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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Prenatal screening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_serum_screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_serum_screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Maternal serum screening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_serum_screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advances_in_prenatal_screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advances_in_prenatal_screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Advances in prenatal screening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advances_in_prenatal_screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Prenatal genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultrasound_imaging_and_serum_markers_as_indications_for_genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultrasound_imaging_and_serum_markers_as_indications_for_genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ultrasound imaging and serum markers as indications for genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultrasound_imaging_and_serum_markers_as_indications_for_genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Screens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carrier_screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carrier_screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Carrier screening </span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carrier_screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Placental_acellular_DNA_(pa-DNA)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Placental_acellular_DNA_(pa-DNA)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Placental acellular DNA (pa-DNA)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Placental_acellular_DNA_(pa-DNA)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First/Second/Third_trimester_Screen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First/Second/Third_trimester_Screen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>First/Second/Third trimester Screen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First/Second/Third_trimester_Screen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alpha-fetoprotein_(AFP)/multiple_marker_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alpha-fetoprotein_(AFP)/multiple_marker_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.4</span> <span>Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)/multiple marker test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alpha-fetoprotein_(AFP)/multiple_marker_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnostic_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnostic_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Diagnostic tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnostic_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chorionic_Villus_Sampling_(CVS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chorionic_Villus_Sampling_(CVS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chorionic_Villus_Sampling_(CVS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amniocentesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amniocentesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Amniocentesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amniocentesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cordocentesis/Percutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling_(PUBS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cordocentesis/Percutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling_(PUBS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Cordocentesis/Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cordocentesis/Percutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling_(PUBS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing_analysis_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_genetic_testing_analysis_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Prenatal genetic testing analysis techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing_analysis_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prenatal genetic testing analysis techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing_analysis_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digital_PCR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_PCR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Digital PCR</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_PCR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shotgun_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shotgun_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Shotgun sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shotgun_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_invasiveness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_invasiveness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>By invasiveness</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_invasiveness-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By invasiveness subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_invasiveness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Testing_guidelines_and_qualifying_risk_factors_for_invasive_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing_guidelines_and_qualifying_risk_factors_for_invasive_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Testing guidelines and qualifying risk factors for invasive testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testing_guidelines_and_qualifying_risk_factors_for_invasive_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patient_acceptance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patient_acceptance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Patient acceptance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patient_acceptance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_pregnancy_stage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_pregnancy_stage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>By pregnancy stage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_pregnancy_stage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By pregnancy stage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_pregnancy_stage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-conception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-conception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pre-conception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-conception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>First trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Second trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Third trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legislation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legislation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legislation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_and_practical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_and_practical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ethical and practical issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethical_and_practical_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ethical and practical issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ethical_and_practical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-genetic_prenatal_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-genetic_prenatal_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Non-genetic prenatal testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-genetic_prenatal_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_genetic_testing_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Prenatal genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_genetic_testing_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Availability_of_treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Availability_of_treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Availability of treatments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Availability_of_treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patient_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patient_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Patient education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patient_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concerns_from_disability_rights_activists_and_scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concerns_from_disability_rights_activists_and_scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Concerns from disability rights activists and scholars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concerns_from_disability_rights_activists_and_scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_pressures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_pressures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Societal pressures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societal_pressures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal testing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="اختبار ما قبل الولادة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اختبار ما قبل الولادة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagn%C3%B2stic_prenatal" title="Diagnòstic prenatal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Diagnòstic prenatal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenat%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_diagnostika" title="Prenatální diagnostika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prenatální diagnostika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgrinio_cyn-geni" title="Sgrinio cyn-geni – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sgrinio cyn-geni" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosterdiagnostik" title="Fosterdiagnostik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fosterdiagnostik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A4nataldiagnostik" title="Pränataldiagnostik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pränataldiagnostik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B3%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Προγεννητικός έλεγχος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Προγεννητικός έλεγχος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagn%C3%B3stico_prenatal" title="Diagnóstico prenatal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diagnóstico prenatal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenaskaj_enketoj" title="Prenaskaj enketoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Prenaskaj enketoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF" title="آزمایش پیش از تولد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آزمایش پیش از تولد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_pr%C3%A9natal" title="Diagnostic prénatal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Diagnostic prénatal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagn%C3%B3is_r%C3%A9amhbheireatais" title="Diagnóis réamhbheireatais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Diagnóis réamhbheireatais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Նախածննդյան ախտորոշում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նախածննդյան ախտորոշում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatalna_dijagnostika" title="Prenatalna dijagnostika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prenatalna dijagnostika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengujian_pralahir" title="Pengujian pralahir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengujian pralahir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostica_prenatale" title="Diagnostica prenatale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diagnostica prenatale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Пренатална дијагноза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пренатална дијагноза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujian_pranatal" title="Ujian pranatal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ujian pranatal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatale_diagnostiek" title="Prenatale diagnostiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Prenatale diagnostiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%BA%E7%94%9F%E5%89%8D%E8%A8%BA%E6%96%AD" title="出生前診断 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="出生前診断" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosterdiagnostikk" title="Fosterdiagnostikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fosterdiagnostikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_test" title="Prenatal test – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Prenatal test" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badania_prenatalne" title="Badania prenatalne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Badania prenatalne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagn%C3%B3stico_pr%C3%A9-natal" title="Diagnóstico pré-natal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Diagnóstico pré-natal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пренатальная диагностика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пренатальная диагностика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_diagnosis" title="Prenatal diagnosis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Prenatal diagnosis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predrojstvena_diagnostika" title="Predrojstvena diagnostika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Predrojstvena diagnostika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пренатална дијагностика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пренатална дијагностика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatalna_dijagnostika" title="Prenatalna dijagnostika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prenatalna dijagnostika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siki%C3%B6tutkimus" title="Sikiötutkimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sikiötutkimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosterdiagnostik" title="Fosterdiagnostik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fosterdiagnostik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A9t_nghi%E1%BB%87m_ti%E1%BB%81n_s%E1%BA%A3n" title="Xét nghiệm tiền sản – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Xét nghiệm tiền sản" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A2%E5%89%8D%E8%A8%BA%E6%96%B7" title="產前診斷 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="產前診斷" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Testing for diseases or conditions in a fetus</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical diagnostic method </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Prenatal testing</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png/290px-Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png/435px-Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png/580px-Prenatal_Down_syndrome_screening_algorithm.png 2x" data-file-width="2177" data-file-height="1125" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">An example of an algorithm for prenatal testing for chromosomal abnormalities.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">Synonyms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Prenatal screening, prenatal diagnosis, genetic testing</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">To monitor maternal and fetal health and progression, as well as, detect fetal abnormalities during pregnancy.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Prenatal testing</b> is a tool that can be used to detect some <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a> at various stages prior to birth. Prenatal testing consists of <b>prenatal screening</b> and <b>prenatal diagnosis</b>, which are aspects of <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">prenatal care</a> that focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These may be <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiologic</a> problems with the health of the <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>, either before <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a> even starts (as in <a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a>) or as early in gestation as practicable. Screening can detect problems such as <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defect" title="Neural tube defect">neural tube defects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> abnormalities, and gene <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> that would lead to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a> and birth defects such as <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleft_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft palate">cleft palate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trisomy_18" title="Trisomy 18">trisomy 18</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease" title="Tay–Sachs disease">Tay–Sachs disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle cell anemia">sickle cell anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalassemia" title="Thalassemia">thalassemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscular_dystrophy" title="Muscular dystrophy">muscular dystrophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">fragile X syndrome</a>. Some tests are designed to discover problems which primarily affect the health of the mother, such as <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_plasma_protein_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A">PAPP-A</a> to detect <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">glucose tolerance tests</a> to diagnose <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>. Screening can also detect anatomical defects such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">anencephaly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">heart defects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_band_constriction" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniotic band constriction">amniotic band syndrome</a>. </p><p>Prenatal <a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">screening</a> focuses on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods. Prenatal diagnosis focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been found, and can sometimes be more invasive. The most common screening procedures are routine <a href="/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical ultrasonography">ultrasounds</a>, blood tests, and blood pressure measurement. Common diagnosis procedures include <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a>. In some cases, the tests are administered to determine if the fetus will be aborted, though physicians and patients also find it useful to diagnose high-risk pregnancies early so that delivery can be scheduled in a <a href="/wiki/Health_care#Tertiary_care" title="Health care">tertiary care</a> hospital where the baby can receive appropriate care. </p><p>Prenatal testing in recent years has been moving towards non-invasive methods to determine the fetal risk for genetic disorders. The rapid advancement of modern high-performance molecular technologies along with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">cell-free fetal DNA</a> (cffDNA) in maternal plasma has led to new methods for the determination of fetal chromosomal <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneuploidies">aneuploidies</a>. This type of testing is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Non_invasive_prenatal_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Non invasive prenatal testing">non-invasive prenatal testing</a> (NIPT) or as non-invasive prenatal screening. Invasive procedures remain important, though, especially for their diagnostic value in confirming positive non-invasive findings and detecting genetic disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birth defects have an occurrence between 1 and 6%.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three purposes of prenatal diagnosis: (1) to enable timely medical or surgical treatment of a condition before or after birth, (2) to give the parents the chance to abort a fetus with the diagnosed condition, and (3) to give parents the chance to prepare psychologically, socially, financially, and medically for a baby with a health problem or disability, or for the likelihood of a stillbirth. Prior information about problems in pregnancy means that healthcare staff as well as parents can better prepare themselves for the delivery of a child with a health problem. For example, Down syndrome is associated with cardiac defects that may need intervention immediately upon birth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Normalized_chromosome_value" title="Normalized chromosome value">Normalized chromosome value</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Name of test (category)' </th> <th>When </th> <th>Invasivity </th> <th>How </th> <th>Turnaround time </th> <th>Tests/Screens for <p>~Associated risks </p> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Routine prenatal tests </th> <td>Maternal weight </td> <td>Every checkup appointment </td> <td>Non-invasive </td> <td>Scale </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td>Baselines, pre-pregnancy weight estimates, tracking weight gain/loss, pattern observation </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maternal blood pressure/Preeclampsia screen<sup id="cite_ref-o564_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-o564-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Every checkup appointment </td> <td>Non-Invasive </td> <td>Blood pressure cuff </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">Pre-eclampsia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maternal urinalysis/urine test screen<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Periodically </td> <td>Non-invasive </td> <td>Urine collection </td> <td>~a few minutes – ~1 week </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, dehydration, <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">preeclampsia</a>, kidney and bladder infection/disease </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">Ultrasound</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Periodically </td> <td>Non-invasive/Invasive </td> <td>Abdominal or Transvaginal </td> <td>~1 day – ~1 week </td> <td>Fetal development, <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defect" title="Neural tube defect">neural tube defects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a>, and various other physical abnormalities (see below for specific ultrasound tests) </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fetal heart-rate monitoring<sup id="cite_ref-urmc.rochester.edu_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urmc.rochester.edu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 12 – onward </td> <td>Non-invasive </td> <td>Handheld abdominal doppler or <a href="/wiki/Fetoscopy" title="Fetoscopy">fetoscope</a> </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td>Heart rate irregularities </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genetic prenatal rests </th> <td>Carrier screening (Screen)<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Anytime (before or during pregnancy) </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Cheek swab or <a href="/wiki/Venipuncture" title="Venipuncture">blood draw</a> </td> <td>~2–4 weeks </td> <td>Determining if a parent carries specific genes associated with certain (primarily autosomal recessive) conditions </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a>/Biopsy, CVS (diagnostic)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 8 – 14 </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Transabdominal or transcervical insertion of a needle, forceps or syringe to obtain a fetal placenta tissue sample </td> <td>~1–2 weeks </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, birth defects </td> <td>Miscarriage, preterm labor/delivery, infection, cramping, bleeding, premature rupture of amniotic membrane, baby limb defects </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cell-free fetal DNA (cfDNA) Test/Noninvasive prenatal test (NIPT) (screen)<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org-2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 10 – onward </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Blood draw </td> <td>~1–2 weeks </td> <td>Gender, chromosomal abnormalities </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td>First trimester screening<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org-3_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 10 – 13 </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Nuchal translucency ultrasound & blood prick/draw </td> <td>~1 week </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, birth defects, heart defects </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)/modified sequential/multiple marker/quad/triple/maternal serum test (screen)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Weeks 14 – 22 </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Blood draw </td> <td>~1–2 weeks </td> <td>Maternal hormone levels, risk of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, chromosome abnormalities, neural tube defects </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Second trimester screening (screen)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 15 – 22 </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Ultrasound and multiple markers or quad screen blood draw </td> <td>~1–2 weeks </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, neural tube defects, abdominal wall defects, heart defects, other major physical defects </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a> (diagnostic)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </td> <td>Week 15 – 20 </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Transabdominal needle insertion to obtain an amniotic fluid sample </td> <td>~2 weeks </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, autosomal recessive conditions, neural tube defects, abdominal wall defects, birth defects </td> <td>Miscarriage (1%), preterm labor/delivery, infection, cramping, bleeding, premature rupture of amniotic membrane </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_umbilical_cord_blood_sampling" title="Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling">Cordocentesis/Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling</a> (PUBS) (diagnostic)<sup id="cite_ref-American_Pregnancy_Association-2020_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Pregnancy_Association-2020-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 17 – onward </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Fetal blood sample from umbilical cord </td> <td>~3 days </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, blood disorders (fetal hemolytic disease) </td> <td>Miscarriage (1–2%), preterm labor/delivery, infection, bleeding, decreased fetal heart rate, premature rupture of amniotic membrane, death </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> (PGD) (screen)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>During IVF, prior to implantation </td> <td>Non-invasive </td> <td>IVF ebryo examination </td> <td>~1–2 weeks </td> <td>Chromosomal abnormalities, autosomal recessive conditions </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <th>Additional prenatal tests </th> <td>Glucose challenge test (screen) </td> <td>Week 26 – 28 </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Maternal blood draw after ingestion of glucose drink </td> <td>~1–2 days </td> <td>To indicate the possibility of gestational diabetes </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">Oral Glucose Tolerance Test</a> (Screen)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 26 – 28 </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Maternal blood draws before and after ingestion of glucose drink, requires fasting </td> <td>~2–3 days </td> <td>To properly diagnose gestational diabetes following an abnormal result from the glucose challenge screen </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Non-stress test<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 28 – onward </td> <td>Non-invasive </td> <td>Abdominal contraction/Fetal heart rate belt </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td>Fetal heart rate vs movement, oxygen levels (indicating problems stemming from the placenta or umbilical cord), fetal distress </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td>Group B Strep Test<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 36 – 38 </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Vaginal swab </td> <td>~1–2 days </td> <td>Bacteria indicating Group B Strep </td> <td>NA </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cervix dialation check<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Week 37 – onward </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>The doctor takes a manual measurement inside the cervix </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td>Signs or progress of dialation, prodromal labor </td> <td>Infection, premature rupture of amniotic membrane </td></tr> <tr> <td>External fetal monitoring<sup id="cite_ref-urmc.rochester.edu_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urmc.rochester.edu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>During Labor, after rupture of amnioatic sac </td> <td>Invasive </td> <td>Spiral wire electrode attached to body part (typically the scalp) of fetus via cervical insertion </td> <td>Immediately </td> <td>Heart rate irregularities, monitoring fetal heart rate </td> <td>Fetal bruising/infection at attachment site </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kleihauer%E2%80%93Betke_test" title="Kleihauer–Betke test">Kleihauer-Betke/Fetal cells in maternal blood</a> (FCMB) test (screen)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Situational </td> <td>Less invasive </td> <td>Blood draw </td> <td><1 day </td> <td>Fetal red blood cells in the mother's blood, fetomaternal hemorrhage </td> <td>Very low risk, however there is the potential for bruising, pain, nerve damage, fainting, haematoma, bacterial infection, and bloodborne pathogen exposure. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prenatal_screening">Prenatal screening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prenatal screening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maternal_serum_screening">Maternal serum screening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Maternal serum screening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First-trimester maternal serum screening can check levels of free β-<a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_plasma_protein_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A">PAPP-A</a>, intact or beta hCG, or h-hCG in the woman's <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">serum</a>, and combine these with the measurement of <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_translucency" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuchal translucency">nuchal translucency</a> (NT). Some institutions also look for the presence of a fetal nasalbone on the ultrasound.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Second-trimester maternal serum screening (<a href="/wiki/AFP_screening" class="mw-redirect" title="AFP screening">AFP screening</a>, triple screen, quad screen, or penta screen) can check levels of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_fetoprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha fetoprotein">alpha fetoprotein</a>, β-<a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inhibin" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhibin">inhibin</a>-A, <a href="/wiki/Estriol" title="Estriol">estriol</a>, and h-hCG (hyperglycosolated hCG) in the woman's <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">serum</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Triple_test" title="Triple test">triple test</a> measures <a href="/wiki/Blood_serum" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood serum">serum</a> levels of <a href="/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein" title="Alpha-fetoprotein">AFP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estriol" title="Estriol">estriol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beta-hCG" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-hCG">beta-hCG</a>, with a 70% <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">sensitivity</a> and 5% <a href="/wiki/False-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="False-positive">false-positive</a> rate. It is complemented in some regions of the United States, as the <i>Quad test</i> (adding inhibin A to the panel, resulting in an 81% sensitivity and 5% false-positive rate for detecting <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> when taken at 15–18 weeks of <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The biomarkers <a href="/wiki/PAPP-A" class="mw-redirect" title="PAPP-A">PAPP-A</a> and β-<a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a> seem to be altered for pregnancies resulting from ICSI, causing a higher false-positive rate. Correction factors have been developed and should be used when screening for Down's syndrome in singleton pregnancies after ICSI,<sup id="cite_ref-Gjerris2012_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gjerris2012-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in twin pregnancies such correction factors have not been fully elucidated.<sup id="cite_ref-Gjerris2012_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gjerris2012-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Vanishing_twin" title="Vanishing twin">vanishing twin</a> pregnancies with a second gestational sac with a dead fetus, first-trimester screening should be based solely on the maternal age and the nuchal translucency scan as biomarkers are altered in these cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Gjerris2012_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gjerris2012-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advances_in_prenatal_screening">Advances in prenatal screening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Advances in prenatal screening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Measurement of <a href="/wiki/Fetal_protein" title="Fetal protein">fetal proteins</a> in maternal serum is a part of standard prenatal screening for <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_fetal_aneuploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy">fetal aneuploidy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural tube defects">neural tube defects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computational predictive model shows that extensive and diverse feto-maternal protein trafficking occurs during pregnancy and can be readily detected non-invasively in maternal <a href="/wiki/Whole_blood" title="Whole blood">whole blood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This computational approach circumvented a major limitation, the abundance of maternal proteins interfering with the detection of fetal proteins, to fetal proteomic analysis of maternal blood. Entering fetal gene transcripts previously identified in maternal whole blood into a computational predictive model helped develop a comprehensive proteomic network of the term neonate. It also shows that the fetal proteins detected in pregnant woman's blood originate from a diverse group of tissues and organs from the developing fetus. Development proteomic networks dominate the functional characterization of the predicted proteins, illustrating the potential clinical application of this technology as a way to monitor normal and abnormal fetal development.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The difference in <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">methylation</a> of specific DNA sequences between mother and fetus can be used to identify fetal-specific DNA in the blood circulation of the mother. In a study published in the March 6, 2011, online issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, using this non-invasive technique a group of investigators from Greece and UK achieved correct diagnosis of 14 <a href="/wiki/Trisomy_21" class="mw-redirect" title="Trisomy 21">trisomy 21</a> (<a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>) and 26 normal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/wiki/Massive_parallel_sequencing" title="Massive parallel sequencing">massive parallel sequencing</a>, a study testing for trisomy 21 only, successfully detected 209 of 212 cases (98.6%) with 3 false-positives in 1,471 pregnancies (0.2%).<sup id="cite_ref-Palomaki_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palomaki-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With commercially available non-invasive (blood) testing for Down syndrome having become available to patients in the United States and already available in China, in October 2011, the International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis created some guidance. Based on its <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">sensitivity and specificity</a>, it constitutes an advanced screening test and that positive results require confirmation by an invasive test, and that while effective in the diagnosis of Down syndrome, it cannot assess half the abnormalities detected by invasive testing. The test is not recommended for general use until results from broader studies have been reported, but may be useful in high-risk patients in conjunction with genetic counseling.<sup id="cite_ref-ISPD_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISPD-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study in 2012 found that the maternal plasma cell-free DNA test was also able to detect trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome) in 100% of the cases (59/59) at a false-positive rate of 0.28%, and trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) in 91.7% of the cases (11/12) at a false-positive rate of 0.97%. The test interpreted 99.1% of samples (1,971/1,988); among the 17 samples without an interpretation, three were trisomy 18. The study stated that if z-score cutoffs for trisomy 18 and 13 were raised slightly, the overall false-positive rates for the three aneuploidies could be as low as 0.1% (2/1,688) at an overall detection rate of 98.9% (280/283) for common aneuploidies (this includes all three trisomies: Down, Edwards and Patau).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prenatal_genetic_testing">Prenatal genetic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prenatal genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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class="hide-when-compact"> Please review the contents of the section and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Prenatal+testing%22">"Prenatal testing"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Prenatal+testing%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Prenatal+testing%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Prenatal+testing%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Prenatal+testing%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Prenatal+testing%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Prenatal_testing" title="Special:EditPage/Prenatal testing">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The goal of prenatal genetic testing is to identify pregnancies at high risk of abnormalities, allowing for early intervention, termination or appropriate management and preparation measures.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prenatal genetic testing can be subdivided into two categories: screening and diagnostic testing. Screening informs an individual of the potential for certain abnormalities occurring, whereas, diagnostic testing is used to confirm/diagnose that specific abnormalities exist within the fetus. Prenatal screens are typically less invasive than prenatal diagnostic tests. Screening comes with much lower risks, however, the results are not as definitive as diagnostic tests. Providers often recommend following up with a diagnostic test upon receipt of a positive result from a specific screen.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medically invasive techniques are those in which a tool is used to access something inside the body. There are varying degrees of invasiveness, depending on what specimen is required to complete the test. The typical blood draw administered by a healthcare professional is one of the most common invasive medical practices.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since it causes minimal discomfort and there is very low risk associated with the sample collection, a blood draw is considered less invasive. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and Amniocentesis are the most invasive prenatal tests because there is greater associated risk and the sample is more difficult to access. These procedures are done via needle insertion into the abdomen to collect a sample within the uterus, meaning exceptional care/precision is required.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prenatal genetic testing can identify various chromosomal abnormalities, autosomal conditions, various birth defects, and some fetal blood disorders. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_abnormalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomal abnormalities">Chromosomal abnormalities</a> are when the chromosomes differ in either structure or number when compared to a typical reference genome. This includes chromosomal deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Some examples of chromosomal abnormalities include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> (trisomy 21)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards syndrome">Edwards syndrome</a> (trisomy 18)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patau_syndrome" title="Patau syndrome">Patau syndrome</a> (trisomy 13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a> (monosomy X)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome</a> (XXY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_X" title="Trisomy X">Trisomy X</a> (XXX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobs_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobs syndrome">Jacobs syndrome</a> (XYY)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallister%E2%80%93Killian_syndrome" title="Pallister–Killian syndrome">Pallister–Killian syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Hirschhorn_syndrome" title="Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome">Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cri_du_chat_syndrome" title="Cri du chat syndrome">Cri-du-chat syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAGR_syndrome" title="WAGR syndrome">WAGR syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a></li></ul> <p>– Prader-Willi/Angelman syndrome </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">Autosomal recessive</a> conditions occur when both parents pass on a mutation within an autosomal (non-sex) chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Some examples of autosomal recessive conditions are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">Cystic fibrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_disease" title="Sickle cell disease">Sickle cell anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease" title="Tay–Sachs disease">Tay–Sachs disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy" title="Spinal muscular atrophy">Spinal muscular atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autosomal_recessive_polycystic_kidney_disease" title="Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease">Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">Phenylketonuria</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defect" title="Neural tube defect">Neural tube defects</a> are a type of birth defect that occurs when the neural tube of a fetus does not form/close properly, potentially effecting other systems throughout the body.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Some examples of neural tube defects are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">Spina bifida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">Anencephaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalocele" title="Encephalocele">Encephalocele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tethered_spinal_cord_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethered spinal cord syndrome">Tethered spinal cord syndrome</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_wall_defect" title="Abdominal wall defect">Abdominal wall defects</a> are a type of birth defect that occur when the abdominal wall of a fetus does not form properly, potentially effecting other organs throughout the body.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Some examples of abdominal wall defects are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastroschisis" title="Gastroschisis">Gastroschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omphalocele" title="Omphalocele">Omphalocele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bladder_exstrophy" title="Bladder exstrophy">Bladder exstrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloacal_exstrophy" title="Cloacal exstrophy">Cloacal exstrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_cordis" title="Ectopia cordis">Ectopia cordis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentalogy_of_Cantrell" title="Pentalogy of Cantrell">Pentalogy of Cantrell</a></li> <li>Body-stalk anomaly</li></ul> <p>Blood disorders can occur from a negative interaction between the maternal blood and the fetal blood.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a fetal blood disorder is <a href="/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn" title="Hemolytic disease of the newborn">Hemolytic disease of the fetus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultrasound_imaging_and_serum_markers_as_indications_for_genetic_testing">Ultrasound imaging and serum markers as indications for genetic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ultrasound imaging and serum markers as indications for genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ultrasound imaging provides the opportunity to conduct a nuchal translucency (NT) scan screening for chromosomal abnormalities such as <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> (trisomy 21), Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18), and <a href="/wiki/Patau_syndrome" title="Patau syndrome">Patau syndrome</a> (trisomy 13). Using the information from the NT scan the mother can be offered an invasive diagnostic test for fetal chromosomal abnormalities. Serum markers are used in a similar fashion to identify gestations that should be recommended for further testing. When the NT scan or serum markers arouse suspicion for chromosomal abnormalities the following genetic tests may be conducted on fetal or placental tissue samples: Interphase-<a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">fluorescence in situ hybridization</a> (FISH), <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative PCR">quantitative PCR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">direct preparation of chromosomes from chorionic villi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref2_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screens">Screens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Screens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carrier_screening">Carrier screening  </h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Carrier screening  "><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carrier screening is a general DNA test that uses a blood or cheek swab sample to determine if the parents carry certain genetic conditions. This test can be done anytime, whether the individual(s) are considering starting a family or have already become pregnant. Various types of carrier screens are available that test for progressively more genetic abnormalities. The single gene/condition screen will test for a specific condition, whereas, the expanded carrier screen will test for hundreds of different abnormalities that can be inherited by a fetus. There are also three gene/condition and ethnic specific carrier tests. In the case of a positive test result, further testing is often recommended, as the carrier test only determines if the parent(s) is a carrier, not if the gene has definitively been passed to the fetus.<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Placental_acellular_DNA_(pa-DNA)"><span id="Placental_acellular_DNA_.28pa-DNA.29"></span>Placental acellular DNA (pa-DNA)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Placental acellular DNA (pa-DNA)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Placental acellular (fetal cell-free) DNA testing (pa-DNA) allows for the detection of apoptotic placental cells and placental DNA circulating in maternal blood for the noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref2_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taglauer-2014_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taglauer-2014-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A meta-analysis that investigated the success rate of using placental acellular DNA from maternal blood to screen for aneuploidies found that this technique detected trisomy 13 in 99% of the cases, trisomy 18 in 98% of the cases and trisomy 21 in 99% of the cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Taglauer-2014_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taglauer-2014-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Failed tests using placental acellular DNA are more likely to occur in fetuses with trisomy 13 and trisomy 18 but not with trisomy 21.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previous studies found elevated levels of acellular placental DNA for trisomy 13 and 21 from maternal serum when compared to women with euploid pregnancies.<sup id="cite_ref-Wataganara-2003_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wataganara-2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lo-2009_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lo-2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an elevation of acellular DNA for trisomy 18 was not observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wataganara-2003_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wataganara-2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circulating placental nucleated cells comprise only three to six percent of maternal blood plasma DNA, reducing the detection rate of fetal developmental abnormalities.<sup id="cite_ref-Lo-2009_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lo-2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two alternative approaches have been developed for the detection of fetal aneuploidy. The first involves the measuring of the <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allelic ratio</a> of <a href="/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single nucleotide polymorphism">single nucleotide polymorphisms</a> (SNPs) in the <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a> coding region in the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a>. The next approach is analyzing both maternal and placental DNA and looking for differences in the <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a> patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org-2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lo-2009_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lo-2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First/Second/Third_trimester_Screen"><span id="First.2FSecond.2FThird_trimester_Screen"></span>First/Second/Third trimester Screen</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: First/Second/Third trimester Screen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first, second, combined, and third trimester screens typically consist of an ultrasound (abdominal and/or transvaginal) and maternal blood/serum testing. The ultrasound is used to visually assess the growth, development, and activity of the fetus through imaging observations and measurements. The ultrasound portion of the first trimester screen can include a nuchal translucency screen and a fetal nasal bone determination screen. The available blood tests from the first trimester screen can test for plasma protein A and human chorionic gonadotropin. The second trimester screen looks at specific blood markers, to include the estriol, inhibin and human chorionic gonadotropin hormones and often consists of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) screening. Any abnormal results from these screening tests can indicate the possibility of abnormal conditions such as Trisomy 18, Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), and spina bifida.<sup id="cite_ref-www.acog.org-3_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.acog.org-3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alpha-fetoprotein_(AFP)/multiple_marker_test"><span id="Alpha-fetoprotein_.28AFP.29.2Fmultiple_marker_test"></span>Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)/multiple marker test</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)/multiple marker test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AFP test is often done in the second trimester using the serum from the maternal blood draw. This test looks at a specific protein that is formed in the liver of the fetus and released into the fluid contents of the womb, which is then absorbed into the mother's blood stream. Multiple determinations stem from the results of AFP testing. Genetically, it can expose chromosomal and neural defects.<sup id="cite_ref-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagnostic_tests">Diagnostic tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Diagnostic tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chorionic_Villus_Sampling_(CVS)"><span id="Chorionic_Villus_Sampling_.28CVS.29"></span>Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CVS is an invasive diagnostic test that can be done during the first trimester of pregnancy for individuals that are looking to identify or are at higher risk of passing chromosomal abnormalities. A tissue cell sample of the placenta is obtained abdominally via needle or via vaginal insertion of a catheter/syringe into the cervix in combination with ultrasound to guide the procedure. Positive results from CVS require blood testing for confirmation.<sup id="cite_ref-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Amniocentesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amniocentesis is an invasive diagnostic test that can be done during the second trimester of pregnancy for individuals that are looking to identify or are at higher risk of passing chromosomal and/or neural tube abnormalities. The procedure is typically done via needle, in combination with ultrasound for guidance, to obtain a sample of the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus.<sup id="cite_ref-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.hopkinsmedicine.org-2021-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cordocentesis/Percutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling_(PUBS)"><span id="Cordocentesis.2FPercutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling_.28PUBS.29"></span>Cordocentesis/Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cordocentesis/Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>PUBS is an invasive diagnostic test that can be done during the second trimester of pregnancy for individuals that are looking to identify or are at higher risk of passing chromosomal and/or blood abnormalities. The demand for cordocentesis tests is diminishing because it has been replaced with CVS and Amniocentesis, which carry less risk. The procedure is typically done via needle into the mother's abdomen, in combination with ultrasound for guidance, to obtain a blood sample from the umbilical cord of the fetus.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Pregnancy_Association-2020_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Pregnancy_Association-2020-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prenatal_genetic_testing_analysis_techniques">Prenatal genetic testing analysis techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Prenatal genetic testing analysis techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_PCR">Digital PCR</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Digital PCR"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recently<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (December 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup>, it has been proposed that digital <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a> analysis can be conducted on fetal cell-free DNA for detection of fetal aneuploidy. Research has shown that digital PCR can be used to differentiate between normal and aneuploid DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref4_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A variation of the PCR technique called <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_ligation-dependent_probe_amplification" title="Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification">multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification</a> (MLPA), targeting DNA, has been successively applied for diagnosing fetal aneuploidy as a chromosome- or gene-specific assay.<sup id="cite_ref-Attie2011_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attie2011-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shotgun_sequencing">Shotgun sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Shotgun sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fetal cell-free DNA has been directly sequenced using <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">shotgun sequencing</a> technology. In one study, DNA was obtained from the blood plasma of eighteen pregnant women. This was followed by mapping the chromosome using the quantification of fragments. This was done using advanced methods in DNA sequencing resulting in the parallel sequencing of the fetal DNA. The amount of sequence tags mapped to each chromosome was counted. If there was a surplus or deficiency in any of the chromosomes, this meant that there was a fetal aneuploid. Using this method of shotgun sequencing, the successful identification of trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), and trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) was possible. This method of noninvasive diagnosis is now starting to be heavily used and researched further.<sup id="cite_ref-urlFetal_DNA_from_Maternal_Blood_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFetal_DNA_from_Maternal_Blood-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_techniques">Other techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microarray analysis, karyotyping, and different genome sequencing techniques are also used to detect abnormalities. Fetal components in samples from maternal blood plasma can be analyzed by genome-wide techniques not only by total DNA, but also by <a href="/wiki/Methylated_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Methylated DNA">methylated DNA</a> immunoprecipitation (with tiling array), <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a> (such as with Megaplex) and total RNA (<a href="/wiki/RNA-sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA-sequencing">RNA-sequencing</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Attie2011_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attie2011-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_invasiveness">By invasiveness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: By invasiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amniocentesis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amniocentesis.png/220px-Amniocentesis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amniocentesis.png/330px-Amniocentesis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amniocentesis.png/440px-Amniocentesis.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Amniocentesis is an example of an invasive diagnostic prenatal test.</figcaption></figure> <p>Diagnostic prenatal testing can be performed by <a href="/wiki/Invasive_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive (medical)">invasive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Non-invasive_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-invasive (medical)">non-invasive</a> methods. An invasive method involves probes or needles being inserted into the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a>, which can be done from about 14 weeks gestation, and usually up to about 20 weeks, and <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a>, which can be done earlier (between 9.5 and 12.5 weeks gestation) but which may be slightly more risky to the fetus. One study comparing transabdominal chorionic villus sampling with second trimester amniocentesis found no significant difference in the total pregnancy loss between the two procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-Alfirevic_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alfirevic-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">transcervical</a> chorionic villus sampling carries a significantly higher risk, compared with a second-trimester amniocentesis, of total pregnancy loss (<a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> 1.40; 95% <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence interval</a> 1.09 to 1.81) and spontaneous miscarriage (9.4% risk; relative risk 1.50; 95% confidence interval 1.07 to 2.11).<sup id="cite_ref-Alfirevic_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alfirevic-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg/220px-Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg/330px-Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg/440px-Obsteric_ultrasonograph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Ultrasonography is an example of a non-invasive diagnostic prenatal test.</figcaption></figure> <p>Non-invasive techniques include examinations of the woman's womb through <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonography">ultrasonography</a> and maternal serum screens (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein" title="Alpha-fetoprotein">Alpha-fetoprotein</a>). Blood tests for select trisomies (Down syndrome in the United States, Down and Edwards syndromes in China) based on detecting <a href="/wiki/Cell-free_placental_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell-free placental DNA">cell-free placental DNA</a> present in maternal blood, also known as non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT), have become available.<sup id="cite_ref-Palomaki_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palomaki-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If an elevated risk of chromosomal or genetic abnormality is indicated by a non-invasive screening test, a more invasive technique may be employed to gather more information.<sup id="cite_ref-ISPD_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISPD-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of neural tube defects, a detailed ultrasound can non-invasively provide a definitive diagnosis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One of the major advantages of the non-invasive prenatal testing is that the chance of a false positive result is very low. This accuracy is very important for the pregnant woman, as due to a high sensitivity and specificity of the testing, especially for Down syndrome, the invasive testing could be avoided, which includes the risk of a miscarriage.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testing_guidelines_and_qualifying_risk_factors_for_invasive_testing">Testing guidelines and qualifying risk factors for invasive testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Testing guidelines and qualifying risk factors for invasive testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (<a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Obstetricians_and_Gynecologists" title="American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists">ACOG</a>) guidelines currently recommend that anyone who is pregnant, regardless of age, should discuss and be offered non-invasive prenatal genetic screening and diagnostic testing options.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-invasive prenatal genetic screening is typically performed at the end of the 1st trimester (11–14 weeks) or during the beginning of the second trimester (15–20 weeks). This involves the pregnant woman receiving a blood draw with a needle and a syringe and an ultrasound of the fetus. Screening tests can then include serum analyte screening or <a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">cell-free fetal DNA</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_scan" title="Nuchal scan">nuchal translucency ultrasound</a> [NT], respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that screening tests are not diagnostic, and concerning screening results should be followed up with invasive diagnostic testing for a confirmed diagnosis. Invasive diagnostic prenatal genetic testing can involve chronic villus sampling (CVS) or <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghi_256–268_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghi_256–268-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACOG recommends genetic screening before pregnancy to all pregnant women planning to have a family.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After comprehensive counseling and discussion that acknowledges residual risks, it is important to respect the patients' right of choosing whether or not to pursue any component of genetic testing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The following are some reasons why a woman might consider her risk of birth defects already to be high enough to warrant skipping screening and going straight for invasive testing:<sup id="cite_ref-Ghi_256–268_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghi_256–268-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Increased risk of fetal aneuploidy based on personal obstetric history or family history affected by aneuploidy</li> <li>Increased risk for a known genetic or biochemical disease of the fetus</li> <li>Maternal transmissible infectious disease such as rubella or toxoplasma</li> <li>Parental request in the context of acute parental anxiety or under exceptional circumstances</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Patient_acceptance">Patient acceptance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Patient acceptance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research was conducted to determine how women felt about noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploid using maternal blood. This study was conducted using surveys. It was reported that eighty-two percent of pregnant women and seventy-nine percent of female medical students view this type of diagnosis in a positive light, agreeing that it is important for prenatal care. Overall, women responded optimistically that this form of diagnosis will be available in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref5_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref5-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <caption>Testing methods, by invasiveness </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Invasiveness </th> <th scope="col">Test </th> <th scope="col">Comments </th> <th scope="col">Time </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> (PGD) </td> <td>During <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">in vitro fertilization</a> (IVF) procedures, it is possible to sample cells from <a href="/wiki/Human_embryo" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryo">human embryos</a> before implantation.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PGD is in itself non-invasive, but IVF usually involves invasive procedures such as <a href="/wiki/Transvaginal_oocyte_retrieval" title="Transvaginal oocyte retrieval">transvaginal oocyte retrieval</a> </td> <td>before implantation </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td>External examination </td> <td>Examination of the woman's <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> from outside the body. The uterus is commonly palpated to determine if there are problems with the position of the fetus (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech position</a>). <a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a> may also be measured. </td> <td>Second or third trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Ultrasound detection</a> </td> <td>Commonly <i>dating scans</i> (sometimes known as <i>booking scans or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dating_ultrasound&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dating ultrasound (page does not exist)">dating ultrasounds</a></i>) from 7 weeks to confirm pregnancy dates and look for <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">multiple pregnancies</a>. The specialised <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_scan" title="Nuchal scan">nuchal scan</a> at 11–13 weeks may be used to identify higher risks of Downs syndrome. Later <i>morphology scans,</i> also called <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_ultrasound" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy ultrasound">anatomy ultrasound</a></i>, from 18 weeks may check for any abnormal development. Additional ultrasounds may be performed if there are any other problems with the pregnancy, or if the pregnancy is <a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">post-due</a>. </td> <td>First or second trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td>Fetal heartbeat </td> <td>Listening to the fetal heartbeat via an external monitor placed on the outside of the abdomen. </td> <td>First or second trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Non-stress_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-stress test">Non-stress test</a> </td> <td>Use of <a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">cardiotocography</a> during the third trimester to monitor fetal wellbeing. </td> <td>Third trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td>Maternal blood pressure </td> <td>Used to screen for <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a> throughout the pregnancy. </td> <td>First, second and third trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-invasive </th> <td>Maternal weighing </td> <td>Unusually low or high maternal weight can indicate problems with the pregnancy. </td> <td>First, second and third trimesters. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Less invasive </th> <td>Fetal cells in maternal blood (FCMB)<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11260204_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11260204-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Requires a maternal blood draw. Based on enrichment of fetal cells which circulate in maternal blood. Since fetal cells hold all the genetic information of the developing fetus, they can be used to perform prenatal diagnosis.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>First trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Less invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">Cell-free fetal DNA</a> in maternal blood </td> <td>Requires a maternal blood draw. Based on DNA of fetal origin circulating in the maternal blood. Testing can potentially identify fetal <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a><sup id="cite_ref-urlFetal_DNA_from_Maternal_Blood_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFetal_DNA_from_Maternal_Blood-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (available in the United States, beginning 2011) and gender of a fetus as early as six weeks into a pregnancy. Fetal DNA ranges from about 2–10% of the total DNA in maternal blood. <p>Cell-free fetal DNA also allows <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a> of the fetus, thus determining the complete <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence of every gene.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td>First trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Less invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">Glucose tolerance testing</a> </td> <td>Requires a maternal blood draw. Used to screen for <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>. </td> <td>Second trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Less invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Transcervical</a> retrieval of <a href="/wiki/Trophoblast_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophoblast cell">trophoblast cells</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cervical_mucus_aspiration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cervical mucus aspiration (page does not exist)">Cervical mucus aspiration</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cervical_swabbing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cervical swabbing (page does not exist)">cervical swabbing</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cervical_lavage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cervical lavage (page does not exist)">cervical</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Intrauterine_lavage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intrauterine lavage (page does not exist)">intrauterine lavage</a> can be used to retrieve trophoblast cells for diagnostic purposes, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_genetic_analysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prenatal genetic analysis (page does not exist)">prenatal genetic analysis</a>. Success rates for retrieving fetal trophoblast cells vary from 40% to 90%.<sup id="cite_ref-imudia_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imudia-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be used for <a href="/wiki/Fetal_sex_determination" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal sex determination">fetal sex determination</a> and identify <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneuploidies">aneuploidies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-imudia_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imudia-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibody_marker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibody marker (page does not exist)">Antibody markers</a> have proven useful to select trophoblast cells for genetic analysis and to demonstrate that the abundance of recoverable trophoblast cells diminishes in abnormal gestations, such as in <a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">ectopic pregnancy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anembryonic_gestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Anembryonic gestation">anembryonic gestation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-imudia_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imudia-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>First trimester<sup id="cite_ref-imudia_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imudia-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Less invasive </th> <td>Maternal serum screening </td> <td>Including β-<a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_plasma_protein_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A">PAPP-A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_fetoprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha fetoprotein">alpha fetoprotein</a>, inhibin-A. </td> <td>First or second trimester </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">More invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a> </td> <td>Involves getting a sample of the <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chorionic villus">chorionic villus</a> and testing it. This can be done earlier than amniocentesis, but may have a higher risk of miscarriage, estimated at 1%. </td> <td>After 10 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">More invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a> </td> <td>This can be done once enough <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a> has developed to sample. Cells from the fetus will be floating in this fluid, and can be separated and tested. Miscarriage risk of amniocentesis is commonly quoted as 0.06% (1:1600).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a> it is also possible to <a href="/wiki/Cryopreserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryopreserve">cryopreserve</a> <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_stem_cells" title="Amniotic stem cells">amniotic stem cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-urlEuropean_Biotech_Company_Biocell_Center_Opens_First_U.S._Facility_for_Preservation_of_Amniotic_Stem_Cells_in_Medford,_Massachusetts_|_Reuters_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlEuropean_Biotech_Company_Biocell_Center_Opens_First_U.S._Facility_for_Preservation_of_Amniotic_Stem_Cells_in_Medford,_Massachusetts_|_Reuters-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlEuropes_Biocell_Center_opens_Medford_office_-_Daily_Business_Update_-_The_Boston_Globe_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlEuropes_Biocell_Center_opens_Medford_office_-_Daily_Business_Update_-_The_Boston_Globe-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Ticker_-_BostonHerald.com_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Ticker_-_BostonHerald.com-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>After 15 weeks </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">More invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Embryoscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryoscopy">Embryoscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fetoscopy" title="Fetoscopy">fetoscopy</a> </td> <td>Though rarely done, these involve putting a probe into a women's uterus to observe (with a video camera), or to sample blood or tissue from the embryo or fetus.</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">More invasive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_umbilical_cord_blood_sampling" title="Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling">Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling</a> </td> <td>PUBS is a diagnostic genetic test that examines blood from the fetal umbilical cord to detect fetal abnormalities. </td> <td>24–34 weeks </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_pregnancy_stage">By pregnancy stage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: By pregnancy stage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-conception">Pre-conception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pre-conception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to conception, couples may elect to have genetic testing done to determine the odds of conceiving a child with a known genetic anomaly. The most common in the Caucasian population are:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">Cystic fibrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a></li> <li>Blood disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_disease" title="Sickle cell disease">sickle cell disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease" title="Tay–Sachs disease">Tay-Sachs disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_muscular_atrophy" title="Spinal muscular atrophy">Spinal muscular atrophy</a></li></ul> <p>Hundreds of additional conditions are known and more discovered on a regular basis. However the economic justification for population-wide testing of all known conditions is not well supported, particularly once the cost of possible false positive results and concomitant follow-up testing are taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also ethical concerns related to this or any type of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One or both partners may be aware of other family members with these diseases. Testing prior to conception may alleviate concern, prepare the couple for the potential short- or long-term consequences of having a child with the disease, direct the couple toward adoption or foster parenting, or prompt for <a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">preimplantation genetic testing</a> during <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation"><i>in vitro</i> fertilization</a>. If a genetic disorder is found, professional <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">genetic counseling</a> is usually recommended owing to the host of ethical considerations related to subsequent decisions for the partners and potential impact on their extended families. Most, but not all, of these diseases follow <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> patterns. <a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a> is related to expansion of certain repeated DNA segments and may change generation-to-generation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_trimester">First trimester</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: First trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At early presentation of pregnancy at around 6 weeks, early dating ultrasound scan may be offered to help confirm the <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a> of the embryo and check for a single or twin pregnancy, but such a scan is unable to detect common abnormalities. Details of prenatal screening and testing options may be provided.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Around weeks 11–13, <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_scan" title="Nuchal scan">nuchal translucency scan</a> (NT) may be offered which can be combined with blood tests for PAPP-A and beta-hCG, two serum markers that correlate with chromosomal abnormalities, in what is called the First Trimester Combined Test. The results of the blood test are then combined with the NT ultrasound measurements, maternal age, and gestational age of the fetus to yield a risk score for Down syndrome, trisomy 18, and trisomy 13. First Trimester Combined Test has a sensitivity (i.e. detection rate for abnormalities) of 82–87% and a false-positive rate of around 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">Cell-free fetal DNA</a> is also available during the first trimester of pregnancy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_trimester">Second trimester</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Second trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Anomaly_scan" title="Anomaly scan">anomaly scan</a> is performed between 18 and 22 weeks of <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a>. The <a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Ultrasound_in_Obstetrics_and_Gynecology" title="International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology">International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology</a> (ISUOG) recommends that this ultrasound is performed as a matter of routine <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">prenatal care</a>, to measure the fetus so that growth abnormalities can be recognized quickly later in pregnancy, and to assess for <a href="/wiki/Congenital_malformations" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital malformations">congenital malformations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">multiple pregnancies</a> (i.e. twins).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scan can detect <a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">anencephaly</a>, open <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip">cleft lip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diaphragmatic_hernia" title="Diaphragmatic hernia">diaphragmatic hernia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastroschisis" title="Gastroschisis">gastroschisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omphalocele" title="Omphalocele">omphalocele</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">congenital heart defect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renal_agenesis" title="Renal agenesis">bilateral renal agenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteochondrodysplasia" title="Osteochondrodysplasia">osteochondrodysplasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwards_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards syndrome">Edwards syndrome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patau_syndrome" title="Patau syndrome">Patau syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second-trimester <a href="/wiki/Triple_test#Quadruple_test" title="Triple test">Quad blood test</a> may be taken (the <a href="/wiki/Triple_test" title="Triple test">Triple test</a> is widely considered obsolete but in some states, such as Missouri, where <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a> only covers the Triple test, that's what the patient typically gets). With <i>integrated screening</i>, both a First Trimester Combined Test and a Triple/Quad test is performed, and a report is only produced after both tests have been analyzed. However patients may not wish to wait between these two sets of tests. With <i>sequential screening</i>, a first report is produced after the first trimester sample has been submitted, and a final report after the second sample. With <i>contingent screening</i>, patients at very high or very low risks will get reports after the first-trimester sample has been submitted. Only patients with <i>moderate risk</i> (risk score between 1:50 and 1:2000) will be asked to submit a second-trimester sample, after which they will receive a report combining information from both serum samples and the <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_translucency" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuchal translucency">NT</a> measurement. The First Trimester Combined Test and the Triple/Quad test together have a sensitivity of 88–95% with a 5% false-positive rate for Down syndrome, though they can also be analyzed in such a way as to offer a 90% sensitivity with a 2% false-positive rate. Finally, patients who do not receive an NT ultrasound in the 1st trimester may still receive a Serum Integrated test involving measuring PAPP-A serum levels in the 1st trimester and then doing a Quad test in the 2nd trimester. This offers an 85–88% sensitivity and 5% false-positive rate for Down syndrome. Also, a patient may skip the 1st-trimester screening entirely and receive only a 2nd-trimester Quad test, with an 81% sensitivity for Down syndrome and 5% false-positive rate.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_trimester">Third trimester</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Third trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Third-trimester prenatal testing generally focuses on maternal wellbeing and reducing fetal morbidity/mortality. <a href="/wiki/Group_B_streptococcal_infection" title="Group B streptococcal infection">Group B streptococcal infection</a> (also called Group B strep) may be offered, which is a major cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality. Group B strep is an infection that may be passed to an infant during birth. Vaginal screening for GBS is performed between 34 and 37 weeks of gestational age, so that mothers that are positive for the bacterium can receive treatment before delivery. During the third trimester, some institutions may require evaluations of hemoglobin/hematocrit, syphilis serology, and HIV screening. Also, before delivery, an assessment of fetal position and estimated fetal weight is documented.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislation">Legislation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prenatal diagnosis (DPN) is permitted throughout Europe, with the exception of Ireland. Eight (8) countries have no legislation on this matter. However, there are differences between states. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, the deadline for DPN is 22 weeks. In <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, the Parliamentary Social Affairs Committee specified in its 2005 report that DPN should only be allowed for conditions for which therapeutic options exist. Nevertheless, all countries prohibit DPN for non-medical purposes (such as sex selection), for example.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_France">In France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: In France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article L2131-1 of the Public Health Code, stemming from the July 2011 bioethics law, states that "prenatal diagnosis refers to medical practices, including obstetric and fetal ultrasound, aimed at detecting, in utero, a particularly severe condition in the embryo or fetus." The law requires that pregnant women receive clear information about these techniques to "assess the risk that the embryo or fetus may have a condition that could alter the course or management of the pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_and_practical_issues">Ethical and practical issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ethical and practical issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eugenics#Contested_ethical_status" title="Eugenics">Eugenics § Contested ethical status</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">New eugenics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-genetic_prenatal_testing">Non-genetic prenatal testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Non-genetic prenatal testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parents need to make informed decisions about screening, diagnosis, and any actions to be taken as a result. Many screening tests are inaccurate, so one worrisome test result frequently leads to additional, more invasive tests. If prenatal testing confirms a serious disability, many parents are forced to decide whether to continue the pregnancy or seek an abortion. The "option" of screening becomes an unexpected requirement to decide. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In some genetic conditions, for instance <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>, an abnormality can only be detected if DNA is obtained from the fetus. Usually an invasive method is needed to do this.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Ultrasound of a fetus, which is considered a screening test, can sometimes miss subtle abnormalities. For example, studies show that a detailed 2nd-trimester ultrasound, also called a level 2 ultrasound, can detect about 97% of neural tube defects such as <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Ultrasound results may also show "soft signs," such as an <a href="/wiki/Echogenic_intracardiac_focus" title="Echogenic intracardiac focus">Echogenic intracardiac focus</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus_cyst" title="Choroid plexus cyst">Choroid plexus cyst</a>, which are usually normal, but can be associated with an increased risk for <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> abnormalities. </p><p>Other screening tests, such as the Quad test, can also have false positives and false negatives. Even when the Quad results are positive (or, to be more precise, when the Quad test yields a score that shows at least a 1 in 270 risk of abnormality), usually the pregnancy is normal, but additional diagnostic tests are offered. In fact, consider that Down syndrome affects about 1:400 pregnancies; if you screened 4000 pregnancies with a Quad test, there would probably be 10 Down syndrome pregnancies of which the Quad test, with its 80% sensitivity, would call 8 of them high-risk. The quad test would also tell 5% (~200) of the 3990 normal women that they are high-risk. Therefore, about 208 women would be told they are high-risk, but when they undergo an invasive test, only 8 (or 4% of the high risk pool) will be confirmed as positive and 200 (96%) will be told that their pregnancies are normal. Since amniocentesis has approximately a 0.5% chance of miscarriage, one of those 200 normal pregnancies might result in a miscarriage because of the invasive procedure. Meanwhile, of the 3792 women told they are low-risk by the Quad test, 2 of them will go on to deliver a baby with Down syndrome. The Quad test is therefore said to have a 4% <a href="/wiki/Positive_predictive_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive predictive value">positive predictive value</a> (PPV) because only 4% of women who are told they are "high-risk" by the screening test actually have an affected fetus. The other 96% of the women who are told they are "high-risk" find out that their pregnancy is normal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By comparison, in the same 4000 women, a screening test that has a 99% sensitivity and a 0.5% false positive rate would detect all 10 positives while telling 20 normal women that they are positive. Therefore, 30 women would undergo a confirmatory invasive procedure and 10 of them (33%) would be confirmed as positive and 20 would be told that they have a normal pregnancy. Of the 3970 women told by the screen that they are negative, none of the women would have an affected pregnancy. Therefore, such a screen would have a 33% positive predictive value.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The real-world false-positive rate for the Quad test (as well as 1st Trimester Combined, Integrated, etc.) is greater than 5%. 5% was the rate quoted in the large clinical studies that were done by the best researchers and physicians, where all the ultrasounds were done by well-trained sonographers and the gestational age of the fetus was calculated as closely as possible. In the real world, where calculating gestational age may be a less precise art, the formulas that generate a patient's risk score are not as accurate and the false-positive rate can be higher, even 10%.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Because of the low accuracy of conventional screening tests, 5–10% of women, often those who are older, will opt for an invasive test even if they received a low-risk score from the screening. A patient who received a 1:330 risk score, while technically low-risk (since the cutoff for high-risk is commonly quoted as 1:270), might be more likely to still opt for a confirmatory invasive test. On the other hand, a patient who receives a 1:1000 risk score is more likely to feel assuaged that her pregnancy is normal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Both <a href="/wiki/Type_I_and_type_II_errors" title="Type I and type II errors">false positives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Type_I_and_type_II_errors" title="Type I and type II errors">false negatives</a> will have a large impact on a couple when they are told the result, or when the child is born. <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a> tests, such as amniocentesis, are considered to be very accurate for the defects they check for, though even these tests are not perfect, with a reported 0.2% error rate (often due to rare abnormalities such as mosaic Down syndrome where only some of the fetal/placental cells carry the genetic abnormality). </p><p>A higher <a href="/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein" title="Alpha-fetoprotein">maternal serum AFP</a> level indicates a greater risk for anencephaly and open spina bifida. This screening is 80% and 90% sensitive for spina bifida and anencephaly, respectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Amniotic fluid <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase" title="Acetylcholinesterase">acetylcholinesterase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein" title="Alpha-fetoprotein">AFP</a> level are more <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensitivity (tests)">sensitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">specific</a> than AFP in predicting neural tube defects. </p><p>Many maternal-fetal specialists do not bother to even do an AFP test on their patients because they do a detail ultrasound on all of them in the 2nd trimester, which has a 97% detection rate for neural tube defects such as anencephaly and open spina bifida. Performing tests to determine possible birth defects is mandatory in all U.S. states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Failure to detect issues early can have dangerous consequences on both the mother and the baby. <a href="/wiki/OBGYN" class="mw-redirect" title="OBGYN">OBGYNs</a> may be held culpable. In one case a man who was born with spina bifida was awarded $2 million in settlement, apart from medical expenses, due to the OBGYN's negligence in conducting AFP tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Fibia2_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fibia2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No prenatal test can detect <i>all</i> forms of birth defects and abnormalities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prenatal_genetic_testing_2">Prenatal genetic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prenatal genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another important issue is the uncertainty of prenatal genetic testing. Uncertainty on genetic testing results from several reasons: the genetic test is associated with a disease but the prognosis and/or probability is unknown, the genetic test provides information different than the familiar disease they tested for, found genetic variants have unknown significance, and finally, results may not be associated with found fetal abnormalities.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richardson and Ormond thoroughly addressed the issue of uncertainty of genetic testing and explained its implication for bioethics. First, the principle of beneficence is assumed in prenatal testing by decreasing the risk of miscarriage, however, uncertain information derived from genetic testing may harm the parents by provoking anxiety and leading to the termination of a fetus that is probably healthy. Second, the principle of autonomy is undermined given a lack of comprehension resulting from new technologies and changing knowledge in the field of genetics. And third, the principle of justice raised issues regarding equal access to emerging prenatal tests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Availability_of_treatments">Availability of treatments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Availability of treatments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a genetic disease is detected, there is often no treatment that can help the fetus until it is born. However, in the US, there are prenatal surgeries for <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a> fetus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Early diagnosis gives the parents time to research and discuss post-natal treatment and care, or in some cases, abortion. <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counselors" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic counselors">Genetic counselors</a> are usually called upon to help families make informed decisions regarding results of prenatal diagnosis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patient_education">Patient education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Patient education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers have studied how disclosing amniocentesis or <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villous sampling</a> (CVS) results on a fixed date versus a variable date (i.e. "when available") affects maternal anxiety. Systematic review of the relevant articles found no conclusive evidence to support issuing amniocentesis results as soon as they become available (in comparison to issuing results on a pre-defined fixed date). The researchers concluded that further studies evaluating the effect of different strategies for disclosing CVS results on maternal anxiety are needed.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concerns_from_disability_rights_activists_and_scholars">Concerns from disability rights activists and scholars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Concerns from disability rights activists and scholars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disability rights activists and scholars have suggested a more critical view of prenatal testing and its implications for people with disabilities. They argue that there is pressure to abort fetuses that might be born with disabilities, and that these pressures rely on eugenics interests and ableist stereotypes.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This selective abortion relies on the ideas that people with disabilities cannot live desirable lives, that they are "defective," and that they are burdens, while disability scholars argue that "oppression is what's most disabling about disability." Marsha Saxton suggests that women should question whether or not they are relying on real, factual information about people with disabilities or on stereotypes if they decide to abort a fetus with a disability.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societal_pressures">Societal pressures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Societal pressures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amniocentesis has become the standard of care for prenatal care visits for women who are "at risk" or over a certain age. The wide use of amniocentesis has been defined as consumeristic.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some argue that this can be in conflict with the right to privacy,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most obstetricians (depending on the country) offer patients the AFP <a href="/wiki/Triple_test" title="Triple test">triple test</a>, HIV test, and ultrasounds routinely. However, almost all women meet with a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counselor" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic counselor">genetic counselor</a> before deciding whether to have prenatal diagnosis. It is the role of the genetic counselor to accurately inform women of the risks and benefits of prenatal diagnosis. Genetic counselors are trained to be non-directive and to support the patient's decision. Some doctors do advise women to have certain prenatal tests and the patient's partner may also influence the woman's decision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal">Legal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Legal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 2023, the Iranian government banned import and manufacture of tests kits required for first screening trimester tests, it will plague the population according to society of medicine in genetic <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="انجمن ژنتیک پزشکی ایران (page does not exist)">انجمن ژنتیک پزشکی ایران</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" class="extiw" title="fa:انجمن ژنتیک پزشکی ایران">fa</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iranian <a href="/wiki/State_Welfare_Organization_of_Iran" title="State Welfare Organization of Iran">state welfare organization</a> had a genetics condition program since 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_stem_cell_bank" title="Amniotic stem cell bank">Amniotic stem cell bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_stem_cells" title="Amniotic stem cells">Amniotic stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villi" title="Chorionic villi">Chorionic villi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_screening" title="Newborn screening">Newborn screening</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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August 16, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84&rft.atitle=%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86+%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9+%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C%3A+%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA+%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2+%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF+%D9%88+%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA+%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA+%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C+%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%87+%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C+%D8%B1%D8%A7+%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%82%D9%81+%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF&rft.date=2023-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranintl.com%2F202308142892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrenatal+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taadolnewspaper.ir/%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%B4-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87-67/211865-%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B7-%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA-%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87-%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9-%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C">"شرط دریافت مشاوره ژنتیک حین بارداری"</a>.</cite><span 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class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prenatal_testing&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120520123627/http://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book/companion.asp?id=31&compID=43">Our Bodies Ourselves chapter on Prenatal Testing and Disability Rights</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prenatal-tests.aspx">Prenatal Tests and Why Are They Important?</a> – March Of Dimes</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pregnancy" title="Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pregnancy" title="Template talk:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pregnancy_and_childbirth184" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_family_planning" title="Natural family planning">Natural family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Conception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">fertility medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">partner-assisted reproduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HCG_pregnancy_strip_test" class="mw-redirect" title="HCG pregnancy strip test">home testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prenatal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Medical imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_pregnancy" title="Cervical pregnancy">Cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptic_pregnancy" title="Cryptic pregnancy">Cryptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy" title="Abdominal pregnancy">Abdominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotopic_pregnancy" title="Heterotopic pregnancy">Heterotopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molar_pregnancy" title="Molar pregnancy">Molar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_pregnancy" title="Ovarian pregnancy">Ovarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_pregnancy" title="Interstitial pregnancy">Interstitial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudimentary_horn_pregnancy" title="Rudimentary horn pregnancy">Rudimentary horn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_method_of_natural_childbirth" title="Bradley method of natural childbirth">Bradley method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamaze_technique" title="Lamaze technique">Lamaze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Newborn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">Birth attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_role_in_childbirth" title="Men's role in childbirth">Men's roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_nurse_midwife" title="Auxiliary nurse midwife">Auxiliary nurse midwife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Perinatal nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_birth_attendant" title="Traditional birth attendant">Traditional birth attendant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delivery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvimetry" title="Pelvimetry">Pelvimetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_score" title="Bishop score">Bishop score</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_effacement" title="Cervical effacement">cervical effacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(obstetrics)" title="Position (obstetrics)">position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_show" title="Bloody show">Bloody show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation_(obstetrics)" title="Presentation (obstetrics)">Presentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalic_presentation" title="Cephalic presentation">cephalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_presentation" title="Shoulder presentation">shoulder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupture_of_membranes" title="Rupture of membranes">Rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_birth" title="Home birth">Home birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Labor induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">Multiple birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_childbirth" title="Natural childbirth">Natural childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_birth" title="Silent birth">Silent birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassisted_childbirth" title="Unassisted childbirth">Unassisted childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_birth" title="Water birth">Water birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_expulsion" title="Placental expulsion">Placental expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prenatal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">Amniotic fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">Amniotic sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Care</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li>Nutrition <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_nutrition" title="Prenatal nutrition">prenatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_depression" title="Antenatal depression">Prenatal depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization_during_pregnancy" title="Immunization during pregnancy">Immunization</a></li> <li>Concomitant conditions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemia_in_pregnancy" title="Anemia in pregnancy">Anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Substance use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_pregnancy" title="Cannabis in pregnancy">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioids_and_pregnancy" title="Opioids and pregnancy">Opioids</a></li></ul></li> <li>Endocrine diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease</a></li></ul></li> <li>Liver diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_fatty_liver_of_pregnancy" title="Acute fatty liver of pregnancy">Acute fatty liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_cholestasis_of_pregnancy" title="Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy">Intrahepatic cholestasis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="HIV and pregnancy">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy" title="COVID-19 in pregnancy">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCV_in_children_and_pregnancy" title="HCV in children and pregnancy">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Skin diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritic_folliculitis_of_pregnancy" title="Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy">Pruritic folliculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatoses_of_pregnancy" title="Dermatoses of pregnancy">Dermatoses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">Vaginal flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_and_sleep" title="Pregnancy and sleep">Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">Lochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_after_pregnancy" title="Sex after pregnancy">Sex after pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_visitor" title="Health visitor">Health visitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">Lactation consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_nurse" title="Monthly nurse">Monthly nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny#Maternity_nurse_/_newborn_care_specialists_/_confinement_nanny" title="Nanny">Confinement nanny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">Adaptation to extrauterine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">Congenital disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obstetric history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_brain" title="Parental brain">Parental brain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tests_and_procedures_relating_to_pregnancy_and_childbirth126" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Obstetrical_procedures" title="Template:Obstetrical procedures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Obstetrical_procedures" title="Template talk:Obstetrical procedures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Obstetrical_procedures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Obstetrical procedures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tests_and_procedures_relating_to_pregnancy_and_childbirth126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and procedures relating to <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold%27s_maneuvers" title="Leopold's maneuvers">Leopold's maneuvers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prenatal testing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fetal tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Imaging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuchal_scan" title="Nuchal scan">Nuchal scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomaly_scan" title="Anomaly scan">Anomaly scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown-rump_length" title="Crown-rump length">Crown-rump length</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_movement#Monitoring_fetal_movement" title="Fetal movement">Fetal movement counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraction_stress_test" title="Contraction stress test">Contraction stress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibroacoustic_stimulation" title="Vibroacoustic stimulation">Vibroacoustic stimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_profile" title="Biophysical profile">Biophysical profile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid_index" title="Amniotic fluid index">Amniotic fluid index</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sampling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_test" title="Triple test">Triple test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_test#Quadruple_test" title="Triple test">Quad test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetoscopy" title="Fetoscopy">Fetoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_scalp_blood_testing" title="Fetal scalp blood testing">Fetal scalp blood testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_scalp_stimulation_test" title="Fetal scalp stimulation test">Fetal scalp stimulation test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_umbilical_cord_blood_sampling" title="Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling">Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_denaturation_test" title="Alkali denaturation test">Apt test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleihauer%E2%80%93Betke_test" title="Kleihauer–Betke test">Kleihauer–Betke test</a></li> <li>Lung maturity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecithin%E2%80%93sphingomyelin_ratio" title="Lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio">Lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamellar_body_count" title="Lamellar body count">Lamellar body count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_fibronectin" title="Fetal fibronectin">Fetal fibronectin test</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interventions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_surgery" title="Fetal surgery">Fetal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetendo" title="Fetendo">Fetendo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podalic_version" title="Podalic version">Podalic version</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_cephalic_version" title="External cephalic version">External cephalic version</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnioinfusion" title="Amnioinfusion">Amnioinfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Delivery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Induction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operative_vaginal_delivery" title="Operative vaginal delivery">Assisted vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_rupture_of_membranes" title="Artificial rupture of membranes">Artificial rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphysiotomy" title="Symphysiotomy">Symphysiotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_forceps" title="Obstetrical forceps">Obstetrical forceps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_extraction" title="Vacuum extraction">Vacuum extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odon_device" title="Odon device">Odon device</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_dystocia#Procedures" title="Shoulder dystocia">Dystocia management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/McRoberts_maneuver" title="McRoberts maneuver">McRoberts maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_screw_maneuver" title="Wood's screw maneuver">Wood's screw maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zavanelli_maneuver" title="Zavanelli maneuver">Zavanelli maneuver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth#Third_stage:_placenta_delivery" title="Childbirth">Third stage of labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placenta_expulsion#Manual_placenta_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Placenta expulsion">Manual placenta removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean section</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Elective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_delivery_on_maternal_request" title="Caesarean delivery on maternal request">On maternal request</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EXIT_procedure" title="EXIT procedure">EXIT procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resuscitative_hysterotomy" title="Resuscitative hysterotomy">Resuscitative hysterotomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_bleeding" title="Postpartum bleeding">Postpartum bleeding</a></th><td 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