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class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Particulate matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particulate_matter_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-birth_weight_(LBW)_and_preterm_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-birth_weight_(LBW)_and_preterm_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Low-birth weight (LBW) and preterm delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-birth_weight_(LBW)_and_preterm_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_and_short-term_effects_on_babies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_and_short-term_effects_on_babies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Long-term and short-term effects on babies</span> </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pollution_and_pregnancy" title="Talk:Pollution and pregnancy">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The health of a mother directly affects the fetus during pregnancy. High levels of pollution where pregnant women reside can have adverse health effects on fetuses. </p><p>Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lung_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung disease">lung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> among others. Car pollutants include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate matter">particulate matter</a> (fine dusts and soot), and toxic <a href="/wiki/Air_pollutant" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pollutant">air pollutants</a> <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these pollutants affect the general health of populations, they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers, their fetuses and children. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fertility">Fertility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fertility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various air pollutants have an effect on <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>. For instance, an increase in NO<sub>2</sub> is significantly associated with a lower <a href="/wiki/Live_birth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Live birth rate">live birth rate</a> in women undergoing <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">IVF</a> treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the general population, there is a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a> rate in women exposed to NO<sub>2</sub> compared to those not exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, CO exposure is significantly associated with <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirth</a> in the second and third trimester.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzo-a-pyrene_chemical_structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Benzo-a-pyrene_chemical_structure.png" decoding="async" width="194" height="119" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="119" /></a><figcaption>Standard line-angle structure of benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs) have been associated with reduced fertility. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a well-known PAH and carcinogen which is often found in exhaust fumes and cigarette smoke.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PAHs have been reported to administer their toxic effects through oxidative stress by increasing the production of <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">Reactive Oxygen Species</a> (ROS) which can result in inflammation and cell death. More long-term exposure to PAHs can result in <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA damage">DNA damage</a> and reduced repair.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exposure to BaP has been reported to reduce <a href="/wiki/Sperm_motility" title="Sperm motility">sperm motility</a> and increasing the exposure worsens this effect. Research has demonstrated that more BaPs were found in men with reported fertility issues compared to men without.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies have shown that BaPs can affect <a href="/wiki/Folliculogenesis" title="Folliculogenesis">folliculogenesis</a> and ovarian development by reducing the number of ovarian germ cells via triggering cell death pathways and inducing inflammation which can lead to ovarian damage.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particulate_matter">Particulate matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Particulate matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study in California found that increased exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> led to decreased sperm motility and increased abnormal morphology. Similarly, in Poland exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> and PM<sub>10</sub> led to an increase in the percentage of cells with immature <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> (DNA that has not fully developed or has developed abnormally).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Turkey, a study examined the fertility of men who work as toll collectors and are therefore exposed to high levels of traffic pollutants daily. Traffic pollution often has high levels of PM<sub>10</sub> alongside <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and nitrogen oxides.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were significant differences in <a href="/wiki/Sperm_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm count">sperm count</a> and motility in this study group compared to a control group with limited air pollution exposure. </p><p>In women, while overall effects on fertility do not appear significant there is an association between increased exposure to PM<sub>10</sub> and early miscarriage. Exposure to smaller particulate matter, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, appears to have an effect on conception rates in women undergoing <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">IVF</a> but does not affect live birth rates.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ozone-structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ozone-structure.png/220px-Ozone-structure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Ozone-structure.png 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="147" /></a><figcaption>Ozone structure showing three oxygen atoms</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground-level_ozone_pollution">Ground-level ozone pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ground-level ozone pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is limited research about the effect that ozone pollution has on fertility.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At present, there is no evidence to suggest that ozone exposure poses a deleterious effect on spontaneous fertility in either females or males. However, there have been studies which suggest that high levels of ozone pollution, often a problem in the summer months, exert an effect on in vitro fertilisation (IVF) outcomes. Within an IVF population, NO<sub>x</sub> and ozone pollutants were linked with reduced rates of live birth<b>.</b><sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most research on this topic is focused on the direct human exposure of air pollution, other studies have analysed the impact of air pollution on gametes and embryos within IVF laboratories. Multiple studies have reported a marked improvement in <a href="/wiki/Embryo_quality" title="Embryo quality">embryo quality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Implantation_(embryology)" title="Implantation (embryology)">implantation</a> and pregnancy rates after IVF laboratories have implemented air filters in a concerted effort to reduce levels of air pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of male fertility, ozone is reported to cause a significant decrease in the concentration and count of sperm in semen after exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, sperm vitality, the proportion of live spermatozoa in a sample, was demonstrated to be diminished as a result of exposure to air pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, findings on the effect of ozone exposure on male fertility are somewhat discordant.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_characteristics">Population characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Population characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Areas with high levels of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> in the air, which is an output of vehicular air pollution, are shown to have negative effects on <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetuses</a>. Effects of the exposure include reduced fetal growth, <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">premature birth</a>, and respiratory conditions. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of nitrogen dioxide on fetuses in the southern United States as well as <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a>, Spain. In the United States, babies that were born prematurely were 94% more likely to have been exposed to high levels of pollution than those that were not premature. In Spain, fetuses that were small for gestational age in terms of weight were 37% more likely to have been exposed to high levels of air pollution than those that were not small for gestational age in terms of weight.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Los Angeles County, researchers found a higher risk in <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">premature birth</a> (10-20%) and low <a href="/wiki/Birth_weight" title="Birth weight">birth weight</a> for infants whose mothers lived near high traffic areas <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies conducted on populations living near the 405 and 710 interstates in Southern California found their exposure to particulate vehicle emissions to be almost 25 times higher than for people living 1000 ft from the <a href="/wiki/Freeway" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeway">freeways</a>. This research also concluded that particulate vehicle emissions are more toxic to children's health than other particles such as Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dangers_of_vehicle_emissions">Dangers of vehicle emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dangers of vehicle emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_monoxide">Carbon monoxide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Carbon monoxide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon monoxide (CO) is directly released from motor vehicles engines, which are a major source of this pollutant in the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Basin" title="Los Angeles Basin">LA Basin</a><sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 5. CO inhaled by pregnant women may threaten the unborn child's growth and mental development. Because CO competes with Oxygen to achieve dispersion throughout the blood stream, fetal hypoxia (lack of oxygen) may result at high levels of maternal CO exposure, however the exact amount of exposure of CO to become a fetal threat is unknown <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High levels of carbon monoxide are also found in cigarettes, it is advised that pregnant women avoid smoking so as to not run the risk of affecting their child's growth or mental development. For further information on Carbon Monoxide and its effects on human health please see, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide poisoning</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrogen_oxides">Nitrogen oxides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nitrogen oxides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nitrogen oxides (NO) are common air pollutants found throughout most of the United States. You can be exposed to these oxides by breathing polluted air, which is most commonly found in areas with heavy <a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">motor vehicle</a> traffic <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure to high levels of Nitrogen oxides damages tissues of the throat and upper <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a> and can interfere with the body's ability to carry oxygen. High exposure to nitrogen dioxide may cause fetal mutations, damage a developing fetus, and decrease a woman's ability to become pregnant. Studies have also shown that higher exposures to NO inhibit embryo development during both traditional pregnancies and artificial inseminations <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particulate_matter_2">Particulate matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Particulate matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Examples of <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulate matter</a> include ash from smoke in campfires, dust particles around your house, and smoke coming from car exhaust pipes; in areas close to freeways this is a problem. A study conducted on European women indicated that higher exposure to particulate matter during the initial first weeks of their pregnancy resulted in low birth weight babies <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This toxin is also considered to be the most dangerous of the three because it can be basically anything small enough to be inhaled. This may also be due to the fact that brain growth begins within the first month of conception. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low-birth_weight_(LBW)_and_preterm_delivery"><span id="Low-birth_weight_.28LBW.29_and_preterm_delivery"></span>Low-birth weight (LBW) and preterm delivery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Low-birth weight (LBW) and preterm delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both <a href="/wiki/Household_air_pollution" title="Household air pollution">household air pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">ambient air pollution</a> are associated with low birth weight and pre-term delivery. This can lead to fatal outcomes, especially in developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a> reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">Prematurity</a> in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing <a href="/wiki/Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">Infant respiratory distress syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hematologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematologic">hematologic</a> diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss. </p><p>Babies born of low weight are also at risk for respiratory, gastrointestinal, cardiac, CNS, infection and vision problems. These gestational issues persist until the adult years for most children and result in high blood pressure, Type II Diabetes, and other heart diseases. </p><p>Prematurity and Low Birth Weight caused by air pollution also affects fetal brain development. This is of importance since lack of proper brain development will not allow a child's brain to form proper synapse connections which will negatively affect the child's speech, learning abilities, and social skills. </p><p>Exposure to air pollution not only affects newborns in early stages of their development, it can also have lifelong consequences for children exposed from the time of conception to when they reach two years of age. Air pollution has been found to cause lower birth weights, insufficient development of the immune system and organs, and premature births. These birth effects have been linked to respiratory issues that can persist into one's long-term health.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_and_short-term_effects_on_babies">Long-term and short-term effects on babies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Long-term and short-term effects on babies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Exposure to vehicle air pollutants has been noted as primary cause for infant mortality and morbidity, and is also argued to be a cause of chronic diseases such as asthma in child and adulthood <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asthma">Asthma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Asthma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of children affected by asthma has increased in past decades the point where it is now the most chronic illness in children and the most common cause of children hospitalizations in the U.S. causing it to also be a number one contributor to school absences<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excessive school absences ultimately affect the child's learning ability, and decrease their time to socialize with kids their age. It is not uncommon for children who suffer from asthma to oftentimes repeat grades due to failure to keep up academically. If students are not repeating grades they are highly likely to dropout prior to graduation over their non-affected peers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respiratory_problems">Respiratory problems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Respiratory problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have found that children who are exposed to higher levels of car pollutants report higher respiratory problems including wheezing, ear and throat infections and have a higher incidence of physician-diagnosed asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronchiolitis is also found in greater amounts when the child's home is around high amounts of traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children living in close proximity to high traffic areas are also eight times more likely to develop leukemia compared to children who do not <sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding indicates that children who develop cancer as a result of traffic exposure will also spend more time in the hospital. This is not only a cause of school absences, but also a time of trauma for a child who is constantly visiting providers for treatment. Children with cancer have a harder time keeping up with school and keeping up with their friends <sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traffic_exposure_and_autism">Traffic exposure and autism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Traffic exposure and autism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a> is a spectrum of disorders that range from a severe inability to communicate and some mental disabilities to milder symptoms such as attention disorders. Some claims exist that the incidence of autism is higher for babies whose mothers spend time in ‘high traffic pollution’ areas compared to mothers who spend their pregnancy in cleaner air. In a recent study conducted by UCLA, air pollutant levels were measured for mothers who had children with autism and then compared to air pollutant levels in environments for mothers who had children without autism. This study found that babies who were exposed to higher levels of pollutants while in the womb had a 10% higher risk of autism than babies who had low levels of exposure; another finding from this study is that fine particulates had the strongest association with autism <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Motor vehicle emissions are not solely a United States issue. Of the 10 cities with the most traffic, there are no cities from the United States listed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States also has regulations regarding what and how many emissions vehicles are allowed to emit that are on the road. This is done by the USEPA and they are currently working on new regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the countries that have vehicle emission standards, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and Japan have the most strict regulations. These standards have been added because it is shown that regulating fuel economy is effective in controlling oil demands for the country as well as reducing their greenhouse emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Respiratory and allergic disorders among children in Japan were studied after the implementation of new regulations were put in place and it showed the prevalence of asthma and other respiratory disorders decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have also been more recent studies showing that the incidence of asthma cases worldwide is increasing in children. Much of this increase is due to the increase in NO2 which is a gas that is emitted from motor vehicles among other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Across the United States, vehicle emissions make up a large portion of air pollution, especially in urban areas. An epidemiological study conducted by the National Institute of Health compared pregnancy loss to local vehicle emissions, specifically nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). The study used data from Boston, Massachusetts and Tel Aviv, Israel, and both regions observed associations between pregnancy loss and NO₂, largely in the second trimester of pregnancies. This study further increases scientific confidence that vehicle emissions can be detrimental to pregnant individuals and fetuses and that these findings are consistent in different geographic locations and among different populations.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">Environmental impact of transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234426/http://www.ehib.org/topic.jsp?topic_key=79">"Traffic Exhaust Pollutants"</a>. 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text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9937639">"Effects of Pollution on Pregnancy and Infants"</a>. <i>Cureus</i>. <b>15</b> (1): e33906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7759%2Fcureus.33906">10.7759/cureus.33906</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2168-8184">2168-8184</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9937639">9937639</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36819435">36819435</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cureus&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Pollution+on+Pregnancy+and+Infants&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e33906&rft.date=2023-01-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9937639%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2168-8184&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36819435&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7759%2Fcureus.33906&rft.aulast=Rani&rft.aufirst=Prerna&rft.au=Dhok%2C+Archana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9937639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollution+and+pregnancy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollution_and_pregnancy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/brain-development/">Zero To Three</a> - information on child brain development</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pregnancy_and_childbirth184" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pregnancy_and_childbirth184" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_family_planning" title="Natural family planning">Natural family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Conception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">fertility medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">partner-assisted reproduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HCG_pregnancy_strip_test" class="mw-redirect" title="HCG pregnancy strip test">home testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">Prenatal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Medical imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_pregnancy" title="Cervical pregnancy">Cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptic_pregnancy" title="Cryptic pregnancy">Cryptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy" title="Abdominal pregnancy">Abdominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotopic_pregnancy" title="Heterotopic pregnancy">Heterotopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molar_pregnancy" title="Molar pregnancy">Molar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_pregnancy" title="Ovarian pregnancy">Ovarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_pregnancy" title="Interstitial pregnancy">Interstitial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudimentary_horn_pregnancy" title="Rudimentary horn pregnancy">Rudimentary horn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_method_of_natural_childbirth" title="Bradley method of natural childbirth">Bradley method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamaze_technique" title="Lamaze technique">Lamaze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Newborn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">Birth attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_role_in_childbirth" title="Men's role in childbirth">Men's roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_nurse_midwife" title="Auxiliary nurse midwife">Auxiliary nurse midwife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Perinatal nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_birth_attendant" title="Traditional birth attendant">Traditional birth attendant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delivery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvimetry" title="Pelvimetry">Pelvimetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_score" title="Bishop score">Bishop score</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_effacement" title="Cervical effacement">cervical effacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(obstetrics)" title="Position (obstetrics)">position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_show" title="Bloody show">Bloody show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation_(obstetrics)" title="Presentation (obstetrics)">Presentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalic_presentation" title="Cephalic presentation">cephalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_presentation" title="Shoulder presentation">shoulder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupture_of_membranes" title="Rupture of membranes">Rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_birth" title="Home birth">Home birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Labor induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">Multiple birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_childbirth" title="Natural childbirth">Natural childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_birth" title="Silent birth">Silent birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassisted_childbirth" title="Unassisted childbirth">Unassisted childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_birth" title="Water birth">Water birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_expulsion" title="Placental expulsion">Placental expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prenatal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">Amniotic fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">Amniotic sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Care</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li>Nutrition <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_nutrition" title="Prenatal nutrition">prenatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_depression" title="Antenatal depression">Prenatal depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization_during_pregnancy" title="Immunization during pregnancy">Immunization</a></li> <li>Concomitant conditions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemia_in_pregnancy" title="Anemia in pregnancy">Anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Substance use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_pregnancy" title="Cannabis in pregnancy">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioids_and_pregnancy" title="Opioids and pregnancy">Opioids</a></li></ul></li> <li>Endocrine diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease</a></li></ul></li> <li>Liver diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_fatty_liver_of_pregnancy" title="Acute fatty liver of pregnancy">Acute fatty liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_cholestasis_of_pregnancy" title="Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy">Intrahepatic cholestasis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="HIV and pregnancy">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy" title="COVID-19 in pregnancy">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCV_in_children_and_pregnancy" title="HCV in children and pregnancy">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Skin diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritic_folliculitis_of_pregnancy" title="Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy">Pruritic folliculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatoses_of_pregnancy" title="Dermatoses of pregnancy">Dermatoses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">Vaginal flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_and_sleep" title="Pregnancy and sleep">Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">Lochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_after_pregnancy" title="Sex after pregnancy">Sex after pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td 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