutionary state", which he conflated with chaos, to which he opposed the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> in England in 1688.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two political currents thereafter made their appearance, and would structure political life under the July Monarchy: the <a href="/wiki/Movement_Party_(France)" title="Movement Party (France)">Movement Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Resistance_Party_(France)" title="Resistance Party (France)">Resistance Party</a>. The first was <a href="/wiki/Reformist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist">reformist</a> and in favor of support to the nationalists who were trying, all over of Europe, to shake the grip of the various Empires in order to create <a href="/wiki/Nation-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-states">nation-states</a>. Its mouthpiece was <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_National_(newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Le National (newspaper)">Le National</a></i></span>. The second was conservative and supported peace with European monarchs, and had as mouthpiece <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Journal des débats">Le Journal des débats</a></i></span>. </p><p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trial_of_Charles_X%27s_ministers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trial of Charles X's ministers (page does not exist)">trial of Charles X's ministers</a>, arrested in August 1830 while they were fleeing, became the major political issue. The <a href="/wiki/French_Left" title="French Left">left</a> demanded their heads, but this was opposed by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, who feared a spiral of violence and the renewal of <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">revolutionary Terror</a>. Thus, on 27 September 1830 the Chamber of Deputies passed a resolution charging the former ministers, but at the same time, in an address to King <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> on 8 October, invited him to present a draft law repealing the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_France" title="Capital punishment in France">death penalty</a>, at least for political crimes. This in turn provoked popular discontent on 17 and 18 October, with the masses marching on the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes" title="Château de Vincennes">Château de Vincennes</a> where the former ministers were detained. </p><p>Following these riots, Interior Minister Guizot requested the resignation of the <a href="/wiki/Prefect_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefect of Paris">Prefect of the Seine</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>, who had criticized the parliamentarians' address to the king. Supported by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785-1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor de Broglie (1785-1870)">Victor de Broglie</a></span></span>, Guizot considered that an important civil servant could not criticize an act of the Chamber of Deputies, particularly when it had been approved by the King and his government. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dupont_de_l%27Eure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dupont de l'Eure">Dupont de l'Eure</a></span></span> took <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Barrot</span></span>'s side, threatening to resign if the king disavowed him. The banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Laffitte</a></span></span>, one of the main figures of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti du mouvement</i></span>, thereupon put himself forward to coordinate the ministers with the title of "<a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Council_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Council (France)">President of the Council</a>". This immediately led Broglie and Guizot, of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti de l'Ordre</i></span>, to resign, followed by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Perier" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir Perier">Casimir Perier</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Louis-Mathieu_Mol%C3%A9" title="Louis-Mathieu Molé">Count Molé</a> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Dominique_Louis" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph-Dominique Louis">Joseph-Dominique Louis</a></span></span>. Confronted to the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti de l'Ordre</i></span>'s defeat, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> decided to put <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> to trial, hoping that the exercise of power would discredit him. He thus called him to form a new government on 2 November 1830. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Laffitte_government_(2_November_1830_–_13_March_1831)"><span id="The_Laffitte_government_.282_November_1830_.E2.80.93_13_March_1831.29"></span>The <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> government (2 November 1830 – 13 March 1831)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Laffitte government (2 November 1830 – 13 March 1831)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg/150px-Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg/225px-Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg/300px-Vincennes_chemise_and_keep.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1174" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Donjon" class="mw-redirect" title="Donjon">Donjon</a> of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes" title="Château de Vincennes">Château de Vincennes</a></span></span>, where <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>'s ministers were detained</figcaption></figure> <p>Although Louis-Philippe strongly disagreed with the banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> and secretly pledged to the Duke of Broglie that he would not support him at all, the new President of the Council was tricked into trusting his king. </p><p>The trial of Charles X's former ministers took place from 15 to 21 December 1830 before the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Peers_(France)" title="Chamber of Peers (France)">Chamber of Peers</a>, surrounded by rioters demanding their death. They were finally sentenced to life detention, accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">civil death</a> for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Polignac</span></span>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">La Fayette</span></span>'s National Guard maintained public order in Paris, affirming itself as the bourgeois watchdog of the new regime, while the new Interior Minister, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Camille_de_Montalivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Camille de Montalivet">Camille de Montalivet</a></span></span>, kept the former ministers safe by detaining them in the Château de Vincennes. </p><p>But by demonstrating the National Guard's importance, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">La Fayette</span></span> had made his position delicate, and he was quickly forced to resign. This led to the Minister of Justice <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Dupont de l'Eure</span></span>'s resignation. In order to avoid exclusive dependence on the National Guard, the "Citizen King" charged <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marshal_Soult" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Soult">Marshal Soult</a></span></span>, the new <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_War_(France)" title="Minister of War (France)">Minister of War</a>, with reorganizing the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">Army</a>. In February 1831, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> presented his project, aiming to increase the military's effectiveness. Among other reforms, the project included the 9 March 1831 law creating the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Legion_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Legion (France)">Foreign Legion</a>. </p><p>In the meantime, the government enacted various reforms demanded by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti du Mouvement</i></span>, which had been set out in the Charter (art. 69). The 21 March 1831 law on <a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipalities of France">municipal councils</a> reestablished the principle of election and enlarged the electorate (founded on <a href="/wiki/Census_suffrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Census suffrage">census suffrage</a>) which was thus increased tenfold in comparison with the legislative elections (approximately 2 to 3 million electors from a total population of 32,6 million). The 22 March 1831 law re-organized the National Guard; the 19 April 1831 law, voted after two months of debate in Parliament and promulgated after <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span>'s downfall, decreased the electoral income level from 300 to 200 francs and the level for eligibility from 1,000 to 500 francs. The number of voters thereby increased from less than 100,000 to 166,000: one Frenchman in 170 possessed the right to vote, and the number of constituencies rose from 430 to 459. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_February_1831_riots">The February 1831 riots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The February 1831 riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guizot,_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg/220px-Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg/330px-Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg/440px-Guizot%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois_-_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1971" /></a><figcaption><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>, a leader of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti de l'Ordre</i></span></figcaption></figure> <p>Despite these reforms, which targeted the bourgeoisie rather than the people, Paris was once again rocked by riots on 14 and 15 February 1831, leading to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span>'s downfall. The immediate cause of the riots was a funeral service organized by the <a href="/wiki/Legitimist" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimist">Legitimists</a> at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Germains_l%27Auxerrois_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Germains l'Auxerrois Church"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Saint-Germains l'Auxerrois</i></span> Church</a> in memory of the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">ultra-royalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Berry" title="Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry">Duke of Berry</a>, assassinated in 1820. The commemoration turned into a political demonstration in favor of <a href="/wiki/Henri,_Count_of_Chambord" title="Henri, Count of Chambord">Henri, Count of Chambord</a>, Legitimist pretender to the throne. Seeing in this celebration an intolerable provocation, the Republican rioters ransacked the church two days in a row, before turning on other churches. The revolutionary movement spread to other cities. </p><p>Confronted with renewed unrest, the government abstained from any strong repression. The prefect of the Seine <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Prefect_of_police" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefect of police">prefect of police</a> <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Baude" title="Jean-Jacques Baude">Jean-Jacques Baude</a></span></span>, and the new commandant of the National Guard, General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Mouton" title="Georges Mouton">Georges Mouton</a></span></span>, remained passive, triggering <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>'s indignation, as well as the Republican <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Carrel" title="Armand Carrel">Armand Carrel</a></span></span>'s criticisms against the demagogy of the government. Far from suppressing the crowds, the government had the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris">Archbishop of Paris</a> <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hyacinthe-Louis_de_Qu%C3%A9len" title="Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen">Mgr de Quélen</a></span></span> arrested, as well as charging the friar of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois</i></span> and other priests, along with some other monarchists, with having provoked the masses. </p><p>In a gesture of appeasement, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span>, supported by the Prince Royal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Ferdinand-Philippe</span></span>, Duke of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Orléans</span></span>, proposed to the king that he remove the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fleur-de-lys" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleur-de-lys">fleur-de-lys</a></i></span>, symbol of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Ancien Régime</i></span>, from the state seal. With obvious displeasure, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> finally signed the 16 February 1831 ordinance substituting for the arms of the House of Orléans a shield with an open book, on which could be read "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Charte de 1830</i></span>". The <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">fleur-de-lys</span></span>, was also removed from public buildings, etc. This new defeat of the king sealed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span>'s fate. </p><p>On 19 February 1831, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> verbally attacked <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> in the Chamber of Deputies, daring him to dissolve the Chamber and present himself before the electors. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> accepted, but the king, who was the only one entitled to dissolve the Chamber, preferred to wait a few days more. In the meanwhile, the Prefect of the Seine <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span> was replaced by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taillepied_de_Bondy" class="mw-redirect" title="Taillepied de Bondy">Taillepied de Bondy</a></span></span> at <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Montalivet</span></span>'s request, and the prefect of police <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Baude" title="Jean-Jacques Baude">Jean-Jacques Baude</a></span></span> by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Fran%C3%A7ois_Vivien" title="Alexandre-François Vivien">Vivien de Goubert</a></span></span>. To make matters worse, in this insurrectionary climate, the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">economic situation</a> was fairly bad. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> finally tricked <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> into resigning by having his Minister of Foreign Affairs, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Horace_S%C3%A9bastiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace Sébastiani">Horace Sébastiani</a></span></span>, pass him a note written by the French ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Maison" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Maison">Marshal Maison</a>, and which had arrived in Paris on 4 March 1831, which announced an imminent <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> intervention in Italy. Learning of this note in <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Moniteur_Universel" title="Le Moniteur Universel">Le Moniteur</a></i></span> of 8 March, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> requested an immediate explanations from <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sébastiani</span></span>, who replied that he had followed royal orders. After a meeting with the king, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> submitted to the Council of Ministers a belligerent program, and was subsequently disavowed, forcing him to resign. Most of his ministers had already negotiated their positions in the forthcoming government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Casimir_Périer_government_(13_March_1831_–_16_May_1832)"><span id="The_Casimir_P.C3.A9rier_government_.2813_March_1831_.E2.80.93_16_May_1832.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="13_March"></span> The <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span> government (13 March 1831 – 16 May 1832)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Casimir Périer government (13 March 1831 – 16 May 1832)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Having succeeded in outdoing the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti du Mouvement</i></span>, the "Citizen King" called to power the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti de la Résistance</i></span>. However, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> was not really much more comfortable with one side than with the other, being closer to the center. Furthermore, he felt no sympathy for its leader, the banker <a href="/wiki/Casimir_Pierre_P%C3%A9rier" title="Casimir Pierre Périer">Casimir Pierre Périer</a>, who replaced <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Laffitte</span></span> on 13 March 1831 as head of the government. His aim was more to re-establish order in the country, letting the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti de la Résistance</i></span> assume responsibility for unpopular measures. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span>, however, managed to impose his conditions on the king, including the pre-eminence of the President of the Council over other ministers, and his right to call cabinet councils outside of the actual presence of the king. Furthermore, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Perier</span></span> secured agreement that the liberal Prince Royal, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand-Philippe_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans">Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans</a></span></span>, would cease to participate to the Council of Ministers. Despite this, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Perier</span></span> valued the king's prestige, calling on him, on 21 September 1831, to move from his family residence, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Palais-Royal" title="Palais-Royal">Palais-Royal</a></span></span>, to the royal palace, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Palais_des_Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Palais des Tuileries">Tuileries</a></span></span>. </p><p>The banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span> established the new government's principles on 18 March 1831: ministerial solidarity and the authority of the government over the administration: "the principle of the July Revolution... is not insurrection... it is resistance to the aggression the power"<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, internationally, "a pacific attitude and the respect of the non-intervention principle". The vast majority of the Chamber applauded the new government and granted him a comfortable majority. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span> harnessed the support of the cabinet through oaths of solidarity and strict discipline for dissenters. He excluded reformers from official discourse, and abandoned the regime's unofficial policy of mediating in labor disputes in favor of a strict <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> policy that favored employers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_unrest_(Canut_Revolt)_and_repression"><span id="Civil_unrest_.28Canut_Revolt.29_and_repression"></span>Civil unrest (Canut Revolt) and repression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Civil unrest (Canut Revolt) and repression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canut_revolts" title="Canut revolts">Canut revolts</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolte_des_Canuts_-_Lyon_1831_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Revolte_des_Canuts_-_Lyon_1831_-_1.jpg/320px-Revolte_des_Canuts_-_Lyon_1831_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Revolte_des_Canuts_-_Lyon_1831_-_1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Canut_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Canut Revolt">Canut Revolt</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, October 1831</figcaption></figure> <p>On 14 March 1831, on the initiative of a patriotic society created by the mayor of <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean-Baptiste Bouchotte</a></span></span>, the opposition's press launched a campaign to gather funds to create a national association aimed at struggling against any <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> and the risks of foreign invasion. All the major figures of the Republican Left (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">La Fayette</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Dupont de l'Eure</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Maximilien_Lamarque" title="Jean Maximilien Lamarque">Jean Maximilien Lamarque</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>, etc.) supported it. Local committees were created all over France, leading the new president of the Council, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span>, to issue a circular prohibiting civil servants from membership of this association, which he accused of challenging the state itself by implicitly accusing it of not fulfilling its proper duties. </p><p>In the beginning of April 1831, the government took some unpopular measures, forcing several important personalities to resign: <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span> was dismissed from the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Council of State</a>, General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Lamarque</span></span>'s military command suppressed, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bouchotte</span></span> and the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Laborde" title="Alexandre de Laborde">Marquis de Laborde</a></span></span> forced to resign. When on 15 April 1831 the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cour_d%27assises" title="Cour d'assises">Cour d'assises</a></i></span> acquitted several young Republicans (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9onore-Louis_Godefroi_Cavaignac" title="Éléonore-Louis Godefroi Cavaignac">Godefroy Cavaignac</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Guinard" title="Joseph Guinard">Joseph Guinard</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Audry_de_Puyraveau" class="mw-redirect" title="Audry de Puyraveau">Audry de Puyraveau</a></span></span>'s son), mostly officers of the National Guard who had been arrested during the December 1830 troubles following the trial of Charles X's ministers, new riots acclaimed the news on 15–16 April. But <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span>, implementing the 10 April 1831 law outlawing public meetings, used the military as well as the National Guard to dissolve the crowds. In May, the government used <a href="/wiki/Fire_hose" title="Fire hose">fire hoses</a> as <a href="/wiki/Crowd_control" title="Crowd control">crowd control</a> techniques for the first time. </p><p>Another riot, started on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rue_Saint-Denis_(Paris)" title="Rue Saint-Denis (Paris)">Rue Saint-Denis</a></span></span> on 14 June 1831, degenerated into an open battle against the National Guard, assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Dragoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Dragoons">Dragoons</a> and the infantry. The riots continued on 15 and 16 June. </p><p>The major unrest, however, took place in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Canuts_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Canuts Revolt">Canuts Revolt</a>, started on 21 November 1831, and during which parts of the National Guard took the demonstrators' side. In two days, the Canuts took control of the city and expelled <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Roguet" title="François Roguet">General Roguet</a></span></span> and the mayor <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Prunelle" title="Victor Prunelle">Victor Prunelle</a></span></span>. On 25 November <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span> announced to the Chamber of Deputies that <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marshal_Soult" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Soult">Marshal Soult</a></span></span>, assisted by the Prince Royal, would immediately march on Lyon with 20,000 men. They entered the city on 3 December re-establishing order without any bloodshed. </p><p>Civil unrest, however, continued, and not only in Paris. On 11 March 1832, <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> exploded in <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Carnival" title="Carnival">carnival</a>. The prefect had canceled the festivities after a grotesque mask of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> had been displayed, leading to popular demonstrations. The prefect then tried to have the National Guard disperse the crowd, but the latter refused to go, forcing him to call on the army. The 35th regiment of infantry (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">infanterie de ligne</i></span>) obeyed the orders, but this in turn led the population to demand their expulsion from the city. This was done on 15 March and the 35th regiment was replaced by the 6th regiment, from Lyon. When <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Perier</span></span> learnt the news, he dissolved the National Guard of Grenoble and immediately recalled the 35th regiment to the city. </p><p>Beside this continuing unrest, in every province, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9" title="Dauphiné">Dauphiné</a></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a>, in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carcassonne" title="Carcassonne">Carcassonne</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a></span></span>, etc., various Republican conspiracies threatened the government (conspiracy of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tours de Notre-Dame</i></span> in January 1832, of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">rue des Prouvaires</i></span> in February 1832, etc.) Even the trials of suspects were seized on by the Republicans as an opportunity to address the people: at the trial of the <a href="/wiki/Blanquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanquist">Blanquist</a> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Amis_du_peuple&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Société des Amis du peuple (page does not exist)">Société des Amis du peuple</a></i></span> in January 1832, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raspail" class="mw-redirect" title="Raspail">Raspail</a></span></span> harshly criticized the king while <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Blanqui" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguste Blanqui">Auguste Blanqui</a></span></span> gave free vein to his socialist ideas. All of the accused denounced the government's <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>, the incredibly high cost of <a href="/wiki/Louis-Philippe%27s_civil_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe's civil list">Louis-Philippe's civil list</a>, police persecutions, etc. The omnipresence of the <a href="/wiki/French_police" class="mw-redirect" title="French police">French police</a>, organized during the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="French First Empire">French First Empire</a> by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fouch%C3%A9" title="Joseph Fouché">Fouché</a></span></span>, was depicted by the Legitimist writer <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Balzac</a></span></span> in <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Splendeurs_et_mis%C3%A8res_des_courtisanes" title="Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes">Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes</a></i></span>. The strength of the opposition led the Prince Royal to shift his view somewhat further to the right. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislative_elections_of_1831">Legislative elections of 1831</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Legislative elections of 1831"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1831" class="mw-redirect" title="French legislative election, 1831">French legislative election, 1831</a></div> <p>In the second half of May 1831, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Soult" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Soult">Marshal Soult</a>, started an official visit to <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a>, where he was well received. From 6 June to 1 July 1831, he traveled in the east, where there was stronger Republican and <a href="/wiki/Bonapartist" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonapartist">Bonapartist</a> activity, along with his two elder sons, the <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand-Philippe_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orléans">Prince Royal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prince_Louis,_Duke_of_Nemours" title="Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours">Duke of Nemours</a>, as well as with the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Comte_d%27Argout" class="mw-redirect" title="Comte d'Argout">comte d'Argout</a></span></span>. The king stopped in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Meaux" title="Meaux">Meaux</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry" title="Château-Thierry">Château-Thierry</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2lons-sur-Marne" class="mw-redirect" title="Châlons-sur-Marne">Châlons-sur-Marne</a></span></span> (renamed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2lons-en-Champagne" title="Châlons-en-Champagne">Châlons-en-Champagne</a></span></span> in 1998), <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Valmy" title="Valmy">Valmy</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Verdun" title="Verdun">Verdun</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a></span></span>. There, in the name of the municipal council, the mayor made a very political speech in which he expressed the wish to have <a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_France" title="Peerage of France">peerages</a> abolished, adding that France should intervene in Poland to assist the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> against Russia. Louis-Philippe flatly rejected all of these aspirations, stating that the municipal councils and the National Guard had no standing in such matters. The king continued his visit to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Nancy,_France" title="Nancy, France">Nancy</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Lunéville">Lunéville</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Colmar" title="Colmar">Colmar</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mulhouse" title="Mulhouse">Mulhouse</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on" title="Besançon">Besançon</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Troyes" title="Troyes">Troyes</a></span></span>, and his visits were, on the whole, occasions to re-affirm his authority. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> decided in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Cloud" title="Château de Saint-Cloud">Château de Saint-Cloud</a></span></span>, on 31 May 1831, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, fixing legislative elections for 5 July 1831. However, he signed another ordinance on 23 June in <a href="/wiki/Colmar" title="Colmar">Colmar</a> in order to have the elections put back to 23 July 1831, so as to avoid the risk of Republican agitation during the commemorations of the July Revolution. The <a href="/wiki/1831_French_legislative_election" title="1831 French legislative election">general election of 1831</a> took place without incident, according to the new electoral law of 19 April 1831. However, the results disappointed the king and the president of the Council, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span>: more than half of the outgoing deputies were re-elected, and their political positions were unknown. The <a href="/wiki/Legitimist" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimist">Legitimists</a> obtained 104 seats, the <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a> Liberals 282 and the <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Republicanism in France">Republicans</a> 73. </p><p>On 23 July 1831, the king set out <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span>'s program in the <a href="/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech from the Throne">speech from the Throne</a>: strict application of the Charter at home and strict defense of the interests of France and its independence abroad. </p><p>The deputies in the chamber then voted for their <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies" title="President of the Chamber of Deputies">President</a>, electing <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Baron_Girod_de_l%27Ain" class="mw-redirect" title="Baron Girod de l'Ain">Baron Girod de l'Ain</a></span></span>, the government's candidate, on the second round. He gained 181 votes to the banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Laffitte</a></span></span>'s 176. But <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dupont_de_l%27Eure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dupont de l'Eure">Dupont de l'Eure</a></span></span> gained the first vice presidency with 182 voices out of a total of 344, defeating the government's candidate, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span>, who had only 153 votes. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span>, who considered that his parliamentary majority was not strong enough, decided to resign. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> thereafter turned towards <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>, who refused to assume governmental responsibilities, pointing out that he had only a hundred deputies in the Chamber. However, during the 2 and 2 August 1831 elections of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">questeurs</i></span> and secretaries, the Chamber elected mostly government candidates such as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Delessert" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Delessert">Benjamin Delessert</a></span></span>, who obtained a strong majority against a far-left candidate, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eus%C3%A8be_de_Salverte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eusèbe de Salverte (page does not exist)">Eusèbe de Salverte</a></span></span>. Finally, <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I of the Netherlands</a>'s decision to invade <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a> had taken place the preceding year – on 2 August 1831, constrained <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Perier</span></span> to remain in power in order to respond to the Belgians' request for help. </p><p>During the parliamentary debates concerning France's imminent intervention in Belgium, several deputies, led by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Baron_Bignon" class="mw-redirect" title="Baron Bignon">Baron Bignon</a></span></span>, unsuccessfully requested similar intervention to support Polish independence. However, at the domestic level, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Perier</span></span> decided to back down before the dominant opposition, and satisfied an old demand of the Left by abolishing hereditary peerages. Finally, the 2 March 1832 law on <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s <a href="/wiki/Civil_list" title="Civil list">civil list</a> fixed it at 12 million francs a year, and one million for the Prince Royal, the Duke of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Orléans</span></span>. The 28 April 1832 law, named after the Justice Minister <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Barthe" title="Félix Barthe">Félix Barthe</a></span></span>, reformed the 1810 <a href="/wiki/French_Penal_Code_of_1810" title="French Penal Code of 1810">Penal Code</a> and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Code_d%27instruction_criminelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Code d'instruction criminelle (page does not exist)">Code d'instruction criminelle</a></i></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_1832_cholera_epidemic">The 1832 cholera epidemic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The 1832 cholera epidemic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> that originated in India in 1815 reached Paris around 20 March 1832 and killed more than 13,000 people in April. The pandemic would last until September 1832, killing in total 100,000 in France, with 20,000 in Paris alone.<sup id="cite_ref-cholera_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cholera-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disease, the origins of which were unknown at the time, provoked a popular panic. The people of Paris suspected poisoners, while scavengers and beggars revolted against the authoritarian measures of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>. </p><p>According to the 20th-century historian and philosopher <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></span></span>, the cholera outbreak was first fought by what he called "social medicine", which focused on flux, circulation of air, location of cemeteries, etc. All of these concerns, born of the <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Miasma theory of disease">miasma theory of disease</a>, were thus concerned with <a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">urbanist</a> concerns of the management of populations. </p><p>Cholera also struck the royal princess <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9la%C3%AFde_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Adélaïde d'Orléans">Madame Adélaïde</a></span></span>, as well as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/D%27Argout" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Argout">d'Argout</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Guizot" class="mw-redirect" title="Guizot">Guizot</a></span></span>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span>, who on 1 April 1832 visited the patients at the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-Dieu_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Hôtel-Dieu de Paris">Hôtel-Dieu</a></span></span> with the Prince Royal, contracted the disease. He resigned his ministerial activities before dying of cholera on 16 May 1832. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consolidation_of_the_regime_(1832–1835)"><span id="Consolidation_of_the_regime_.281832.E2.80.931835.29"></span>Consolidation of the regime (1832–1835)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Consolidation of the regime (1832–1835)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">King Louis-Philippe</span></span> did not regret the departure of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span> from the political scene, as he complained that <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span> took all the credit for the government's policy successes, while he himself had to assume all the criticism for its failures.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Citizen King" was therefore not in any hurry to find a new President of the Council, all the more since the Parliament was in recess and that the troubled situation demanded swift and energetic measures. </p><p>Indeed, the regime was being attacked on all sides. The Legitimist <a href="/wiki/Marie-Caroline_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies,_Duchess_of_Berry" title="Marie-Caroline of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Duchess of Berry">Duchess of Berry</a> attempted an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Uprising_in_spring_1832&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uprising in spring 1832 (page does not exist)">uprising in spring 1832</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_de_Vend%C3%A9e_et_Chouannerie_de_1832" class="extiw" title="fr:Guerre de Vendée et Chouannerie de 1832">fr</a>]</span> in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a></span></span>, a stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">ultra-royalists</a>, while the Republicans headed an <a href="/wiki/June_Rebellion" title="June Rebellion"> insurrection in Paris on 5 June 1832</a>, on the occasion of the funeral of one of their leaders, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/General_Lamarque" class="mw-redirect" title="General Lamarque">General Lamarque</a></span></span>, also struck dead by the cholera. <a href="/wiki/General_Mouton" class="mw-redirect" title="General Mouton">General Mouton</a> crushed the rebellion. (<a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a> later described the scene in his 1862 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables" title="Les Misérables">Les Misérables</a></i>.) </p><p>This double victory, over both Legitimists and the Republicans, was a success for the July Monarchy regime.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the death of the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Reichstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Reichstadt">Duke of Reichstadt</a> (Napoléon II) on 22 July 1832, in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, marked another setback for the <a href="/wiki/Bonapartist" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonapartist">Bonapartist</a> opposition. </p><p>Finally, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> married his elder daughter, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Louise_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Louise d'Orléans">Louise d'Orléans</a></span></span>, to the newly-appointed King of the Belgians, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium" title="Leopold I of Belgium">Leopold I</a>, on the anniversary of the establishment of the July Monarchy (9 August). Since the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Paris">Archbishop of Paris</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9len" class="mw-redirect" title="Quélen">Quélen</a></span></span> (a Legitimist), refused to celebrate this mixed marriage between a Catholic and a Lutheran, the wedding took place in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Compi%C3%A8gne" title="Château de Compiègne">Château de Compiègne</a></span></span>. This royal alliance strengthened <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s position abroad. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Soult_government">First Soult government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: First Soult government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Louis-Philippe called a trusted man, <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Soult" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Soult">Marshal Soult</a>, to the Presidency of the Council in October 1832. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> was supported by a triumvirate composed of the main politicians of that time: <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a>, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Duc_de_Broglie" class="mw-redirect" title="Duc de Broglie">duc de Broglie</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>. The conservative <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats" title="Journal des débats">Journal des débats</a></i></span> spoke of a "coalition of all talents",<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the King of the French would eventually speak, with obvious disappointment, of a "<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span> in three persons". In a circular addressed to the high civil-servants and military officers, the new President of the Council, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, stated that he would explicitly follow the policies of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Périer</span></span> ("order at home", "peace abroad") and denounced both the Legitimist right-wing opposition and the Republican left-wing opposition. </p><p>The new Minister of Interior, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a></span></span>, had his first success on 7 November 1832 with the arrest in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Nantes</span></span> of the rebellious Duchess of Berry, who was detained in the citadel of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Blaye" title="Blaye">Blaye</a></span></span>. The duchess was then expelled to <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> on 8 June 1833. </p><p>The opening of the parliamentary session on 19 November 1832, was a success for the regime. The governmental candidate, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span>, was easily elected on the first round as President of the Chamber, with 234 votes against 136 for the candidate of the opposition, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Jacques Laffitte</span></span>. </p><p>In Belgium, <a href="/wiki/Marshal_G%C3%A9rard" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Gérard">Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span></a> assisted the young Belgian monarchy with 70,000 men, taking back the citadel of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, which capitulated on 23 December 1832. </p><p>Strengthened by these recent successes, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> initiated two visits to the provinces, first into the north to meet with the victorious Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span> and his men, and then into <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, where Legitimist troubles continued, from August to September 1833. In order to conciliate public opinion, the members of the new government took some popular measures, such as a program of <a href="/wiki/Public_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Public work">public works</a>, leading to the completion of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe" title="Arc de Triomphe">Arc de Triomphe</a></span></span> in Paris, and the re-establishment, on 21 June 1833, of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a>'s statue on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Colonne_Vend%C3%B4me" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonne Vendôme">Colonne Vendôme</a></span></span>. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Education_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Education Ministers of France">Minister of Public Instruction and Cults</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a></span></span>, had the famous <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guizot_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guizot Act (page does not exist)">law on primary education</a> passed in June 1833, leading to the creation of an elementary school in each <a href="/wiki/Communes_of_France" title="Communes of France">commune</a>. </p><p>Finally, a ministerial change was enacted after the Duke <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">de Broglie</span></span>'s resignation on 1 April 1834. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span> had found himself in a minority in the Chamber concerning the ratification of a treaty signed with the United States in 1831. This was a source of satisfaction for the king, as it removed from the triumvirate the individual he disliked the most. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="April_1834_insurrections">April 1834 insurrections</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: April 1834 insurrections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ministerial change coincided with the return of violent unrest in various cities of France. At the end of February 1834, a new law that subjected the activities of <a href="/wiki/Town_crier" title="Town crier">town criers</a> to public authorization led to several days of confrontations with the police. Furthermore, the 10 April 1834 law, primarily aimed against the Republican <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Rights_of_Man" title="Society of the Rights of Man">Society of the Rights of Man</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Société des Droits de l'Homme</i></span>), envisioned a crack-down on non-authorized associations. On 9 April 1834, when the Chamber of Peers was to vote on the law, the Second <a href="/wiki/Canut_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Canut Revolt">Canut Revolt</a> exploded in Lyon. The Minister of the Interior, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Adolphe Thiers</span></span>, decided to abandon the city to the insurgents, taking it back on 13 April with casualties of 100 to 200 dead on both sides. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rue_Transnonain,_le_15_Avril_1834.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif/lossy-page1-300px-Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif/lossy-page1-450px-Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif/lossy-page1-600px-Rue_Transnonain%2C_le_15_Avril_1834.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3544" data-file-height="2475" /></a><figcaption>The massacre of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">rue Transnonain</span></span>, Paris, on 14 April 1834, depicted by the caricaturist <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a></span></span></figcaption></figure> <p>The Republicans attempted to spread the insurrection to other cities, but failed in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Vienne, Isère">Vienne</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Poitiers" title="Poitiers">Poitiers</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2lons-sur-Marne" class="mw-redirect" title="Châlons-sur-Marne">Châlons-sur-Marne</a></span></span>. More serious Republican threats developed in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a></span></span> and especially in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Saint-%C3%89tienne" title="Saint-Étienne">Saint-Étienne</a></span></span> on 11 April, but finally public order was restored. The greater danger to the regime was, as often, in Paris. Expecting trouble, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> had concentrated 40,000 men there, who were visited by the king on 10 April. Furthermore, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> had made <a href="/wiki/Preventive_detention" title="Preventive detention"> "preventive arrests"</a> of 150 principal <a href="/wiki/Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader">leaders</a> of the Society of the Rights of Man and outlawed its mouthpiece, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=La_Tribune_des_d%C3%A9partements&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La Tribune des départements (page does not exist)">La Tribune des départements</a></i></span>. Despite these measures, barricades were set up in the evening of 13 April 1834, leading to harsh repression, including a massacre of all the inhabitants (men, women, children and old people) of a house from where a shot had been fired. This incident was immortalized in a lithograph by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a></span></span>. </p><p>To express their support for the monarchy, both Chambers gathered in the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_the_Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of the Tuileries">Palace of the Tuileries</a> on 14 April. In a gesture of appeasement, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> canceled his feast-day celebration on 1 May, and publicly announced that the sums that were to have been used for these festivities would be dedicated to the orphans, widows and injured. In the same time, he ordered Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> to publicize these events widely across France (the provinces being more conservative than Paris), to convince them of the "necessary increase in the Army".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than 2,000 arrests were made following the riots, in particular in Paris and Lyon. The cases were referred to the Chamber of Peers, which, in accordance with art. 28 of the Charter of 1830, dealt with cases of conspiracy against state security (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">attentat contre la sûreté de l'État</i>). The Republican movement was decapitated, so much that even the funeral of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">La Fayette</span></span> (died 20 May 1834), passed with little incident. As early as 13 May the Chamber of Deputies voted a credit of 14 million in order to increase the army to 360,000 men. Two days later, they also adopted a very repressive law on detention and use of military weapons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legislative_elections_of_1834">Legislative elections of 1834</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Legislative elections of 1834"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1834" class="mw-redirect" title="French legislative election, 1834">French legislative election, 1834</a></div> <p>Louis-Philippe decided to seize the opportunity of dissolving the Chamber and organizing <a href="/wiki/1834_French_legislative_election" title="1834 French legislative election">new elections</a>, which were held on 21 June 1834. However, the results were not as favorable to him as expected: although the Republicans were almost eliminated, the Opposition retained around 150 seats (approximately 30 Legitimists, the rest being followers of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>, who was an <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Orléanist</span></span> supporter of the regime, but headed the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Parti du mouvement</i></span>). Furthermore, in the ranks of the majority itself, composed of about 300 deputies, a new faction, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span>, led by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span>, could on some occasions defect from the majority and give its votes to the Left. On 31 July the new Chamber re-elected <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Dupin</span></span> as President of the Chamber with 247 votes against 33 for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Jacques Laffitte</a></span></span> and 24 for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Paul_Royer-Collard" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre-Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre-Paul Royer-Collard</a></span></span>. Furthermore, a large majority (256 against 39) voted an ambiguous address to the king which, although polite, did not abstain from criticizing him. The latter immediately decided, on 16 August 1834, to prorogue Parliament until the end of the year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short-lived_governments_(July_1834_–_February_1835)"><span id="Short-lived_governments_.28July_1834_.E2.80.93_February_1835.29"></span>Short-lived governments (July 1834 – February 1835)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Short-lived governments (July 1834 – February 1835)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thiers and Guizot, who dominated the triumvirate, decided to get rid of Marshal Soult, who was appreciated by the king for his compliant attitude. Seizing the opportunity of an incident concerning the <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">French possessions in Algeria</a>, they pushed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> to resign on 18 July 1834. He was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Marshal_G%C3%A9rard" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Gérard">Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span></a>, with the other ministers remaining in place. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span> however, was forced to resign in turn, on 29 October 1834, over the question of an amnesty for the 2,000 prisoners detained in April. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a></i></span> (including <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>) and the core of the government opposed the amnesty, but the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span> managed to convince <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span> to announce it, underscoring the logistical difficulties in organizing such a large trial before the Chamber of Peers. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span>'s resignation opened up a four-month ministerial crisis, until <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> finally assembled a government entirely from the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span>. However, after <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">André Dupin</span></span>'s refusal to assume its presidency, the king made the mistake of calling, on 10 November 1834, a figure from the First Empire, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Duc_de_Bassano" title="Duc de Bassano">duc de Bassano</a></span></span>, to head his government. The latter, crippled with debts, became the object of public ridicule after his creditors decided to seize his ministerial salary. Alarmed, all the ministers decided to resign, three days later, without even advising <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bassano</span></span>, whose government became known as the "Three Days Ministry". On 18 November 1834, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> called <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Mortier" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Mortier">Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mortier</span></span></a>, Duke of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Trévise</span></span>, to the Presidency, and the latter formed exactly the same government as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bassano</span></span>. This crisis made the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span> ridiculous while the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span> triumphed. </p><p>On 1 December 1834, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mortier</span></span>'s government decided to submit a <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion of confidence">motion of confidence</a> to the Parliament, obtaining a clear majority (184 votes to 117). Despite this, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mortier</span></span> had to resign two months later, on 20 February 1835, officially for health reasons. The opposition had denounced a government without a leader, accusing <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mortier</span></span> of being <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s puppet. The same phrase that <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> had spoken in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a>, "the king reigns but does not rule" (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le roi règne mais ne gouverne pas</i></span>), was now addressed to the "Citizen King". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_(1835–1840)"><span id="Evolution_towards_parliamentarianism_.281835.E2.80.931840.29"></span>Evolution towards parliamentarianism (1835–1840)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Evolution towards parliamentarianism (1835–1840)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Polemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemics">polemics</a> which led to <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Mortier" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Mortier">Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mortier</span></span></a>'s resignation, fueled by monarchists such as Baron <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Massias</span></span> and the <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Louis_Roederer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre-Louis Roederer">Count of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Roederer</span></span></a>, all turned around the question of parliamentary prerogative. On the one hand, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> wanted to be able to follow his own policy, in particular in "reserved domains" such as military affairs or <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">diplomacy</a>. As the head of state, he also wanted to be able to lead the government, if need be by bypassing the President of the Council. On the other hand, a number of the deputies stated that the ministers needed a leader commanding a parliamentary majority, and thus wanted to continue the evolution towards <a href="/wiki/Parliamentarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentarism">parliamentarism</a> which had only been sketched out in the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1830" title="Charter of 1830">Charter of 1830</a>. The Charter did not include any mechanism for the political accountability of ministers towards the Chamber (<a href="/wiki/Confidence_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence motion">confidence motions</a> or for <a href="/wiki/Censorship_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship motion">censorship motions</a>). Furthermore, the function of the President of the Council itself was not even set out in the Charter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Broglie_ministry_(March_1835_–_February_1836)"><span id="The_Broglie_ministry_.28March_1835_.E2.80.93_February_1836.29"></span>The <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span> ministry (March 1835 – February 1836)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Broglie ministry (March 1835 – February 1836)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this context, the deputies decided to support <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785-1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor de Broglie (1785-1870)">Victor de Broglie</a></span></span> as head of the government, mainly because he was the king's least preferred choice, as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> disliked both his anglophilia and his independence. After a three-week ministerial crisis, during which the "Citizen King" successively called on <a href="/wiki/Louis-Mathieu_Mol%C3%A9" title="Louis-Mathieu Molé">Count <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span></a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">André Dupin</span></span>, Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/General_S%C3%A9bastiani" class="mw-redirect" title="General Sébastiani">General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sébastiani</span></span></a> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Gérard</span></span>, he was finally forced to rely on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duc de Broglie</span></span> and to accept his conditions, which were close to those imposed before by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Casimir Périer</span></span>. </p><p>As in the first <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> government, the new cabinet rested on the triumvirate of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span> (Foreign affairs), <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> (Public instruction), and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> (Interior). <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span>'s first act was to take a personal revenge on the Chamber by having it ratify (by 289 votes against 137) the 4 July 1831 treaty with the United States, something which the deputies had refused him in 1834. He also obtained a large majority on the debate over the secret funds, which worked as an unofficial motion of confidence (256 voices against 129). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trial_of_the_April_insurgents">Trial of the April insurgents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Trial of the April insurgents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span>'s most important task was the trial of the April insurgents, which began on 5 May 1835 before the Chamber of Peers. The Peers finally convicted only 164 detainees on the 2,000 prisoners, of whom 43 were judged <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">in absentia</a></i></span>. Those defendants who were present for their trial introduced a great many procedural delays, and attempted by all means to transform the trial into a platform for <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a>. On 12 July 1835, some of them, including the main leaders of the Parisian insurrection, escaped from the <a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Sainte-P%C3%A9lagie" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison of Sainte-Pélagie">Prison of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sainte-Pélagie</span></span></a> through a tunnel. The Court of Peers delivered its sentence on the insurgents of Lyon on 13 August 1835, and on the other defendants in December 1835 and January 1836. The sentences were rather mild: a few condemnations to <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a>, many short prison sentences and some acquittals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Fieschi_attentat_(28_July_1835)"><span id="The_Fieschi_attentat_.2828_July_1835.29"></span>The <span title="Italian-language text"><span lang="it" style="font-style: normal;">Fieschi</span></span> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">attentat</i></span> (28 July 1835)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Fieschi attentat (28 July 1835)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_(Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg/350px-Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg/525px-Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg/700px-Attentat_de_Fieschi_-_28.07.1835_-_2_%28Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3005" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption><i><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">Attentat de Fieschi</span></span>, on 28 July 1835</i>. By <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Lami" title="Eugène Lami">Eugène Lami</a></span></span>, 1845. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Château de Versailles">Château de Versailles</a></span></span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Machine_infernale.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Machine_infernale.JPG/220px-Machine_infernale.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Machine_infernale.JPG/330px-Machine_infernale.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Machine_infernale.JPG/440px-Machine_infernale.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The weapon built and used by [Fieschi] <span style="color:#d33">Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>)</span>, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Archives_Nationales" title="Musée des Archives Nationales">Musée des Archives Nationales</a> (2012)</figcaption></figure> <p>Against their hopes, the trial finally turned to the Republicans' disadvantage, by giving them a radical image which reminded the public opinion of the excesses of <a href="/wiki/Jacobinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobinism">Jacobinism</a> and frightened the bourgeois. The <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Marco_Fieschi#Attempted_assassination_of_Louis_Philippe_I" title="Giuseppe Marco Fieschi"><span title="Italian-language text"><span lang="it" style="font-style: normal;">Fieschi</span></span> <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">attentat</i></span></a> of July 1835, which took place on Paris during a review of the National Guard by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> for the commemorations of the July Revolution, further scared the notables. </p><p>On the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boulevard_du_Temple" title="Boulevard du Temple">Boulevard du Temple</a></span></span>, near the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique" title="Place de la République">Place de la République</a></span></span>, a <a href="/wiki/Volley_gun" title="Volley gun">volley gun</a> composed of 25 gun barrels mounted on a wooden frame was fired on the king from the upstairs window of a house. The King was only slightly injured, while his sons, Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Louis,_Duke_of_Nemours" title="Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours">Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours</a> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_prince_de_Joinville" class="mw-redirect" title="François d'Orléans, prince de Joinville">François d'Orléans, prince de Joinville</a></span></span>, escaped unharmed. However, Marshal Mortier and ten other persons were killed, while tens were injured (among which seven died in the following days). </p><p>The conspirators, the adventurer <span title="Italian-language text"><span lang="it" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Fieschi" class="mw-redirect" title="Giuseppe Fieschi">Giuseppe Fieschi</a></span></span> and two Republicans (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Pierre Morey</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Théodore Pépin</span></span>) members of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_of_Human_Rights&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society of Human Rights (page does not exist)">Society of Human Rights</a>, were arrested in September 1835. Judged before the Court of Peers, they were <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_France" title="Capital punishment in France">sentenced to death</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotined</a> on 19 February 1836. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_September_laws">The September laws</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The September laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Fieschi assassination attempt shocked the bourgeoisie and most of France, which was generally more conservative than the people of Paris. The Republicans were discredited in the country, and public opinion was ready for strong measures against them. </p><p>The first law reinforced the powers of the president of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cour_d%27assises" title="Cour d'assises">Cour d'assises</a></i></span> and of the <a href="/wiki/Public_prosecutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Public prosecutor">public prosecutor</a> against those accused of rebellion, possession of prohibited weapons or attempted insurrection. It was adopted on 13 August 1835, by 212 votes to 72. </p><p>The second law reformed the procedure before the juries of the Assizes. The existing 4 March 1831 law confined the determination of guilt or innocence to the juries, excluding the professional magistrates belonging to the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Cour d'assises</i></span>, and required a 2/3 majority (8 votes to 4) for a guilty verdict. The new law changed that to a simple majority (7 against 5), and was adopted on 20 August 1835 by 224 votes to 149. </p><p>The third law restricted <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_press_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of press (France)">freedom of press</a>, and provoked passionate debates. It aimed at outlawing discussions concerning the king, the dynasty and constitutional monarchy, as it was alleged that these had prepared the ground for Fieschi's attempt. Despite a strong opposition to the draft, the law was approved on 29 August 1835 by 226 votes to 153. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_final_consolidation_of_the_regime">The final consolidation of the regime</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The final consolidation of the regime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These three laws were simultaneously promulgated on 9 September 1835, and marked the final success of the policy of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Résistance</i></span> pursued against the Republicans since Casimir Périer. The July Monarchy was thereafter sure of its ground, with discussions concerning its legitimacy being completely outlawed. The Opposition could now only discuss the interpretation of the Charter and advocate an evolution towards parliamentarianism. Demands for the enlargement of the electoral base became more frequent, however, in 1840, leading to the re-appearance of Republican Opposition through the claim to <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>. </p><p>The <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span> ministry, however, finally fell on a question concerning the <a href="/wiki/Public_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="Public debt">public debt</a>. The Minister of Finance, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Georges Humann</a></span></span>, announced on 14 January 1836 his intention to reduce the interest on government bonds in order to lighten the public debt, a very unpopular measure among the supporters of the regime, since bond interest was a fundamental component of the bourgeoisie's wealth. Therefore, the Council of Ministers immediately disavowed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Humann</span></span>, while the Duke <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">de Broglie</span></span> explained to the Chamber that his proposal was not supported by the government. However, his tone was judged insulting by the deputies, and one of them, the banker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Go%C3%BCin" title="Alexandre Goüin">Alexandre Goüin</a></span></span>, immediately proposed a draft law concerning bonds himself. On 5 February 1836, a narrow majority of deputies (194 against 192) decided to continue the examination of the draft, thus disavowing <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span>'s cabinet. The government immediately resigned: for the first time, a cabinet had fallen after having been put in a minority before the Chamber of Deputies, a sure victory of parliamentarianism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_first_Thiers_government_(February_–_September_1836)"><span id="The_first_Thiers_government_.28February_.E2.80.93_September_1836.29"></span>The first <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> government (February – September 1836)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The first Thiers government (February – September 1836)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Louis-Philippe then decided to pretend to play the parliamentary card, with the secret intention of neutralizing it. He took advantage of the ministerial crisis to get rid of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a></i></span> (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Broglie</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>), invited some <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span> politicians to give an illusion of an opening to the Left, and finally called on <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a></span></span> on 22 February 1836, in an attempt to convince him to distance himself from the liberal Doctrinaires, and also to use up his legitimacy in government, until the time came to call on Count <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>, whom the king had decided a long time before to make his President of the Council. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> thus separated the center-right from the center-left, strategically attempting to dissolve the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span>, a dangerous game since this could also lead to the dissolving of the parliamentary majority itself and create endless ministerial crises. Furthermore, as the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duc de Broglie</span></span> himself warned him, when <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> was eventually pushed out, he would shift decisively to the Left and transform himself in a particularly dangerous opponent. </p><p>In the Chamber, the debate on the secret funds, marked by a notable speech by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> and an evasive response by the Justice Minister, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sauzet</span></span>, was concluded with a favorable vote for the government (251 votes to 99). On the other hand, the draft proposal on government bonds was easily postponed by the deputies on 22 March 1836, another sign that it had been only a pretext. </p><p>Thiers' motivations for accepting the position of head of the government and taking the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as well were to enable him to negotiate the Duke of Orléans's wedding with an Austrian archduchess. Since the <span title="Italian-language text"><span lang="it" style="font-style: normal;">Fieschi</span></span> attempt, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Ferdinand-Philippe</span></span>'s wedding (he had just reached 25) had become an obsession of the king, and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> wanted to effect a spectacular reversion of alliances in Europe, as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fran%C3%A7ois,_duc_de_Choiseul" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne François, duc de Choiseul">Choiseul</a></span></span> had done before him. But <a href="/wiki/Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Metternich">Metternich</a> and the archduchess <a href="/wiki/Sophie_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophie of Bavaria">Sophie of Bavaria</a>, who dominated the court in Vienna, rejected an alliance with the House of Orléans, which they deemed too unstable. </p><p>Another assassination attempt against <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis Alibaud</span></span> on 25 June 1836, justified their fears. These two setbacks upset <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>. On 29 July 1836, the inauguration of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Arc de Triomphe</span></span>, intended to be the scene of a ceremony of national concord, during which the July Monarchy would harness the glory of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Empire</a>, finally took place, quietly and unceremoniously, at seven in the morning and without the king being present. </p><p>To re-establish his popularity and in order to take his revenge on Austria, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> was considering a military intervention in Spain, requested by the Queen Regent <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marie_Christine_de_Bourbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Christine de Bourbon">Marie Christine de Bourbon</a></span></span> who was confronted by the <a href="/wiki/First_Carlist_War" title="First Carlist War">Carlist rebellion</a>. But <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, advised by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Talleyrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Talleyrand">Talleyrand</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, strongly opposed the intervention, which led to Thiers's resignation. This new event, in which the government had fallen not because of parliament but because of a disagreement with the king on foreign policy, demonstrated that the evolution towards parliamentarianism was far from being assured. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_two_Molé_governments_(September_1836_–_March_1839)"><span id="The_two_Mol.C3.A9_governments_.28September_1836_.E2.80.93_March_1839.29"></span>The two <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> governments (September 1836 – March 1839)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The two Molé governments (September 1836 – March 1839)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg/220px-Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg/330px-Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg/440px-Premiere_messe_en_kabylie_horace_vernet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="1674" /></a><figcaption>First mass in <a href="/wiki/Kabylie" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabylie">Kabylie</a> during the <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a>, 1837</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Louis-Mathieu_Mol%C3%A9" title="Louis-Mathieu Molé">Count <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span></a> formed a new government on 6 September 1836, including the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span> <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tanneguy_Duch%C3%A2tel" title="Tanneguy Duchâtel">Tanneguy Duchâtel</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adrien_de_Gasparin" title="Adrien de Gasparin">Adrien de Gasparin</a></span></span>. This new cabinet did not include any veterans of the July Revolution, something the press immediately highlighted. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> immediately took some humane measures in order to assure his popularity: the general adoption of small <a href="/wiki/Prison_cell" title="Prison cell">prison cells</a> to avoid "mutual teaching of crime", abolition of <a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">chain gangs</a> exposed to the public, and a royal <a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">pardon</a> for 52 political prisoners (Legitimists and Republicans), in particular for Charles X' former ministers. On 25 October 1836, the inauguration of the <a href="/wiki/Luxor_Obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxor Obelisk">Obelisk of Luxor</a> (a gift from the <a href="/wiki/Wali_(administrative_title)" title="Wali (administrative title)">Wali</a> of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali Pasha</a>) on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_Concorde" title="Place de la Concorde">Place de la Concorde</a></span></span> was the scene of a public ovation for the King. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1836_Bonapartist_uprising">1836 Bonapartist uprising</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 1836 Bonapartist uprising"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 30 October 1836, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon III of France">Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte</a></span></span> attempted an uprising in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, which was quickly put down and the Bonapartist prince and his accomplices were arrested on the same day. The king, wanting to avoid a public trial, and without legal proceedings, ordered that <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Napoléon</span></span> be taken to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lorient" title="Lorient">Lorient</a></span></span> where he was put on board the frigate <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'Andromède</i></span>, which sailed for the United States on 21 November. The other conspirators were brought before the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Cour d'assises</i></span> of Strasbourg, which acquitted them on 18 January 1837. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loi_de_disjonction"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Loi de disjonction</i></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Loi de disjonction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thereafter, on 24 January 1837, the Minister of War, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Bernard" title="Simon Bernard">General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Simon Bernard</span></span></a>, proposed a draft law – <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">loi de disjonction</i></span> – aimed, in case of insurrection, at separating civilians, who would be judged by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cour_d%27assises" title="Cour d'assises">Cour d'assises</a></i></span>, and non-civilians, who would be judged by a <a href="/wiki/War_council" class="mw-redirect" title="War council">war council</a>. The opposition adamantly rejected the proposal, and surprisingly managed to have the whole Chamber reject it, on 7 March 1837, by a very slim majority of 211 votes to 209. </p><p>However, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> decided to go against public expectation, and the logic of parliamentarianism, by maintaining the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> government in place. But the government was deprived of any solid parliamentary majority, and thus paralyzed. For a month and a half, the king tried various ministerial combinations before forming a new government which included <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Camille_de_Montalivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Camille de Montalivet">Camille de Montalivet</a></span></span>, who was close to him, but which excluded <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, who had more and more difficulty working with <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>, who was once again confirmed as head of the government. </p><p>This new government was almost a provocation for the Chamber: not only was Molé retained, but <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Narcisse-Achille_de_Salvandy" title="Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy">de Salvandy</a></span></span>, who had been in charge of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">loi de disjonction</i></span>, and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacave-Laplagne" title="Jean Lacave-Laplagne">Lacave-Laplagne</a></span></span>, in charge of a draft law concerning the Belgian Queen's <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> – both having been rejected by the deputies – were also members of the new cabinet. The press spoke of a "Cabinet of the castle" or "Cabinet of lackeys", and all expected it to be short-lived. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_wedding_of_the_Duke_of_Orléans"><span id="The_wedding_of_the_Duke_of_Orl.C3.A9ans"></span>The wedding of the Duke of Orléans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The wedding of the Duke of Orléans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However, in his first speech, on 18 April 1837, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> cut short his critics with the announcement of the future wedding of Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans (styled as the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Prince Royal</i></span>) with the <a href="/wiki/Duchess_Helene_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Duchess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Duchess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a>. Taken by surprise, the deputies voted for the increase of the dowry of both the Duke of Orléans, which had been previously rejected, and the <a href="/wiki/Louise_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans_(1812%E2%80%931850)" class="mw-redirect" title="Louise d'Orléans (1812–1850)">Queen of the Belgians</a>. </p><p>After this promising beginning, in May <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>'s government managed to secure Parliament's confidence during the debate on the secret funds, despite <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span>'s attacks (250 votes to 112). An 8 May 1837 ordinance granted general amnesty to all political prisoners, while crucifixes were re-established in the courts, and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Germain_l%27Auxerrois" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois">Church of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois</span></span></a>, closed since 1831, was authorized to renew religious activities. To demonstrate that public order had been restored, the king passed reviewed the National Guard on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Place de la Concorde</span></span>. On 30 May 1837, the Duke of Orléans' wedding was celebrated at the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau" class="mw-redirect" title="Château de Fontainebleau">château de Fontainebleau</a></span></span>. </p><p>A few days later, on 10 June <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> inaugurated the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Château de Versailles">Château de Versailles</a></span></span>, the restoration of which, begun in 1833, was intended to establish a Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France". The king had closely followed and personally financed the project entrusted to the architect <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Fran%C3%A7ois-L%C3%A9onard_Fontaine" title="Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine">Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine</a></span></span>. In a symbol of national reconciliation, the military glories of the Revolution and of the Empire, even those of the Restoration, were to sit side by side with those of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_legislative_elections_of_4_November_1837">The legislative elections of 4 November 1837</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: The legislative elections of 4 November 1837"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1837" class="mw-redirect" title="French legislative election, 1837">French legislative election, 1837</a></div> <p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>'s government seemed stable, helped by the return of economic prosperity. Therefore, the king and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> decided, against the Duke of Orléans's advice, that the moment was auspicious for the dissolving of the Chamber, which was done on 3 October 1837. In order to influence the forthcoming elections, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> decided on the <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">Constantine expedition in Algeria</a>, a military success of [[General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sylvain Charles Valée</span></span>]] and the Duke of Nemours, second son of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, who took <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a></span></span> on 13 October. </p><p>However, the <a href="/wiki/1837_French_legislative_election" title="1837 French legislative election">4 November 1837 elections</a> did not deliver <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s hopes. Of a total of 459 deputies, only a plurality of 220 were supporters of the regime. About 20 Legitimists had been elected, and 30 Republicans. The center-right <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a></i></span> had approximately 30 deputies, the center-left about twice that many, and the dynastic opposition (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span>) 65. The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Tiers-Parti</i></span> had only about 15 deputies, and 30 more were undecided. Such a Chamber carried the risk of the formation of a heterogeneous coalition against the government. </p><p>As early as January 1838, the government was under great pressure, in particular from <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Gauguier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Gauguier (page does not exist)">Charles Gauguier</a></span></span>, over deputies who were also civil servants. On 9 January he accused the government of electoral manipulation in order to have loyal civil servants elected. Where there had been 178 in the preceding Chamber, there were now 191. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a></span></span> and his allies also defied the government, concerning Spanish affairs. However, with the help of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> obtained a favorable vote for the address to the king on 13 January 1838, with 216 votes to 116. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>'s cabinet appeared to be taken hostage by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>, at the exact moment when <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></span></span> was distancing himself from the President of the Council. All of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s efforts would be thereafter focused on pushing the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span> away from the ministerial majority. During the vote on the secret funds, both <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, in the Chamber of Deputies, and the Duke of Broglie, in the Chamber of Peers, criticized the cabinet, although both ultimately voted with the government. </p><p>On 10 May 1838, the deputies rejected the government's plan for railway development, after having finally agreed, a week earlier, the proposals on government bonds opposed by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>. The Peers, however, supported <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> and rejected the initiative. On 20 June 1838, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> succeeded in having the Assembly pass the 1839 budget before the parliamentary recess. </p><p>On the opening of the parliamentary session in December 1838, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dupin" class="mw-redirect" title="André Dupin">André Dupin</a></span></span> was elected by a very slim majority (183 votes for 178 for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Hippolyte Passy</a></span></span>, the center-left candidate and adamant opponent of the "Castle cabinet") as President of the Chamber. A coalition, including <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prosper_Duvergier_de_Hauranne" title="Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne">Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Hippolyte Passy</a></span></span>, had formed during summer, but it did not prevent the vote of a favorable address to the King (221 votes against 208). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_legislative_elections_of_2_March_1839">The legislative elections of 2 March 1839</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: The legislative elections of 2 March 1839"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_legislative_election,_1839" class="mw-redirect" title="French legislative election, 1839">French legislative election, 1839</a></div> <p>Confronted to such a slight and uncertain majority, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> presented his resignation to the king on 22 January 1839. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> first attempted to refuse it, and then, approaching Marshal Soult, who was not initially persuaded, offered him the lead. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> finally accepted after the funeral of the king's daughter, the <a href="/wiki/Marie_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(1813-1839)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie of Orléans (1813-1839)"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duchesse de</span></span> <span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Württemberg</span></span></a>, on the condition of moving promptly to new elections. During the electoral campaign, the left-wing opposition denounced what they termed a constitutional coup, comparing the 1837 and 1839 dissolutions to the consecutive dissolutions of Charles X in 1830. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> compared <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jules_de_Polignac" title="Jules de Polignac">Polignac</a></span></span>, one of Charles X's ministers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1839_French_legislative_election" title="1839 French legislative election">2 March 1839 elections</a> were a disappointment for the king, who lost two loyal deputies, while the coalition mustered 240 members, against only 199 for the government. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span> presented his resignation to the king on 8 March, which <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> was forced to accept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Soult_government_(May_1839_–_February_1840)"><span id="Second_Soult_government_.28May_1839_.E2.80.93_February_1840.29"></span>Second Soult government (May 1839 – February 1840)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Second Soult government (May 1839 – February 1840)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barb%C3%A8s,_Armand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg/220px-Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg/330px-Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg/440px-Barb%C3%A8s%2C_Armand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1732" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Barb%C3%A8s" title="Armand Barbès">Armand Barbès</a></span></span>, one of the leaders of the Republican insurrection of 12 May 1839</figcaption></figure> <p>After <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>'s fall, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> immediately called upon Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, who attempted, without success, to form a government including the three leaders of the coalition who had brought down <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>: <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span>. Confronted with the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>' refusal, he then tried to form a center-left cabinet, which also foundered upon <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s intransigence concerning Spanish affairs. These successive setbacks forced the king to postpone to 4 April 1839 the opening of the parliamentary session. Thiers also refused to be associated with the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duc de Broglie</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>. The king then attempted to keep him at bay by offering him an embassy, which provoked the outcries of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s friends. Finally, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> resigned himself to composing, on 31 March 1839, a transitional and neutral government. </p><p>The parliamentary session opened on 4 April in a quasi-insurrectionary atmosphere. A large mob had gathered around the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Palais-Bourbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Palais-Bourbon">Palais-Bourbon</a></span></span>, seat of the Assembly, singing <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></i></span> and rioting. The left-wing press accused the government of provocations. Thiers supported <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Odilon Barrot</span></span> as President of the Chamber, but his attitude during the negotiations for the formation of a new cabinet had disappointed some of his friends. A part of the center-left thus decided to present <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Hippolyte Passy</a></span></span> against <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Barrot</span></span>. The latter won with 227 votes against 193, supported by the ministerial deputies and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>. This vote demonstrated that the coalition had imploded, and that a right-wing majority could be formed to oppose any left-wing initiative. </p><p>Despite this, the negotiations for the formation of a new cabinet still were unsuccessful, with Thiers making his friends promise to request his authorization before accepting any governmental function. The situation seemed at an impasse, when on 12 May 1839, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_saisons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Société des saisons (page does not exist)">Société des saisons</a></i></span>, a secret Republican society, headed by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Bernard_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Bernard (politician) (page does not exist)">Martin Bernard</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Barb%C3%A8s" title="Armand Barbès">Armand Barbès</a></span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Blanqui" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguste Blanqui">Auguste Blanqui</a></span></span>, organized an insurrection in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rue_Saint-Denis_(Paris)" title="Rue Saint-Denis (Paris)">Rue Saint-Denis</a></span></span> and the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rue_Saint-Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rue Saint-Martin (page does not exist)">Rue Saint-Martin</a></span></span> in Paris. The <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Just" title="League of the Just">League of the Just</a>, founded in 1836, participated in this uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not only was it a failure, and the conspirators arrested, but this allowed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> to form a new government on the same day, presided over by Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> who had assured him of his loyal support. </p><p>At the end of May, the vote on the secret funds gave a large majority to the new government, which also had the budget passed without any problems. The parliamentary recess was decreed on 6 August 1838, and the new session opened on 23 December, during which the Chamber voted a rather favorable address to the government by 212 votes to 43. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>'s cabinet, however, fell on 20 February 1839, 226 deputies having voted against proposed dowry of the Duke of Nemours (only 200 votes for), who was to marry <a href="/wiki/Princess_Victoria_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Victoire</span></span> de <span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Saxe-Cobourg-Kohary</span></span></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_second_Thiers_cabinet_(March_–_October_1840)"><span id="The_second_Thiers_cabinet_.28March_.E2.80.93_October_1840.29"></span>The second <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> cabinet (March – October 1840)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The second Thiers cabinet (March – October 1840)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg/220px-Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg/330px-Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg/440px-Adolphe_Thiers_par_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a></span></span>, by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a></span></span></figcaption></figure> <p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>'s fall compelled the king to call on the main left-wing figure, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Adolphe Thiers</span></span>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>, one of the only remaining right-wing alternatives, had just been named ambassador to London and left France. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s aim was to definitively establish parliamentary government, with a "king who reigns but does not rule", and a cabinet drawn from the parliamentary majority and answerable to it. Henceforth, he clearly opposed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>'s concept of government. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> formed his government on 1 March 1840. He first pretended to offer the presidency of the Council to the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duc de Broglie</span></span>, and then <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, before accepting it and taking Foreign Affairs at the same time. His cabinet was composed of fairly young politicians (47 years old on average), <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> himself being only 42. </p><p>Relations with the king were immediately difficult. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> embarrassed <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> by suggesting that he nominate his friend <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Horace_S%C3%A9bastiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace Sébastiani">Horace Sébastiani</a></span></span> as Marshal, which would expose him to the same criticisms he had previously suffered over political favoritism and the abuse of governmental power. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> thus decided to postpone <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Sébastiani</span></span>'s advancement. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> obtained an easy majority during the debate on the secret funds in March 1840 (246 votes to 160). Although he was classified as center-left, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s second government was highly conservative, and dedicated to the protection of the interests of the bourgeoisie. Although he had the deputies pass the vote on government bond conversion, which was a left-wing proposal, he was sure that it would be rejected by the Peers, which is what happened. On 16 May 1840, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> harshly rejected <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> and social reforms after a speech by the <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">Radical</a> <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a></span></span>, who had linked the ideas of electoral reform and social reform. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Arago</span></span> was attempting to unite the left-wing by tying together universal suffrage claims and Socialist claims, which had appeared in the 1840s, concerning the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_of_work&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Right of work (page does not exist)">right of work</a>" (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">droit au travail</i></span>). He believed that electoral reform to establish universal suffrage should precede the social reform, which he considered very urgent.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 June 1838, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> obtained the postponement of a proposal made by the conservative deputy <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ovide_de_R%C3%A9milly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ovide de Rémilly (page does not exist)">Ovide de Rémilly</a></span></span> who, equipping himself with an old demand of the Left, sought to outlaw the nomination of deputies to salaried public offices during their elective mandate. As Thiers had previously supported this proposition, he was acutely criticized by the Left. </p><p>Since the end of August 1838, social problems related to the economic crisis which started in 1839 caused strikes and riots in the textile, clothing and construction sectors. On 7 September 1839, the cabinet-makers of the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Faubourg_Saint-Antoine" title="Faubourg Saint-Antoine">faubourg Saint-Antoine</a></span></span> started to put up barricades. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> responded by sending out the National Guard and invoking the laws prohibiting public meetings. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> also renewed the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Banque_de_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Banque de France">Banque de France</a></span></span>'s privilege until 1867 on such advantageous terms that the Bank had a commemorative gold medal cast. Several laws also established <a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">steamship lines</a>, operated by companies operating state-subsidised concessions. Other laws granted credits or guarantees to railway companies in difficulties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Return_of_Napoleon's_ashes"><span id="Return_of_Napoleon.27s_ashes"></span>Return of Napoleon's ashes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Return of Napoleon's ashes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule,_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/350px-Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/525px-Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/700px-Repatriaci%C3%B3n_de_las_cenizas_de_Napole%C3%B3n_a_bordo_de_la_Belle_Poule%2C_por_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="894" /></a><figcaption><i>The transfer of Napoleon's ashes on board of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">La Belle Poule</span></span> on 15 October 1840.</i> Painting by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey" title="Eugène Isabey">Eugène Isabey</a></span></span>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Retour_des_cendres" title="Retour des cendres">Retour des cendres</a></div> <p>While <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> favored the conservative bourgeoisie, he also made sure to satisfy the Left's thirst for glory. On 12 May 1840, the Minister of the Interior, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_R%C3%A9musat" title="Charles de Rémusat">Charles de Rémusat</a></span></span>, announced to the deputies that the king had decided that the remains of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon">Napoléon</a></span></span> would be transferred to the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Invalides" class="mw-redirect" title="Invalides">Invalides</a></span></span>. With the British government's agreement, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Prince de Joinville</span></span> sailed to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> on the frigate <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/French_frigate_Belle_Poule_(1834)" title="French frigate Belle Poule (1834)">La Belle Poule</a></i></span> to retrieve them. </p><p>This announcement immediately struck a chord with public opinion, which was swept along with patriotic fervor. Thiers saw in this act the successful completion of the rehabilitation of the Revolution and of the Empire, which he had attempted in his <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire de la Révolution française</i></span> and his <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire</i></span>, while <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, who was reluctant, aimed at capturing for himself a touch of the imperial glory, just as he had appropriated the legitimist monarchy's glory in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Château de Versailles</span></span>. The Prince <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon III">Louis-Napoléon</a></span></span> decided to seize the opportunity to land in <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne-sur-Mer</a></span></span> on 6 August 1840, with the aim of rallying the 42nd infantry regiment (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">42<sup>e</sup> régiment de ligne</i></span>) along with some accomplices including one of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Napoléon</span></span>'s comrades in Saint Helena, the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tristan,_marquis_de_Montholon" title="Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon">General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">de Montholon</span></span></a>. Although <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Montholon</span></span> was in reality a <a href="/wiki/Double_agent" title="Double agent">double agent</a> used by the French government to spy, in London, on <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Napoléon</span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Montholon</span></span> deceived <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> by letting him think that the operation would take place in Metz. However, Bonaparte's operation was a complete failure, and he was detained with his men in the <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_Ham" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort of Ham">Fort of Ham</a>, Picardy. </p><p>Their trial took place before the Chamber of Peers from 28 September 1840 to 6 October 1840, to general indifference. The public's attention was concentrated on the trial of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marie_Lafarge" title="Marie Lafarge">Marie Lafarge</a></span></span>, before the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Cour d'assises</i></span> of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Tulle</span></span>, the defendant being accused of having poisoned her husband. Defended by the famous Legitimist lawyer <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Antoine_Berryer" title="Pierre-Antoine Berryer">Pierre-Antoine Berryer</a></span></span>, Bonaparte was sentenced to <a href="/wiki/Life_detention" class="mw-redirect" title="Life detention">life detention</a>, by 152 votes (against 160 abstentions, out of a total of 312 Peers). "We do not kill insane people, all right! but we do confine them,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> declared the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats" title="Journal des débats">Journal des débats</a></i></span>, in this period of intense discussions concerning <a href="/wiki/Parricide" title="Parricide">parricides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental disease">mental disease</a> and reform of the <a href="/wiki/Penal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal code">penal code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonization_of_Algeria">Colonization of Algeria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Colonization of Algeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">French rule in Algeria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG/220px-L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG/330px-L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG/440px-L%E2%80%99ennemi_repouss%C3%A9_des_hauteurs_de_Coudiat-Ati.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1376" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantine" title="Siege of Constantine">Siege of Constantine</a> in 1837</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">conquest of Algeria</a>, initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration, was now confronted by <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar-Latn" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Jaza%27iri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri">Abd-el-Kader</a></span></span>'s raids, punishing <a href="/wiki/Marshal_Val%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal Valée">Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Valée</span></span></a> and the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">duc d'Orléans</span></span>'s expedition to the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Portes_de_Fer" class="mw-redirect" title="Portes de Fer">Portes de Fer</a></i></span> in autumn 1839, which had violated the terms of the 1837 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tafna" title="Treaty of Tafna">Treaty of Tafna</a> between <a href="/wiki/General_Bugeaud" class="mw-redirect" title="General Bugeaud">General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bugeaud</span></span></a> and <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar-Latn" style="font-style: normal;">Abd-el-Kader</span></span>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> pushed in favor of colonizing of the interior of the country, up to the edges of the desert. He convinced the king, who saw in Algeria an ideal theater for his son to cover the House of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Orléans</span></span> with glory, and persuaded him to send General <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bugeaud</span></span> as first <a href="/wiki/Governor_general_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor general of Algeria">governor general of Algeria</a>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Bugeaud</span></span>, who would lead harsh repression against the natives, was officially nominated on 29 December 1840, a few days after <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s fall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Eastern_affairs,_a_pretext_for_Thiers's_fall"><span id="Middle_Eastern_affairs.2C_a_pretext_for_Thiers.27s_fall"></span>Middle Eastern affairs, a pretext for <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>'s fall</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Middle Eastern affairs, a pretext for Thiers's fall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> supported <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali Pasha</a>, the Wali of Egypt, in his ambition to constitute a vast Arabian Empire from Egypt to Syria. He tried to intercede in order to have him sign an agreement with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, unbeknownst to the four other European powers (Britain, Austria, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>). However, informed of these negotiations, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>, quickly negotiated a treaty between the four powers to sort out the "Eastern Question". When revealed, the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_London_(1840)" title="Convention of London (1840)">London Convention</a> of 15 July 1840 provoked an explosion of patriotic fury: France had been ousted from a zone where it traditionally exercised its influence (or attempted to), while Prussia, which had no interest in it, was associated with the treaty. Although <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> pretended to join the general protestations, he knew that he could take advantage of the situation to get rid of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>. </p><p>The latter pandered to patriotic feelings by decreeing, on 29 July 1840, a partial mobilization, and by starting, on 13 September 1840, the works on the <a href="/wiki/Fortifications_of_Paris_in_the_19th_and_20th_centuries" title="Fortifications of Paris in the 19th and 20th centuries">fortifications of Paris</a>. But France remained passive when, on 2 October 1840, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> mobilized along the Lebanese coastline. Mehemet Ali was then immediately dismissed as wali by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid I">Abdulmejid I</a>. </p><p>Following long negotiations between the king and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>, a compromise was found on 7 October 1840: France would renounce its support for Muhammad Ali's pretensions in Syria but would declare to the European powers that Egypt should remain at all costs autonomous. Britain thereafter recognized Muhammad Ali's hereditary rule in Egypt: France had obtained a return to the situation of 1832. Despite this, the rupture between <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> was now definitive. On 29 October 1840, when <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_R%C3%A9musat" title="Charles de Rémusat">Charles de Rémusat</a></span></span> presented to the Council of Ministers the draft of the speech of the throne, prepared by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Hippolyte Passy</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> found it too aggressive. After a short discussion, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> and his associates collectively presented their resignations to the king, who accepted them. On the following day, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> sent for Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> and <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> so they could return to Paris as soon as possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Guizot_government_(1840–1848)"><span id="The_Guizot_government_.281840.E2.80.931848.29"></span>The Guizot government (1840–1848)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: The Guizot government (1840–1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg/300px-Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg/450px-Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg/600px-Minist%C3%A8re_Soult.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption><i>Council of Ministers in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Palais_des_Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Palais des Tuileries">Palais des Tuileries</a></span></span>: Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">Soult</span></span> presents to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">Louis-Philippe</span></span> a draft law on 15 August 1842</i>. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> stands on the left. Painting by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Jacquand" title="Claudius Jacquand">Claudius Jacquand</a></span></span> (1844)</figcaption></figure> <p>When <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> called to power <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>, representatives of the center-right, after the center-left <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span>, he surely imagined that this would be only temporary, and that he would soon be able to call back <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Molé</span></span>. But the new cabinet formed by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> would remain closely knit, and finally win the king's trust, with <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> becoming his favorite president of the Council. </p><p>On 26 October 1840, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> arrived to Paris from London. He took for himself the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and let Soult assume the nominal presidency. This satisfied the king and the royal family, while <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> himself was sure of his ability to manipulate the old Marshal <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span> as he wished. As the center-left had refused to remain in the government, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span>'s cabinet included only conservatives, ranging from the ministerial center to the center-right <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Doctrinaires</i></span>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/July_Column" title="July Column">July Column</a> was erected in honor of the 1830 Revolution. The Middle East Question was settled by the <a href="/wiki/London_Straits_Convention" title="London Straits Convention">London Straits Convention</a> of 1841, which permitted the first reconciliation between <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="France–United Kingdom relations">France and Britain</a>. This in turn increased public favor towards the colonization of Algeria. </p><p>Both the government and the Chamber were Orléanists. They were divided into <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Barrot" title="Odilon Barrot">Odilon Barrot</a></span></span>'s Dynastic Left (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Gauche dynastique</i></span>), which demanded the extension of the franchise to the <a href="/wiki/Petty_bourgeoisie" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty bourgeoisie">petty bourgeoisie</a> and had as its mouthpiece <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Le Siècle">Le Siècle</a></i></span>; the center-left, headed by Adolphe Thiers, which aimed at restricting royal prerogatives and influence, and which had as its mouthpiece <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Constitutionnel" title="Le Constitutionnel">Le Constitutionnel</a></i></span>; the conservatives, headed by Guizot and Count Molé, who wanted to preserve the regime and defended their ideas in <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Journal des débats">Le Journal des débats</a></i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Presse_(French_newspaper)" title="La Presse (French newspaper)">La Presse</a></i></span>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg/220px-Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg/330px-Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Louis-Philippe_1842_Lerebours_Claudet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Louis Philippe in 1842</figcaption></figure> <p>Guizot refused any reforms, rejecting a broader franchise. According to him, the monarchy should favor the "middle classes", defined by land ownership, a "moral" tied to money, work and savings. <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">« Enrichissez-vous par le travail et par l'épargne et ainsi vous serez électeur ! »</i></span> ("Get rich through work and savings and then you will be electors!") was his famous statement. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> was helped in his aims by a comfortable rate of economic growth, averaging about 3.5% a year from 1840 to 1846. The transport network was quickly enlarged. An 1842 law organized the national railway network, which grew from 600 to 1,850 km, a sure sign that the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had fully reached France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_threatened_system">A threatened system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: A threatened system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Left_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Left in France">History of the Left in France</a></div> <p>This period of Industrial Revolution was characterized by the appearance of a new social phenomenon, known as <a href="/wiki/Pauperism" title="Pauperism">pauperism</a>. Related to industrialization and the <a href="/wiki/Rural_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural exodus">rural exodus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">working poor</a> became an increasingly large segment of the population. Furthermore, the former network of workings men's associations of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Ancien Régime</i></span> had disappeared. Workers had a 14-hour working day, daily wages of 20 centimes, and no possibility of organizing themselves in <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions">trade unions</a>. 250,000 beggars were registered, and 3 million citizens registered with charity offices. State assistance was nonexistent. The only social law of the July Monarchy was to outlaw, in 1841, <a href="/wiki/Child_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Child labor">labor of children</a> under eight years of age, and night labor for those of less than 13 years. The law, however, was almost never implemented. </p><p>Christians imagined a "charitable economy", while the ideas of Socialism, in particular <a href="/wiki/Utopian_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian Socialism">Utopian Socialism</a> (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Henri_de_Rouvroy,_comte_de_Saint-Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Charles Fourier</a></span></span>, etc.) continued to spread. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Blanqui" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanqui">Blanqui</a></span></span> theorized about Socialist <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">coups d'état</i></span>, while the socialist and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">anarchist</a> thinker <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Proudhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Proudhon">Proudhon</a></span></span> theorized about <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutualism (economy)">mutualism</a>. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberals</a>, inspired by Adam Smith, imagined a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i></span> solution and the end of tariffs, which the United Kingdom, the dominant European power, had started in 1846 with the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_years_(1846–1848)"><span id="Final_years_.281846.E2.80.931848.29"></span>Final years (1846–1848)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Final years (1846–1848)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1846 harvest was poor, in France as elsewhere (especially <a href="/wiki/Great_Irish_Famine" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Irish Famine">Ireland</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_Austrian_Galicia" title="Famines in Austrian Galicia">Galicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_the_Czech_lands" title="Famines in the Czech lands">Bohemia</a>). A rise in the price of wheat, the dietary staple of the common people, provoked a <a href="/wiki/Economic_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic shortage">food shortage</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power" title="Purchasing power">purchasing power</a> decreased. The resulting fall in domestic consumption led to a crisis of industrial <a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">overproduction</a>. This in turn immediately led to massive <a href="/wiki/Lay-off" class="mw-redirect" title="Lay-off">lay-offs</a>, and thus to a large withdrawal of savings, leading to a banking crisis. Bankruptcies multiplied, and stock prices on the <a href="/wiki/Stock_exchange" title="Stock exchange">stock exchanges</a> collapsed. The government reacted by <a href="/wiki/Russian_grain_exports" title="Russian grain exports">importing Russian wheat</a>, which created a negative <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">balance of trade</a>. The program of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> therefore stopped, including attempts to improve France's <a href="/wiki/Crenellated_guardhouse,_1846_model" title="Crenellated guardhouse, 1846 model">coastal defenses</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Robert Peel</a>'s government in Britain collapsed in 1846 after disputes over the Corn Laws, bringing the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a> back into government led by <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>. The appointment of Lord Palmerston was regarded as a threat to France. Guizot's effort to bring about rapprochement with Britain in the early 1840s was virtually undone by the <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Spanish_Marriages" title="Affair of the Spanish Marriages">Affair of the Spanish Marriages</a>, which broke out that year after Palmerston attempted to wed the Spanish queen to a member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a> rather than to a member of the House of Orléans, as <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> and his British counterparts had agreed to earlier in the 1840s. </p><p>Henceforth, there was an increase in workers' demonstrations, with riots in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buzan%C3%A7ais" title="Buzançais">Buzançais</a></span></span> in 1847. In <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roubaix" title="Roubaix">Roubaix</a></span></span>, a city in the industrial north, 60% of the workers were <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployed</a>. At the same time, the regime was marred by several <a href="/wiki/French_political_scandals" class="mw-redirect" title="French political scandals">political scandals</a> (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Teste" title="Jean-Baptiste Teste">Teste</a>–<a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Despans-Cubi%C3%A8res" title="Amédée Despans-Cubières">Cubières</a></span></span> corruption scandal, revealed in May 1847, or <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Choiseul-Praslin" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Choiseul-Praslin">Charles de Choiseul-Praslin</a></span></span>'s suicide after having murdered his wife, daughter of <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Horace_S%C3%A9bastiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace Sébastiani">Horace Sébastiani</a></span></span>). </p><p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of association">right of association</a> was strictly restricted, and public meetings prohibited after 1835, the Opposition was paralyzed. In order to sidestep this law, political dissidents used civil funerals of their comrades as occasions of public demonstrations. Family celebrations and banquets also served as pretexts for gatherings. At the end of the regime, the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Campagne_des_banquets" title="Campagne des banquets">campagne des banquets</a></i></span> took place in all of the big cities of France. <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> firmly reacted to this threat, and prohibited the final banquet, which was to be held on 14 January 1848. Postponed to 22 February, this banquet would provoke the <a href="/wiki/February_1848_Revolution_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="February 1848 Revolution (France)">February 1848 Revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_monarchy">End of the monarchy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: End of the monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></div> <p>After some unrest, the king replaced <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Guizot</span></span> by <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Thiers</span></span> who advocated repression. Greeted with hostility by the troops in the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Place_du_Carrousel" title="Place du Carrousel">Place du Carrousel</a></span></span>, in front of the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Palace" title="Tuileries Palace">Tuileries Palace</a>, the king finally decided to <a href="/wiki/Abdicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdicate">abdicate</a> in favor of his grandson, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Philippe,_comte_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe, comte de Paris">Philippe d'Orléans</a></span></span>, entrusting the regency to his daughter-in-law, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_de_Mecklembourg-Schwerin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hélène de Mecklembourg-Schwerin">Hélène de Mecklembourg-Schwerin</a></span></span>. His gesture was in vain as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Republic_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Republic (France)">Second Republic</a> was proclaimed on 26 February 1848, on the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_Bastille" title="Place de la Bastille">Place de la Bastille</a></span></span>, before the <a href="/wiki/July_Column" title="July Column">July Column</a>. </p><p><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span>, who claimed to be the "Citizen King" linked to the country by a <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> contract on which he founded his legitimacy, did not see that the French people were advocating an enlargement of the electorate, either by a decrease of the electoral tax threshold, or by the establishment of universal suffrage <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>Although the end of the July Monarchy brought France to the brink of civil war, the period was also characterized by an effervescence of <a href="/wiki/French_art_of_the_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="French art of the 19th century">artistic and intellectual creation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline_of_French_constitutions">Timeline of French constitutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Timeline of French constitutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg/910px-Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg.png" decoding="async" width="910" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg/1365px-Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg/1820px-Chronologie_constitutions_fran%C3%A7aises.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4843" data-file-height="932" /></a></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_during_the_nineteenth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="France during the nineteenth century">France during the nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism and radicalism in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_art_of_the_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="French art of the 19th century">French art of the 19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature_of_the_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="French literature of the 19th century">French literature of the 19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics of France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Even if Louis-Philippe I was titled King of the French, the name of the country remained Kingdom of France, as it can be seen in the <i>Bulletin des Lois</i> between <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6530937c.item">1830</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30493616/f11.image">1848</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://frenchmoments.eu/national-motto-of-france/">"National Motto of France"</a>. <i>French Moments</i>. 7 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=French+Moments&rft.atitle=National+Motto+of+France&rft.date=2015-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffrenchmoments.eu%2Fnational-motto-of-france%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Aminzade, <i>Ballots and Barricades: Class Formation and Republican Politics in France, 1830-1871</i> (1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">« Cela vaut mieux pour moi que le <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sacre_(France)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sacre (France) (page does not exist)">sacre</a> de <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a> ! »</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Aminzade1993" class="citation book cs1">Ronald Aminzade (1993). <i>Ballots and barricades: class formation and republican politics in France, 1830–1871</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ballots+and+barricades%3A+class+formation+and+republican+politics+in+France%2C+1830%E2%80%931871&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Ronald+Aminzade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">La Foire aux places</i></span>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">comédie-vaudeville</i></span> in one act of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Bayard" title="Jean-François Bayard">Jean-François Bayard</a>, played at the <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_du_Vaudeville" title="Théâtre du Vaudeville">théâtre du Vaudeville</a> on 25 September 1830, showed the solicitors, gathered in the antechamber of a minister: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">« Qu'on nous place / Et que justice se fasse. / Qu'on nous place / Tous en masse. / Que les placés / Soient chassés ! »</i></span> (quoted by <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 625) <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">« Savez-vous ce que c'est qu'un carliste? interroge un humoriste. Un carliste, c'est un homme qui occupe un poste dont un autre homme a envie ! »</i></span> (<a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 625)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_H._Pinkney1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_H._Pinkney" title="David H. Pinkney">David H. Pinkney</a> (1972). <i>The French Revolution of 1830</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution+of+1830&rft.date=1972&rft.au=David+H.+Pinkney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSudhir_Hazareesingh2015" class="citation book cs1">Sudhir Hazareesingh (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DfKlCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA215"><i>How the French Think</i></a>. Basic Books. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465061662" title="Special:BookSources/9780465061662"><bdi>9780465061662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+French+Think&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780465061662&rft.au=Sudhir+Hazareesingh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDfKlCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">« le principe de la révolution de juillet [...] ce n'est pas l'insurrection, [...] c'est la résistance à l'agression du pouvoir »</i>, <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 656</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cholera-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cholera_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLa_Petite_Gazette_Généalogique" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">La Petite Gazette Généalogique, Amicale Généalogie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060223134543/http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm">"Le Choléra"</a> (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm">the original</a> on 23 February 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+Chol%C3%A9ra&rft.aulast=La+Petite+Gazette+G%C3%A9n%C3%A9alogique&rft.aufirst=Amicale+G%C3%A9n%C3%A9alogie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amicale-genealogie.org%2FHistoires_temps-passe%2FEpidemies%2Fchol01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">« J'avais beau faire [...], dit-il, tout ce qui se faisait de bon était attribué à Casimir Périer, et les incidents malheureux retombaient à ma charge; aujourd'hui, au moins, on verra que c'est moi qui règne seul, tout seul. »</i> (<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">Rodolphe Apponyi, <i>Journal</i>, 18 mai 1832</span></span>, quoted by <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 689)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On 7 June 1832, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf,_Count_of_Apponyi" title="Rudolf, Count of Apponyi">Rudolf, Count of Apponyi</a> noted in his <i>Journal</i>: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">« Il me semble que ce n'est que depuis hier qu'on peut dater le règne de Louis-Philippe; il paraît être persuadé qu'on ne peut réussir dans ce pays qu'avec de la force, et, dorénavant, il n'agira plus autrement. »</i></span> (quoted by <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 696)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">coalition de tous les talents</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Louis-Philippe</span></span> to <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Soult</span></span>, 17 April 1834, quoted by <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 723</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Moss1998" class="citation web cs1">Bernard Moss (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070710180952/http://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1998_Moss.pdf">"Marx and the Permanent Revolution in France: Background to the <i>Communist Manifesto</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Socialist_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="The Socialist Register">The Socialist Register</a></i>. p. 10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialistregister.com/socialistregister.com/files/SR_1998_Moss.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Socialist+Register&rft.atitle=Marx+and+the+Permanent+Revolution+in+France%3A+Background+to+the+Communist+Manifesto&rft.pages=10&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Bernard+Moss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocialistregister.com%2Fsocialistregister.com%2Ffiles%2FSR_1998_Moss.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Guyver2016" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Guyver (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xP5jDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44"><i>The Second French Republic 1848–1852: A Political Reinterpretation</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137597403" title="Special:BookSources/9781137597403"><bdi>9781137597403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+French+Republic+1848%E2%80%931852%3A+A+Political+Reinterpretation&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781137597403&rft.au=Christopher+Guyver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxP5jDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">« On ne tue pas les fous, soit! mais on les enferme »</i></span>, in <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Journal_des_d%C3%A9bats" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Journal des débats">Le Journal des débats</a></i></span> (quoted by <a href="#CITEREFAntonetti2002">Antonetti 2002</a>, p. 818)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></span></span>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Moi, Pierre Rivière, ayant égorgé ma mère, ma sœur et mon frère</i></span> (Gallimard, 1973). English transl.: <i>I, Pierre Rivière, Having Slaughtered my Mother, my Sister and my Brother</i> (Penguin, 1975)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonetti2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Antonetti, Guy (2002). <i>Louis-Philippe</i>. Le grand livre du mois (in French). <a href="/wiki/Fayard" title="Fayard">Fayard</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7028-7276-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7028-7276-5"><bdi>978-2-7028-7276-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/470266469">470266469</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louis-Philippe&rft.series=Le+grand+livre+du+mois&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F470266469&rft.isbn=978-2-7028-7276-5&rft.aulast=Antonetti&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAston1988" class="citation journal cs1">Aston, Nigel (October 1988). "Orleanism, 1780–1830". <i>History Today</i>. <b>38</b> (10): 41–47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Orleanism%2C+1780%E2%80%931830&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=41-47&rft.date=1988-10&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beik, Paul. <i>Louis Philippe and the July Monarchy</i> (1965), short survey</li> <li>Blum, Jerome. <i>In the Beginning: The Advent of the Modern Age Europe in the 1840s</i> (1994) pp 199–234.</li> <li>Collingham, H.A.C. <i>The July Monarchy: A Political History of France, 1830–1848</i> (Longman, 1988)</li> <li>Furet, François. <i>Revolutionary France 1770–1880</i> (1995), pp 326–84. survey of political history by leading scholar</li> <li>Howarth, T.E.B. <i>Citizen-King: The Life of Louis Philippe, King of the French</i> (1962).</li> <li>Jardin, Andre, and Andre-Jean Tudesq. <i>Restoration and Reaction 1815–1848</i> (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988)</li> <li>Lucas-Dubreton, J. <i>The Restoration and the July Monarchy</i> (1929), pp 174–368.</li> <li>Merriman, John M. ed. <i>1830 in France</i> (1975) articles by scholars.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewmanSimpson1987" class="citation book cs1">Newman, Edgar Leon; Simpson, Robert Lawrence (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15387751"><i>Historical Dictionary of France from the 1815 Restoration to the Second Empire</i></a>. Greenwood Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+France+from+the+1815+Restoration+to+the+Second+Empire&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Edgar+Leon&rft.au=Simpson%2C+Robert+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D15387751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pinkney, David. <i>The French Revolution of 1830</i> (1972)</li> <li>Pinkney, David. <i>Decisive Years in France, 1840–1847</i> (1986)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_history">Cultural history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Cultural history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate, and Gabriel P. Weisberg, eds. <i>The popularization of images: Visual culture under the July Monarchy</i> (<a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1994)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrescher1959" class="citation journal cs1">Drescher, Seymour (1959). "America and French Romanticism During the July Monarchy". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 3–20. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2710724">2710724</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=America+and+French+Romanticism+During+the+July+Monarchy&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-20&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2710724%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Drescher&rft.aufirst=Seymour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargadant1999" class="citation journal cs1">Margadant, Jo Burr (1999). "Gender, Vice, and the Political Imaginary in Postrevolutionary France: Reinterpreting the Failure of the July Monarchy, 1830–1848". <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>194</b> (5): 1461–1496. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2649346">2649346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Gender%2C+Vice%2C+and+the+Political+Imaginary+in+Postrevolutionary+France%3A+Reinterpreting+the+Failure+of+the+July+Monarchy%2C+1830%E2%80%931848&rft.volume=194&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1461-1496&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2649346%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Margadant&rft.aufirst=Jo+Burr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Marrinan, Michael. <i>Painting politics for Louis-Philippe: art and ideology in Orléanist France, 1830–1848</i> (<a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 1988)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMellon1960" class="citation journal cs1">Mellon, Stanley (1960). "The July Monarchy and the Napoleonic Myth". <i>Yale French Studies</i> (26): 70–78. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2929226">2929226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+French+Studies&rft.atitle=The+July+Monarchy+and+the+Napoleonic+Myth&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=70-78&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2929226%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mellon&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_economic_history">Social and economic history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=July_Monarchy&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Social and economic history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Charle, Christophe. <i>A Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1994)</li> <li>Harsin, Jill. <i>Barricades: The War of the Streets in Revolutionary Paris, 1830–1848</i> (2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalman2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kalman, Julie (2003). "The unyielding wall: Jews and Catholics in Restoration and July monarchy France". <i>French historical studies</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 661–686.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+historical+studies&rft.atitle=The+unyielding+wall%3A+Jews+and+Catholics+in+Restoration+and+July+monarchy+France&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=661-686&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Kalman&rft.aufirst=Julie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinkney1963" class="citation journal cs1">Pinkney, David H. (Spring 1963). "Laissez-Fair or Intervention? Labor Policy in the First Months of the July Monarchy". <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 123–128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Laissez-Fair+or+Intervention%3F+Labor+Policy+in+the+First+Months+of+the+July+Monarchy&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123-128&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Pinkney&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1987" class="citation book cs1">Price, Roger (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/a-social-history-of-nineteenth-century-france-by-roger-price.jsp"><i>A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+France&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2Fbook%2Fa-social-history-of-nineteenth-century-france-by-roger-price.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span> 403pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearns1965" class="citation journal cs1">Stearns, Peter N. (1965). "Patterns of industrial strike activity in France during the July Monarchy". <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 371–394. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845635">1845635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+industrial+strike+activity+in+France+during+the+July+Monarchy&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=371-394&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1845635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJuly+Monarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitutions_of_France" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitutions_of_France" title="Template:Constitutions of France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitutions_of_France" title="Template talk:Constitutions of France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitutions_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitutions of France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitutions_of_France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_constitutions_of_France" title="List of constitutions of France">Constitutions of France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constitutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Cabinet_of_Louis_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI">Constitutional Cabinet</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">1791</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">1st Republic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1793" title="French Constitution of 1793">1793 (Year I)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">1795 (Year III)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">1799 (Year VIII)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_X" title="Constitution of the Year X">1802 (Year X)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">1st Empire</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_XII" title="Constitution of the Year XII">1804 (Year XII)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1814" title="Charter of 1814">1814</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1815" title="Charter of 1815">1815</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">July Monarchy</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1830" title="Charter of 1830">1830</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">2nd Republic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1848" title="French Constitution of 1848">1848</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">2nd Empire</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1852" title="French Constitution of 1852">1852</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">3rd Republic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_constitutional_laws_of_1875" title="French constitutional laws of 1875">1875</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">French State</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">1940</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">GPRF</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_27_October_1946" title="French Constitution of 27 October 1946">1946</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">4th Republic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">1958</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">5th Republic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendments_under_the_French_Fifth_Republic" title="Constitutional amendments under the French Fifth Republic">amendments</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_fran%C3%A7aise_de_1958_avec_l%E2%80%99ensemble_de_ses_modifications" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution française de 1958 avec l’ensemble de ses modifications">full text</a> <small>(in French)</small></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_France#Constitutional_block" title="Constitution of France">Constitutional<br />block</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_27_October_1946#Preamble" title="French Constitution of 27 October 1946">Preamble to the 1946 French Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">French Constitution of 1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_for_the_Environment" title="Charter for the Environment">Charter for the Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_principles_recognized_by_the_laws_of_the_Republic" title="Fundamental principles recognized by the laws of the Republic">Fundamental principles recognized by the laws of the Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Referendums_in_France" title="Referendums in France">Constitutional<br />referendums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1793_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1793 French constitutional referendum">1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1795_French_referendums" title="1795 French referendums">1795</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1800 French constitutional referendum">1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1802_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1802 French constitutional referendum">1802</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1804 French constitutional referendum">1804</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1815_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1815 French constitutional referendum">1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1851_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1851 French constitutional referendum">1851</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1852_French_Second_Empire_referendum" title="1852 French Second Empire referendum">1852</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1870 French constitutional referendum">1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1945_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1945 French constitutional referendum">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1946_French_constitutional_referendum" title="May 1946 French constitutional referendum">1946 (May)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_1946_French_constitutional_referendum" title="October 1946 French constitutional referendum">1946 (Oct)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1958 French constitutional referendum">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1969 French constitutional referendum">1969</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_French_constitutional_referendum" title="2000 French constitutional referendum">2000</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituent<br />assemblies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">1789</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Constituent_Assembly_of_1848&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French Constituent Assembly of 1848 (page does not exist)">1848</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembl%C3%A9e_nationale_constituante_(Deuxi%C3%A8me_R%C3%A9publique)" class="extiw" title="fr:Assemblée nationale constituante (Deuxième République)">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(1871)" title="National Assembly (1871)">1871</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Constituent_Assembly_of_1945&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French Constituent Assembly of 1945 (page does not exist)">1945</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembl%C3%A9e_constituante_de_1945" class="extiw" title="fr:Assemblée constituante de 1945">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_Constituent_Assembly_of_1946&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French Constituent Assembly of 1946 (page does not exist)">1946</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembl%C3%A9e_constituante_de_1946" class="extiw" title="fr:Assemblée constituante de 1946">fr</a>]</sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constitutional <br />laws      </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1872 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A9veneuc_law" title="Tréveneuc law">Tréveneuc law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_constitutional_laws_of_1875" title="French constitutional laws of 1875">1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_2_November_1945" title="Constitutional law of 2 November 1945">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_3_June_1958&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 3 June 1958 (page does not exist)">1958 (Jun)</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_constitutionnelle_du_3_juin_1958" class="extiw" title="fr:Loi constitutionnelle du 3 juin 1958">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_4_October_1958&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 4 October 1958 (page does not exist)">1958 (Oct)</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_du_4_octobre_1958" class="extiw" title="fr:Constitution du 4 octobre 1958">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_1968&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 1968 (page does not exist)">1968</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_constitutionnelle_de_1867" class="extiw" title="fr:Loi constitutionnelle de 1867">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_1982&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 1982 (page does not exist)">1982</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_constitutionnelle_de_1982" class="extiw" title="fr:Loi constitutionnelle de 1982">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_1992&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 1992 (page does not exist)">1992</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_constitutionnelle_du_25_juin_1992" class="extiw" title="fr:Loi constitutionnelle du 25 juin 1992">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Law_of_2003&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional Law of 2003 (page does not exist)">2003</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_constitutionnelle_du_28_mars_2003" class="extiw" title="fr:Loi constitutionnelle du 28 mars 2003">fr</a>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_constitutional_law_of_23_July_2008" title="French constitutional law of 23 July 2008">2008</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="France_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:France_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:France topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="France_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_France" title="Political history of France">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_journalism" title="History of French journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism and radicalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brittany" title="History of Brittany">History of Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Normandy" title="History of Normandy">History of Normandy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_laws_of_the_Kingdom_of_France" title="Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France">Fundamental laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Modern">Late Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">July Monarchy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1851_French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1851 French coup d'état">Coup of 2 December 1851</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_France" title="Interwar France">Interwar</a> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France_(1900_to_present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of France (1900 to present)">1900 to present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_French_riots" title="2005 French riots">2005 riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Europe#France,_Benelux_countries" title="Great Recession in Europe">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks" title="November 2015 Paris attacks">2015 Paris attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election" title="2017 French presidential election">2017 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France" title="COVID-19 pandemic in France">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests" title="2021 French labor protests">2021 labor protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_French_presidential_election" title="2022 French presidential election">2022 presidential election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_France" title="Climate change in France">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_France" title="Borders of France">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_France" title="List of national parks of France">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_France" title="List of World Heritage Sites in France">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutions_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutions of France">Constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_elections_in_France" title="Presidential elections in France">presidential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_France" title="Intersex rights in France">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_France" title="Legal history of France">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_criminal_law" title="French criminal law">criminal law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_France#Agriculture" title="Economy of France">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_France" title="Automotive industry in France">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_France" title="List of exports of France">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc (former currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_France" title="Mining in France">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_France" title="Science and technology in France">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_France" title="Category:Society of France">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_France" title="Abortion in France">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_France" title="Birth control in France">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_France" title="Homelessness in France">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_France" title="Immigration to France">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_departments_by_life_expectancy" title="List of French departments by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">secularism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_France" title="Culture of France">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> 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