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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Hydrogel Synthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogel_Synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enzyme_Improvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enzyme_Improvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Enzyme Improvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enzyme_Improvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anticancer_Drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anticancer_Drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Anticancer Drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anticancer_Drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Institutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биофизическа химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биофизическа химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofyzik%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chemie" title="Biofyzikální chemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biofyzikální chemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysikalische_Chemie" title="Biophysikalische Chemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biophysikalische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofisicoqu%C3%ADmica" title="Biofisicoquímica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biofisicoquímica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="شیمی‌فیزیک زیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیمی‌فیزیک زیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="생물물리화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물물리화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_biofisika" title="Kimia biofisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kimia biofisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物物理化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物物理化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biof%C3%ADsica_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Biofísica química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biofísica química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_biofizic%C4%83" title="Chimie biofizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chimie biofizică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biophysical chemistry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofizi%C4%8Dka_hemija" title="Biofizička hemija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Biofizička hemija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofizi%C4%8Dka_hemija" title="Biofizička hemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biofizička hemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரியற்பிய வேதியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரியற்பிய வேதியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біофізична хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біофізична хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Field of Study</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protein_translation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Protein_translation.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Biological_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological machine">biological machine</a> that utilizes <a href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics" title="Protein dynamics">protein dynamics</a> on <a href="/wiki/Nanoscopic_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscopic scale">nanoscales</a> to <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translate</a> RNA into proteins</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Biophysical chemistry</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical science</a> that uses the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> for the study of <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">biological systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walla20143_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walla20143-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek an explanation of the various phenomena in biological systems in terms of either the molecules that make up the system or the <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">supra-molecular</a> structure of these systems.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from the biological applications, recent research showed progress in the medical field as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_Century">Twentieth Century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Twentieth Century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oldest concept of biophysical chemistry started from the curiosity of <a href="/wiki/Karl-Friedrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Karl-Friedrich Bonhoeffer">Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer</a>, a physical chemist who wanted to approach biological and physiological problems with knowledge of physics and chemistry. One example of his work is studying the effect of <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> on iron to simulate <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</a> excitations.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the establishment of fundamental biophysical chemistry in Göttingen, <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a>, the German Nobel Laureate developed it further. In 1971, he improved the research focus by merging two institutes, physical chemistry, and spectroscopy.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nowadays, the research in biophysical chemistry in Göttingen aims to discover life processes using the combined knowledge of science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The renowned scientist, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Berendsen" title="Herman Berendsen">Herman Berendsen</a> launched a research group at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Groningen" title="University of Groningen">University of Groningen</a> focused on using NMR to monitor water and protein in biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study expands the structural understanding of water bonding which explains a lot of phenomena. <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current approaches to biophysical research include but are not limited to the study of <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cells</a>, and the detection and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walla20143_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walla20143-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biophysical chemists employ various techniques used in physical chemistry to probe the structure of biological systems. These techniques include spectroscopic methods such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (NMR) and other techniques like <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cryo-electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryo-electron microscopy">cryo-electron microscopy</a>. An example of research in biophysical chemistry includes the work for which the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded. The prize was based on X-ray crystallographic studies of the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> that helped to unravel the physical basis of its biological function as a molecular machine that translates <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a> into polypeptides.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other areas in which biophysical chemists engage themselves are <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">protein structure</a> and the functional structure of <a href="/wiki/Cell_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell membranes">cell membranes</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> action can be explained in terms of the shape of a pocket in the protein molecule that matches the shape of the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (biochemistry)">substrate</a> molecule or its modification due to binding of a metal ion. The structures of many large protein assemblies, such as <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a>, also exhibit machine-like dynamics as they act on their substrates. Similarly, the structure and function of the biomembranes may be understood through the study of model supramolecular structures as <a href="/wiki/Liposomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Liposomes">liposomes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipid</a> <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a> of different compositions and sizes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several biological and medical applications that apply the knowledge of biophysical chemistry to benefit humankind. <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_of_Cell_Membrane">Study of Cell Membrane</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Study of Cell Membrane"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">Lipid bilayer membrane</a> is a name to describe the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>. With the current knowledge and advancement of the instrument, it is possible to study the properties of lipid bilayers such as <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>. The study applied the fluorescence spectroscopy technique to identify that even if there is only a single phospholipid bilayer constructs the <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposome</a>, we can still detect a different level of viscosity existing in the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_of_Protein_Reactions">Study of Protein Reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Study of Protein Reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Applied_spectroscopy" title="Applied spectroscopy">spectroscopic methods</a> allow modern scientists to identify the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">kinetic components</a> of protein reactions in biological systems. Moreover, it is possible to adjust and engineer biological reactions by applying laser radiation to them. For instance, we can induce the process of <a href="/wiki/Protein_crystallization" title="Protein crystallization">protein crystallization</a> using the technique called "<a href="/wiki/Laser_cooling" title="Laser cooling">laser trapping</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogel_Synthesis">Hydrogel Synthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hydrogel Synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin</a>, or commonly, vitamin B2, has the ability to become a reactive species that can undergo various reactions under the existence of light and oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significant reaction involved the synthesis of a hydrogel. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">Hydrogel</a> is a porous material that can hold a large amount of water while maintaining its shape. The application of hydrogel includes drug delivery, artificial muscles, tissue engineering, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enzyme_Improvement">Enzyme Improvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Enzyme Improvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzymes</a> are substances that can accelerate chemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the usage of enzymes in real applications has a lot of limitations, including, but not limited to stability, compatibility, and cost. By using the concept of biophysical chemistry, it is possible to improve those limitations, as well as increase the performance of enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anticancer_Drugs">Anticancer Drugs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Anticancer Drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">Deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) is the molecule that is the basis of all living things. Moreover, it is a main target of anticancer drugs. Studying the interaction between drugs and DNA allows the researcher to develop drugs that could efficiently treat cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutes">Institutes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Institutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oldest reputed institute for biophysical chemistry is the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Biophysical_Chemistry" title="Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry">Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry</a> in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals">Journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biophysical chemistry journals include <i><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_Journal" title="Biophysical Journal">Biophysical Journal</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Archives_of_Biochemistry_and_Biophysics" title="Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics">Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics</a></i> (published by <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_and_Biophysical_Research_Communications" title="Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications">Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications</a></i> (Academic Press), <i><a href="/wiki/Biochimica_et_Biophysica_Acta" title="Biochimica et Biophysica Acta">Biochimica et Biophysica Acta</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Elsevier_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Elsevier Science">Elsevier Science</a>), <i>Biophysical Chemistry</i>, <i>An International Journal devoted to the Physics and Chemistry of Biological Phenomena</i> (Elsevier), <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Biochemical_and_Biophysical_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods">Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods</a></i> (Elsevier), <i>Journal of Biochemistry</i>, <i>Biology and Biophysics</i> (<a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_de_Chimie_Physique" title="Journal de Chimie Physique">Journal de Chimie Physique</a></i>, <i>Physico-Chimie Biologique</i> (<a href="/wiki/EDP_Sciences" title="EDP Sciences">EDP Sciences</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_chimique_de_France" title="Société chimique de France">Société Française de Chimie</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical techniques">Biophysical techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biophysical_chemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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.id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Jomo_Walla2014" class="citation book cs1">Peter Jomo Walla (8 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ej__AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Modern Biophysical Chemistry: Detection and Analysis of Biomolecules</i></a>. 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Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78262-510-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78262-510-0"><bdi>978-1-78262-510-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biophysical+Chemistry&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft.date=2015-11-09&rft.isbn=978-1-78262-510-0&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0msoDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DBiophysical%2Bchemistry%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiophysical+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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