CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Computer security - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"d36ef38a-84fc-49ae-a5a1-a9fa6406e974","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Computer_security","wgTitle":"Computer security","wgCurRevisionId":1259749951,"wgRevisionId":1259749951,"wgArticleId":7398, "wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Computer_security","wgRelevantArticleId":7398,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"an","autonym":"aragonés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"arz","autonym":"مصرى","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym":"अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym": "Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym":"башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bar","autonym":"Boarisch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"be","autonym":"беларуская","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm", "autonym":"Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cy","autonym":"Cymraeg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz", "autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frr","autonym":"Nordfriisk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fy","autonym":"Frysk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gl","autonym":"galego","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym": "Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hu","autonym":"magyar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ilo","autonym":"Ilokano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"io","autonym":"Ido","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kn","autonym":"ಕನ್ನಡ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym":"къарачай-малкъар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad", "autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"li","autonym":"Limburgs","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lt","autonym":"lietuvių","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mk","autonym":"македонски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr" },{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nn","autonym":"norsk nynorsk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym": "isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"oc","autonym":"occitan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pnb","autonym":"پنجابی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym": "русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"scn","autonym":"sicilianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sco","autonym":"Scots","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sd","autonym":"سنڌي","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"stq","autonym":"Seeltersk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ta","autonym":"தமிழ்","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym":"тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tl","autonym":"Tagalog","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi" ,"autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym":"татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ur","autonym":"اردو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"uz","autonym":"oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep","autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal", "autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur", "guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve", "vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3510521","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.imagemap.styles":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.imagemap","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents", "ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.imagemap.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/1200px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1776"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/800px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1184"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Operating_system_placement.svg/640px-Operating_system_placement.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="947"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Computer security - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Computer_security rootpage-Computer_security stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Computer+security" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Computer+security" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Computer security</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Computer_security" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Computer_security" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Computer+security" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> Computer security (also cybersecurity, digital security, or information technology (IT) security) is the protection of <a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">computer software</a>, <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">networks</a> from <a href="/wiki/Threat_(security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (security)">threats</a> that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> they provide.<a href="#cite_note-:2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computer_locked.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Computer_locked.jpg/220px-Computer_locked.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Computer_locked.jpg/330px-Computer_locked.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Computer_locked.jpg/440px-Computer_locked.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="710"></a><figcaption>An example of a physical security measure: a metal lock on the back of a personal computer to prevent hardware tampering.</figcaption></figure> The significance of the field stems from the expanded reliance on <a href="/wiki/Computer_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer systems">computer systems</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wireless_network_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless network standards">wireless network standards</a>. Its importance is further amplified by the growth of <a href="/wiki/Smart_device" title="Smart device">smart devices</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">televisions</a>, and the various devices that constitute the <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a> (IoT). Cybersecurity has emerged as one of the most significant new challenges facing the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of <a href="/wiki/Information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a> and the societies they support. Security is particularly crucial for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">power distribution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Election_security" title="Election security">elections</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Although many aspects of computer security involve digital security, such as electronic <a href="/wiki/Passwords" class="mw-redirect" title="Passwords">passwords</a> and <a href="/wiki/Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_security" title="Physical security">physical security</a> measures such as <a href="/wiki/Lock_and_key" title="Lock and key">metal locks</a> are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering. IT security is not a perfect subset of <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a>, therefore does not completely align into the <a href="/wiki/Security_convergence" title="Security convergence">security convergence</a> schema. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Vulnerabilities_and_attacks">1 Vulnerabilities and attacks</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Backdoor">1.1 Backdoor</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Denial-of-service_attack">1.2 Denial-of-service attack</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Physical_access_attacks">1.3 Physical access attacks</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Eavesdropping">1.4 Eavesdropping</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Malware">1.5 Malware</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Man-in-the-middle_attacks">1.6 Man-in-the-middle attacks</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Multi-vector,_polymorphic_attacks">1.7 Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Phishing">1.8 Phishing</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Privilege_escalation">1.9 Privilege escalation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Side-channel_attack">1.10 Side-channel attack</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Social_engineering">1.11 Social engineering</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Spoofing">1.12 Spoofing</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Tampering">1.13 Tampering</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#HTML_smuggling">1.14 HTML smuggling</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Information_security_practices">2 Information security practices</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Computer_protection_(countermeasures)">3 Computer protection (countermeasures)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Security_by_design">3.1 Security by design</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Security_architecture">3.2 Security architecture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Security_measures">3.3 Security measures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Vulnerability_management">3.4 Vulnerability management</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Reducing_vulnerabilities">3.5 Reducing vulnerabilities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Hardware_protection_mechanisms">3.6 Hardware protection mechanisms</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Secure_operating_systems">3.7 Secure operating systems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Secure_coding">3.8 Secure coding</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Capabilities_and_access_control_lists">3.9 Capabilities and access control lists</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#User_security_training">3.10 User security training</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Digital_hygiene">3.11 Digital hygiene</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Difficulty_of_responding_to_breaches">3.12 Difficulty of responding to breaches</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Types_of_security_and_privacy">3.13 Types of security and privacy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Systems_at_risk">4 Systems at risk</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Financial_systems">4.1 Financial systems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Utilities_and_industrial_equipment">4.2 Utilities and industrial equipment</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Aviation">4.3 Aviation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Consumer_devices">4.4 Consumer devices</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Healthcare">4.5 Healthcare</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Large_corporations">4.6 Large corporations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Automobiles">4.7 Automobiles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Shipping">4.8 Shipping</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Government">4.9 Government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Internet_of_things_and_physical_vulnerabilities">4.10 Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Medical_systems">4.11 Medical systems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Energy_sector">4.12 Energy sector</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Telecommunications">4.13 Telecommunications</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Cost_and_impact_of_security_breaches">5 Cost and impact of security breaches</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="#Attacker_motivation">6 Attacker motivation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="#Computer_security_incident_management">7 Computer security incident management</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="#Notable_attacks_and_breaches">8 Notable attacks and breaches</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Robert_Morris_and_the_first_computer_worm">8.1 Robert Morris and the first computer worm</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Rome_Laboratory">8.2 Rome Laboratory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><a href="#TJX_customer_credit_card_details">8.3 TJX customer credit card details</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#Stuxnet_attack">8.4 Stuxnet attack</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Global_surveillance_disclosures">8.5 Global surveillance disclosures</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><a href="#Target_and_Home_Depot_breaches">8.6 Target and Home Depot breaches</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-55"><a href="#Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach">8.7 Office of Personnel Management data breach</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#Ashley_Madison_breach">8.8 Ashley Madison breach</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><a href="#Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack">8.9 Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><a href="#Legal_issues_and_global_regulation">9 Legal issues and global regulation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-59"><a href="#Role_of_government">10 Role of government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-60"><a href="#International_actions">11 International actions</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><a href="#Europe">11.1 Europe</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-62"><a href="#National_actions">12 National actions</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-63"><a href="#Computer_emergency_response_teams">12.1 Computer emergency response teams</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-64"><a href="#Canada">12.1.1 Canada</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-65"><a href="#Australia">12.1.2 Australia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-66"><a href="#India">12.1.3 India</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-67"><a href="#South_Korea">12.1.4 South Korea</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-68"><a href="#United_States">12.1.5 United States</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-69"><a href="#Cyber_Plan">12.1.5.1 Cyber Plan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-70"><a href="#Legislation">12.1.5.2 Legislation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-71"><a href="#Standardized_government_testing_services">12.1.5.3 Standardized government testing services</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-72"><a href="#Agencies">12.1.5.4 Agencies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-73"><a href="#Computer_emergency_readiness_team">12.1.5.5 Computer emergency readiness team</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-74"><a href="#U.S._NRC,_10_CFR_73.54_Cybersecurity">13 U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-75"><a href="#NEI_08-09:_Cybersecurity_Plan_for_Nuclear_Power_Plants">14 NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-76"><a href="#Modern_warfare">15 Modern warfare</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-77"><a href="#Careers">16 Careers</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-78"><a href="#Security_analyst">16.1 Security analyst</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-79"><a href="#Security_engineer">16.2 Security engineer</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-80"><a href="#Security_architect">16.3 Security architect</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-81"><a href="#Chief_Information_Security_Officer_(CISO)">16.4 Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-82"><a href="#Chief_Security_Officer_(CSO)">16.5 Chief Security Officer (CSO)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-83"><a href="#Data_Protection_Officer_(DPO)">16.6 Data Protection Officer (DPO)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-84"><a href="#Security_Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence">16.7 Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-85"><a href="#Terminology">17 Terminology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-86"><a href="#History">18 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-87"><a href="#Notable_scholars">19 Notable scholars</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-88"><a href="#See_also">20 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-89"><a href="#References">21 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-90"><a href="#Further_reading">22 Further reading</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Vulnerabilities_and_attacks">Vulnerabilities and attacks</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Vulnerabilities and attacks" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability (computing)</a></div> A vulnerability refers to a flaw in the structure, execution, functioning, or internal oversight of a computer or system that compromises its security. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the <a href="/wiki/Common_Vulnerabilities_and_Exposures" title="Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures">Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures</a> (CVE) database.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> An exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working <a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">attack</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploit</a> exists.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Actors maliciously seeking vulnerabilities are known as <a href="/wiki/Threat_(computer_security)" title="Threat (computer security)">threats</a>. Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using <a href="/wiki/Automated_threat" title="Automated threat">automated tools</a> or customized scripts.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks; however, different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others.<a href="#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10">[10]</a> In April 2023, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom Government">United Kingdom</a> Department for Science, Innovation & Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the last 12 months.<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_breaches_2023-11">[11]</a> They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities, and 554 education institutions. The research found that "32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months." These figures were much higher for "medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%), and high-income charities with £500,000 or more in annual income (56%)."<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_breaches_2023-11">[11]</a> Yet, although medium or large businesses are more often the victims, since larger companies have generally improved their security over the last decade, <a href="/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises" title="Small and medium-sized enterprises">small and midsize businesses</a> (SMBs) have also become increasingly vulnerable as they often "do not have advanced tools to defend the business."<a href="#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10">[10]</a> SMBs are most likely to be affected by malware, ransomware, phishing, <a href="/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack" title="Man-in-the-middle attack">man-in-the-middle attacks</a>, and Denial-of Service (DoS) Attacks.<a href="#cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10">[10]</a> Normal internet users are most likely to be affected by untargeted cyberattacks.<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_attacks-12">[12]</a> These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services, or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the openness of the Internet. These strategies mostly include <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">phishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Watering_hole_attack" title="Watering hole attack">water holing</a> and scanning.<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_attacks-12">[12]</a> To secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these <a href="/wiki/Threat_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Threat (computer)">threats</a> can typically be classified into one of the following categories: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backdoor">Backdoor</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Backdoor" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A <a href="/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">backdoor</a> in a computer system, a <a href="/wiki/Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">cryptosystem</a>, or an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> is any secret method of bypassing normal <a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> or security controls. These weaknesses may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals. Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access or by an attacker for malicious reasons. <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Criminals</a> often use <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a> to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system.<a href="#cite_note-McAfee-2023-14">[14]</a> Once they have access, cybercriminals can "modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer."<a href="#cite_note-McAfee-2023-14">[14]</a> Backdoors can be very hard to detect and are usually discovered by someone who has access to the application source code or intimate knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> of the computer. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denial-of-service_attack">Denial-of-service attack</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Denial-of-service attack" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial-of-service attacks">Denial-of-service attacks</a> (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users.<a href="#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15">[15]</a> Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack#Distributed_DoS" title="Denial-of-service attack">distributed denial-of-service</a> (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case, defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the <a href="/wiki/Zombie_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Zombie computer">zombie computers</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Botnet" title="Botnet">botnet</a> or from a range of other possible techniques, including <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack#Reflected_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">distributed reflective denial-of-service</a> (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.<a href="#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15">[15]</a> With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. To understand why attackers may carry out these attacks, see the 'attacker motivation' section. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_access_attacks">Physical access attacks</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Physical access attacks" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physical_access" title="Physical access">Physical access</a></div> A direct-access attack is when an unauthorized user (an attacker) gains physical access to a computer, most likely to directly copy data from it or steal information.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">software worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">keyloggers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Covert_listening_device" title="Covert listening device">covert listening devices</a> or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a <a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a> or other bootable media. <a href="/wiki/Disk_encryption" title="Disk encryption">Disk encryption</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trusted_Platform_Module" title="Trusted Platform Module">Trusted Platform Module</a> standard are designed to prevent these attacks. Direct service attackers are related in concept to <a href="/wiki/DMA_attack" title="DMA attack">direct memory attacks</a> which allow an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory.<a href="#cite_note-Kroll-17">[17]</a> The attacks "take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allows certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards, or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly."<a href="#cite_note-Kroll-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Eavesdropping" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a> is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), usually between hosts on a network. It typically occurs when a user connects to a network where traffic is not secured or encrypted and sends sensitive business data to a colleague, which, when listened to by an attacker, could be exploited.<a href="#cite_note-Fortinet-18">[18]</a> Data transmitted across an "open network" allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a>, direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice.<a href="#cite_note-Fortinet-18">[18]</a> In fact, "the attacker does not need to have any ongoing connection to the software at all. The attacker can insert the software onto a compromised device, perhaps by direct insertion or perhaps by a virus or other malware, and then come back some time later to retrieve any data that is found or trigger the software to send the data at some determined time."<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Using a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">virtual private network</a> (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using <a href="/wiki/HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a> instead of an unencrypted <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Programs such as <a href="/wiki/Carnivore_(FBI)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivore (FBI)">Carnivore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narus_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Narus (company)">NarusInSight</a> have been used by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">internet service providers</a>. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> transmissions generated by the hardware. <a href="/wiki/Tempest_(codename)" title="Tempest (codename)">TEMPEST</a> is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malware">Malware</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Malware" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Malicious software (<a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a>) is any software code or computer program "intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users."<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a> Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Another type of malware is <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a>, which is when "malware installs itself onto a victim's machine, encrypts their files, and then turns around and demands a ransom (usually in <a href="/wiki/Bitcoin" title="Bitcoin">Bitcoin</a>) to return that data to the user."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Types of malware include some of the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Viruses</a> are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intention to "do damage and spread copies of itself." Copies are made with the aim to spread to other programs on a computer.<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">Worms</a> are similar to viruses, however viruses can only function when a user runs (opens) a compromised program. Worms are self-replicating malware that spread between programs, apps and devices without the need for human interaction.<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horses</a> are programs that pretend to be helpful or hide themselves within desired or legitimate software to "trick users into installing them." Once installed, a RAT (remote access trojan) can create a secret backdoor on the affected device to cause damage.<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a> is a type of malware that secretly gathers information from an infected computer and transmits the sensitive information back to the attacker. One of the most common forms of spyware are <a href="/wiki/Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">keyloggers</a>, which record all of a user's keyboard inputs/keystrokes, to "allow hackers to harvest usernames, passwords, bank account and credit card numbers."<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scareware" title="Scareware">Scareware</a>, as the name suggests, is a form of <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a> which uses <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">social engineering</a> (manipulation) to scare, <a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">shock</a>, trigger <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, or suggest the perception of a threat in order to manipulate users into buying or installing <a href="/wiki/Potentially_unwanted_program" title="Potentially unwanted program">unwanted software</a>. These attacks often begin with a "sudden pop-up with an urgent message, usually warning the user that they've broken the law or their device has a virus."<a href="#cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">[21]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Man-in-the-middle_attacks">Man-in-the-middle attacks</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Man-in-the-middle attacks" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack" title="Man-in-the-middle attack">Man-in-the-middle attacks</a> (MITM) involve a malicious attacker trying to intercept, surveil or modify communications between two parties by spoofing one or both party's identities and injecting themselves in-between.<a href="#cite_note-verizon-mitm-24">[24]</a> Types of MITM attacks include: <ul><li>IP address spoofing is where the attacker hijacks routing protocols to reroute the targets traffic to a vulnerable network node for traffic interception or injection.</li> <li>Message spoofing (via email, SMS or OTT messaging) is where the attacker spoofs the identity or carrier service while the target is using messaging protocols like email, SMS or OTT (IP-based) messaging apps. The attacker can then monitor conversations, launch social attacks or trigger zero-day-vulnerabilities to allow for further attacks.</li> <li>WiFi SSID spoofing is where the attacker simulates a WIFI base station SSID to capture and modify internet traffic and transactions. The attacker can also use local network addressing and reduced network defenses to penetrate the target's firewall by breaching known vulnerabilities. Sometimes known as a Pineapple attack thanks to a popular device. See also <a href="/wiki/Wireless_security#Malicious_association" title="Wireless security">Malicious association</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNS_spoofing" title="DNS spoofing">DNS spoofing</a> is where attackers hijack domain name assignments to redirect traffic to systems under the attackers control, in order to surveil traffic or launch other attacks.</li> <li>SSL hijacking, typically coupled with another media-level MITM attack, is where the attacker spoofs the SSL authentication and encryption protocol by way of Certificate Authority injection in order to decrypt, surveil and modify traffic. See also <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security#TLS_interception" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS interception</a><a href="#cite_note-verizon-mitm-24">[24]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-vector,_polymorphic_attacks">Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> polymorphic<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread. Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic.<a href="#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-27">[27]</a> Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are “multi-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications." However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that “they can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network.”<a href="#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-27">[27]</a> The attacks can be polymorphic, meaning that the cyberattacks used such as viruses, worms or trojans “constantly change (“morph”) making it nearly impossible to detect them using signature-based defences.”<a href="#cite_note-Tounsi-2019-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phishing">Phishing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phishing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhishingTrustedBank.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/PhishingTrustedBank.png/220px-PhishingTrustedBank.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="408"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/PhishingTrustedBank.png/220px-PhishingTrustedBank.png" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/PhishingTrustedBank.png/330px-PhishingTrustedBank.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/PhishingTrustedBank.png/440px-PhishingTrustedBank.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An example of a phishing email, disguised as an official <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a> from a (fictional) bank. The sender is attempting to trick the recipient into revealing confidential information by confirming it at the phisher's website. Note the misspelling of the words received and discrepancy as recieved and discrepency, respectively. Although the <a href="/wiki/URL" title="URL">URL</a> of the bank's <a href="/wiki/Webpage" class="mw-redirect" title="Webpage">webpage</a> appears to be legitimate, the hyperlink points at the phisher's webpage.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">Phishing</a> is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Phishing is typically carried out by <a href="/wiki/Email_spoofing" title="Email spoofing">email spoofing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">text message</a>, or on a <a href="/wiki/Telephone_call" title="Telephone call">phone</a> call. They often direct users to enter details at a fake website whose <a href="/wiki/Look_and_feel" title="Look and feel">look and feel</a> are almost identical to the legitimate one.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website. Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">social engineering</a>. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts.<a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Privilege_escalation">Privilege escalation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Privilege escalation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Privilege_escalation" title="Privilege escalation">Privilege escalation</a> describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level.<a href="#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-32">[32]</a> For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">vulnerability</a> in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become <a href="/wiki/Superuser" title="Superuser">root</a> and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware attack</a> on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">social engineering</a> techniques, often <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">phishing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-32">[32]</a> Privilege escalation can be separated into two strategies, horizontal and vertical privilege escalation: <ul><li>Horizontal escalation (or account takeover) is where an attacker gains access to a normal user account that has relatively low-level privileges. This may be through stealing the user's username and password. Once they have access, they have gained a “foothold,” and using this foothold the attacker then may move around the network of users at this same lower level, gaining access to information of this similar privilege.<a href="#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-32">[32]</a></li> <li>Vertical escalation however targets people higher up in a company and often with more administrative power, such as an employee in IT with a higher privilege. Using this privileged account will then enable the attacker to invade other accounts.<a href="#cite_note-Privilege_escalation-32">[32]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Side-channel_attack">Side-channel attack</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Side-channel attack" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">Side-channel attack</a></div> Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment can range from electromagnetic radiation, to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequence make a <a href="/wiki/Cold_boot_attack" title="Cold boot attack">Cold boot attack</a> possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure. The target information in a side channel can be challenging to detect due to its low amplitude when combined with other signals <a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_engineering">Social engineering</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Social engineering" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a>, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a>. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">phishing</a> attacks. In early 2016, the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> reported that such <a href="/wiki/Business_email_compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Business email compromise">business email compromise</a> (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In May 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee_Bucks" title="Milwaukee Bucks">Milwaukee Bucks</a> <a href="/wiki/NBA" class="mw-redirect" title="NBA">NBA</a> team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Feigin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Feigin (page does not exist)">Peter Feigin</a>, resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 <a href="/wiki/Form_W-2" title="Form W-2">W-2</a> tax forms.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spoofing">Spoofing</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Spoofing" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spoofing_attack" title="Spoofing attack">Spoofing attack</a></div> Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">phishing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> There are several types of spoofing, including: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Email_spoofing" title="Email spoofing">Email spoofing</a>, is where an attacker forges the sending (From, or source) address of an email.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IP_address_spoofing" title="IP address spoofing">IP address spoofing</a>, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a <a href="/wiki/Network_packet" title="Network packet">network packet</a> to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAC_spoofing" title="MAC spoofing">MAC spoofing</a>, where an attacker modifies the <a href="/wiki/MAC_address" title="MAC address">Media Access Control (MAC) address</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">network interface controller</a> to obscure their identity, or to pose as another.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biometrics" title="Biometrics">Biometric</a> spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol" title="Address Resolution Protocol">Address Resolution Protocol</a> (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> to associate their <a href="/wiki/MAC_address" title="MAC address">Media Access Control address</a> with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host.</li></ul> In 2018, the cybersecurity firm <a href="/wiki/Trellix" title="Trellix">Trellix</a> published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tampering">Tampering</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tampering" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Tampering_(crime)" title="Tampering (crime)">Tampering</a> describes a <a href="/wiki/Evasion_(network_security)" title="Evasion (network security)">malicious modification</a> or alteration of data. It is an intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called <a href="/wiki/Evil_Maid_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Evil Maid attack">Evil Maid attacks</a> and security services planting of <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a> capability into routers are examples.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="HTML_smuggling">HTML smuggling</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: HTML smuggling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> smuggling allows an attacker to "smuggle" a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page.<a href="#cite_note-Intelligence-2021-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat <a href="/wiki/Content_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Content filter">content filters</a>. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then "decodes" the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device.<a href="#cite_note-Intelligence-2021-42">[42]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Information_security_practices">Information security practices</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Information security practices" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> Employee behavior can have a big impact on <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a> in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the "...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds."<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.<a href="#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-47">[47]</a> <ul><li>Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies.</li> <li>Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it.</li> <li>Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program.<a href="#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-47">[47]</a></li> <li>Implementation: Four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ol><li>Commitment of the management</li> <li>Communication with organizational members</li> <li>Courses for all organizational members</li> <li>Commitment of the employees<a href="#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-47">[47]</a></li></ol></dd></dl> <ul><li>Post-evaluation: To assess the success of the planning and implementation, and to identify unresolved areas of concern.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Computer_protection_(countermeasures)">Computer protection (countermeasures)</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Computer protection (countermeasures)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> In computer security, a <a href="/wiki/Countermeasure_(computer)" title="Countermeasure (computer)">countermeasure</a> is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an <a href="/wiki/Attack_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attack (computing)">attack</a> by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_by_design">Security by design</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Security by design" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">Secure by design</a></div> Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature. The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separates secure cyber design principles into five sections:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <ol><li>Before a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create and identify any weaknesses in the system.</li> <li>Companies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers.</li> <li>Companies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the systems are essentially never down.</li> <li>Although systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them.</li> <li>Companies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is "successful" has minimal severity.</li></ol> These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_least_privilege" title="Principle of least privilege">principle of least privilege</a>, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (computer security)">attacker</a> gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">Automated theorem proving</a> to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_review" title="Code review">Code reviews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unit_testing" title="Unit testing">unit testing</a>, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_in_depth_(computing)" title="Defense in depth (computing)">Defense in depth</a>, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.</li> <li>Default secure settings, and design to fail secure rather than fail insecure (see <a href="/wiki/Fail-safe" title="Fail-safe">fail-safe</a> for the equivalent in <a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a>). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_trail" title="Audit trail">Audit trails</a> track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_disclosure_(computer_security)" title="Full disclosure (computer security)">Full disclosure</a> of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the window of vulnerability is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_architecture">Security architecture</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Security architecture" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Security architecture can be defined as the "practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals."<a href="#cite_note-NSCS_security_arch-52">[52]</a> These goals have overlap with the principles of "security by design" explored above, including to "make initial compromise of the system difficult," and to "limit the impact of any compromise."<a href="#cite_note-NSCS_security_arch-52">[52]</a> In practice, the role of a security architect would be to ensure the structure of a system reinforces the security of the system, and that new changes are safe and meet the security requirements of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are:<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <ul><li>the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other.</li> <li>determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters.</li> <li>the standardization of controls.</li></ul> Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_measures">Security measures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Security measures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following: <ul><li>Limiting the access of individuals using <a href="/wiki/User_account" class="mw-redirect" title="User account">user account</a> <a href="/wiki/Access_control" title="Access control">access controls</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> can protect systems files and data, respectively.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(networking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Firewall (networking)">Firewalls</a> are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network.<a href="#cite_note-Oppliger-1997-56">[56]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_Detection_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion Detection System">Intrusion Detection System</a> (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack <a href="/wiki/Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensics</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Audit_trail" title="Audit trail">audit trails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_logging" class="mw-redirect" title="Data logging">logs</a> serve a similar function for individual systems.</li> <li>Response is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of <a href="/wiki/Legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal">legal</a> authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected.</li> <li>Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li> <li>Forward web <a href="/wiki/Proxy_server" title="Proxy server">proxy</a> solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines.</li></ul> Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like <a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">firewalls</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Exit_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Exit procedure">exit procedure</a>. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the <a href="/wiki/Network_stack" class="mw-redirect" title="Network stack">network stack</a> (or, in the case of most <a href="/wiki/UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIX">UNIX</a>-based operating systems such as <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, built into the operating system <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a>) to provide real-time filtering and blocking.<a href="#cite_note-Oppliger-1997-56">[56]</a> Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall, which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet. Some organizations are turning to <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a> platforms, such as <a href="/wiki/Apache_Hadoop" title="Apache Hadoop">Apache Hadoop</a>, to extend data accessibility and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> to detect <a href="/wiki/Advanced_persistent_threat" title="Advanced persistent threat">advanced persistent threats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vulnerability_management">Vulnerability management</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vulnerability management" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_management" title="Vulnerability management">Vulnerability management</a></div> Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating <a href="/wiki/Software_vulnerability" class="mw-redirect" title="Software vulnerability">vulnerabilities</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> especially in software and <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a>. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and <a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">network security</a>. Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_scanner" title="Vulnerability scanner">vulnerability scanner</a>, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Open_port" title="Open port">open ports</a>, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a>. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently. Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular <a href="/wiki/Penetration_test" title="Penetration test">penetration tests</a> against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_vulnerabilities">Reducing vulnerabilities</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Reducing vulnerabilities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Information_technology_security_assessment" title="Information technology security assessment">information technology security assessments</a>. They aim to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While <a href="/wiki/Formal_verification" title="Formal verification">formal verification</a> of the correctness of computer systems is possible,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include <a href="/wiki/SeL4" class="mw-redirect" title="SeL4">seL4</a>,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> and <a href="/wiki/SYSGO" title="SYSGO">SYSGO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/PikeOS" title="PikeOS">PikeOS</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> – but these make up a very small percentage of the market. It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and by hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from "conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Whilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss/damage can be also reduced by careful <a href="/wiki/Backup" title="Backup">backing up</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>. Outside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities. <a href="/wiki/Two_factor_authentication" class="mw-redirect" title="Two factor authentication">Two factor authentication</a> is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> It requires something you know: a password or PIN, and something you have: a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access. Protecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only happen by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent. Inoculation, derived from <a href="/wiki/Inoculation_theory" title="Inoculation theory">inoculation theory</a>, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks and traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardware_protection_mechanisms">Hardware protection mechanisms</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hardware protection mechanisms" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Computer_security_compromised_by_hardware_failure" title="Computer security compromised by hardware failure">Computer security compromised by hardware failure</a></div> Hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as <a href="/wiki/Dongle" title="Dongle">dongles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trusted_platform_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusted platform module">trusted platform modules</a>, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below. <ul><li>USB <a href="/wiki/Dongle" title="Dongle">dongles</a> are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard" title="Advanced Encryption Standard">Advanced Encryption Standard</a> (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or <a href="/wiki/Virtual_Private_Networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual Private Networks">Virtual Private Networks</a> (VPNs).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusted_platform_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusted platform module">Trusted platform modules</a> (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_case#Intrusion_detection" title="Computer case">Computer case intrusion detection</a> refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time.</li> <li>Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li>Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks.</li> <li>Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices (like camera, GPS, removable storage, etc.), that are not in use.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li>Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Built-in capabilities such as <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a>, the newer <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth_low_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bluetooth low energy">Bluetooth low energy</a> (LE), <a href="/wiki/Near-field_communication" title="Near-field communication">near-field communication</a> (NFC) on non-iOS devices and <a href="/wiki/Biometrics" title="Biometrics">biometric</a> validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as <a href="/wiki/QR_code" title="QR code">QR code</a> reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IOMMU" class="mw-redirect" title="IOMMU">IOMMUs</a> allow for hardware-based <a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandboxing</a> of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing <a href="/wiki/Direct_memory_access" title="Direct memory access">direct memory access</a> protections.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_unclonable_function" title="Physical unclonable function">Physical Unclonable Functions</a> (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secure_operating_systems">Secure operating systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Secure operating systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Security-evaluated_operating_system" title="Security-evaluated operating system">Security-evaluated operating system</a></div> One use of the term computer security refers to technology that is used to implement <a href="/wiki/Security-evaluated_operating_system" title="Security-evaluated operating system">secure operating systems</a>. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are <a href="/wiki/Common_Criteria" title="Common Criteria">Common Criteria</a> (CC).<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secure_coding">Secure coding</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Secure coding" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Secure_coding" title="Secure coding">Secure coding</a></div> In software engineering, <a href="/wiki/Secure_coding" title="Secure coding">secure coding</a> aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are <a href="/wiki/Secure_by_design" title="Secure by design">secure by design</a>. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the <a href="/wiki/Correctness_(computer_science)" title="Correctness (computer science)">correctness</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> underlying a system;<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> important for <a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_protocol" title="Cryptographic protocol">cryptographic protocols</a> for example. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capabilities_and_access_control_lists">Capabilities and access control lists</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Capabilities and access control lists" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Access_control_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Access control list">Access control list</a>, <a href="/wiki/Role-based_access_control" title="Role-based access control">Role-based access control</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Capability-based_security" title="Capability-based security">Capability-based security</a></div> Within computer systems, two of the main <a href="/wiki/Computer_security_model" title="Computer security model">security models</a> capable of enforcing privilege separation are <a href="/wiki/Access_control_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Access control list">access control lists</a> (ACLs) and <a href="/wiki/Role-based_access_control" title="Role-based access control">role-based access control</a> (RBAC). An <a href="/wiki/Access-control_list" title="Access-control list">access-control list</a> (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2002-91">[91]</a> and can implement <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_access_control" title="Mandatory access control">mandatory access control</a> (MAC) or <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_access_control" title="Discretionary access control">discretionary access control</a> (DAC). A further approach, <a href="/wiki/Capability-based_security" title="Capability-based security">capability-based security</a> has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the <a href="/wiki/E_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="E programming language">E language</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User_security_training">User security training</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: User security training" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats. The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_hygiene">Digital hygiene</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Digital hygiene" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Related to end-user training, digital hygiene or cyber hygiene is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with <a href="/wiki/Personal_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal hygiene">personal hygiene</a> shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks.<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-99">[99]</a> Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for <a href="/wiki/Proactive_cyber_defence" title="Proactive cyber defence">proactive cyber defence</a>, a military term.<a href="#cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-100">[100]</a> The most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> or education.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts. Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term computer virus was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> the term cyber hygiene is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> by Internet pioneer <a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a>. It has since been adopted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> of the United States,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> the FBI,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> institutions<a href="#cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-99">[99]</a> and heads of state.<a href="#cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difficulty_of_responding_to_breaches">Difficulty of responding to breaches</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Difficulty of responding to breaches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Responding to attempted <a href="/wiki/Security_breaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Security breaches">security breaches</a> is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including: <ul><li>Identifying attackers is difficult, as they may operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back-tracing difficult – and are often located in another <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>. If they successfully breach security, they have also often gained enough administrative access to enable them to delete <a href="/wiki/Data_logging" class="mw-redirect" title="Data logging">logs</a> to cover their tracks.</li> <li>The sheer number of attempted attacks, often by automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms, is so large that organizations cannot spend time pursuing each.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_officer" title="Law enforcement officer">Law enforcement officers</a> often lack the skills, interest or budget to pursue attackers. Furthermore, identifying attackers across a network may necessitate collecting logs from multiple locations within the network and across various countries, a process that can be both difficult and time-consuming.</li></ul> Where an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory <a href="/wiki/Security_breach_notification_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Security breach notification laws">security breach notification laws</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_security_and_privacy">Types of security and privacy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Types of security and privacy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_control" title="Access control">Access control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-keylogger" title="Anti-keylogger">Anti-keyloggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-malware" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-malware">Anti-malware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-spyware" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-spyware">Anti-spyware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-subversion_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-subversion software">Anti-subversion software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tamper_software" title="Anti-tamper software">Anti-tamper software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-theft">Anti-theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antivirus_software" title="Antivirus software">Antivirus software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptographic software">Cryptographic software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_dispatch" title="Computer-aided dispatch">Computer-aided dispatch</a> (CAD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_loss_prevention_software" title="Data loss prevention software">Data loss prevention software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">Firewall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a> (IDS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_prevention_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion prevention system">Intrusion prevention system</a> (IPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_management_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Log management software">Log management software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Parental control">Parental control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">Records management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">Sandbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_information_management" title="Security information management">Security information management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_information_and_event_management" title="Security information and event management">Security information and event management</a> (SIEM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_(computing)" title="Patch (computing)">Software and operating system updating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability Management">Vulnerability Management</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Systems_at_risk">Systems at risk</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Systems at risk" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_systems">Financial systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Financial systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission</a>, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">cybercriminals</a> interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Websites and apps that accept or store <a href="/wiki/Credit_card_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit card number">credit card numbers</a>, brokerage accounts, and <a href="/wiki/Bank_account" title="Bank account">bank account</a> information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In-store payment systems and <a href="/wiki/Automated_teller_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated teller machine">ATMs</a> have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and <a href="/wiki/Personal_identification_number" title="Personal identification number">PINs</a>. The <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a> Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about <a href="/wiki/Credit_card" title="Credit card">credit card</a> security.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (<a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a>), <a href="/wiki/Identity_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity management">identity management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> services, and <a href="/wiki/Domain_name" title="Domain name">domain name</a> services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/VoIP" class="mw-redirect" title="VoIP">VoIP</a> (voice-over-IP). There are various <a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">interoperable</a> implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a>. Open source allows anyone to view the application's <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, and look for and report vulnerabilities. The credit card companies <a href="/wiki/Visa_Debit" title="Visa Debit">Visa</a> and <a href="/wiki/MasterCard" class="mw-redirect" title="MasterCard">MasterCard</a> cooperated to develop the secure <a href="/wiki/EMV" title="EMV">EMV</a> chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the <a href="/wiki/Chip_Authentication_Program" title="Chip Authentication Program">Chip Authentication Program</a> where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping <a href="/wiki/Mall_kiosk" title="Mall kiosk">mall kiosks</a> acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utilities_and_industrial_equipment">Utilities and industrial equipment</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Utilities and industrial equipment" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Power grid">power grid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the <a href="/wiki/Stuxnet" title="Stuxnet">Stuxnet</a> worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Computer_Emergency_Readiness_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Emergency Readiness Team">Computer Emergency Readiness Team</a>, a division of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a>, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aviation">Aviation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Aviation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a> industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Implementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> In Europe, with the (<a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Network_Service" title="Pan-European Network Service">Pan-European Network Service</a>)<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> and NewPENS,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> and in the US with the NextGen program,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Air_navigation_service_provider" title="Air navigation service provider">air navigation service providers</a> are moving to create their own dedicated networks. Many modern passports are now <a href="/wiki/Biometric_passport" title="Biometric passport">biometric passports</a>, containing an embedded <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">microchip</a> that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] are introducing <a href="/wiki/Facial_recognition_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Facial recognition technology">facial recognition technology</a> to reduce <a href="/wiki/Identity_fraud" title="Identity fraud">identity-related fraud</a>. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Plans are under way in the US, the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and <a href="/wiki/Fingerprint_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingerprint recognition">fingerprint recognition</a> technology.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_ticket" title="Electronic ticket">electronic tickets</a> (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today. The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumer_devices">Consumer devices</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Consumer devices" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablet computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smart_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart watch">smart watches</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Mobile_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile devices">mobile devices</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Quantified_self" title="Quantified self">quantified self</a> devices like <a href="/wiki/Activity_tracker" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity tracker">activity trackers</a> have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and <a href="/wiki/Accelerometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerometers">accelerometers</a> which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.<a href="#cite_note-nestwatch-124">[124]</a> The increasing number of <a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">home automation</a> devices such as the <a href="/wiki/Nest_thermostat" class="mw-redirect" title="Nest thermostat">Nest thermostat</a> are also potential targets.<a href="#cite_note-nestwatch-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Healthcare">Healthcare</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Healthcare" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Today many healthcare providers and <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">health insurance</a> companies use the internet to provide enhanced products and services. Examples are the use of <a href="/wiki/Telehealth" title="Telehealth">tele-health</a> to potentially offer better quality and access to healthcare, or fitness trackers to lower insurance premiums. Hospitals increasingly use interconnected devices within their networks. This is called <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of Things (IoT)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Connecting multiple devices within the hospital introduces various benefits, such as automated detection of patient parameters, electronic dose adjustments, and decision support for clinicians.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> However, as these devices serve as potential access points to the hospital network, security threats increase, and hospitals have to introduce adequate security measures which, for example, comply with the <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The health care company <a href="/wiki/Humana" title="Humana">Humana</a> partners with <a href="/wiki/WebMD" title="WebMD">WebMD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Data_Systems" title="Electronic Data Systems">EDS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> to enable its members to access their health care records, as well as to provide an overview of health care plans.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Patient records are increasingly being placed on secure in-house networks, alleviating the need for extra storage space.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large_corporations">Large corporations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Large corporations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through <a href="/wiki/Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a> and involve <a href="/wiki/Data_breach" title="Data breach">data breaches</a>. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by <a href="/wiki/Home_Depot" title="Home Depot">Home Depot</a>,<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Staples_Inc." title="Staples Inc.">Staples</a>,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Target_Corporation" title="Target Corporation">Target Corporation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equifax" title="Equifax">Equifax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm <a href="/wiki/HBGary_Federal" class="mw-redirect" title="HBGary Federal">HBGary Federal</a> had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from <a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">hacktivist</a> group <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a> in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group,<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sony_Pictures" title="Sony Pictures">Sony Pictures</a> was <a href="/wiki/Sony_Pictures_hack" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony Pictures hack">hacked in 2014</a> with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automobiles">Automobiles</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Automobiles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_car#Potential_disadvantages" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous car">Autonomous car § Potential disadvantages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automated_driving_system#Risks_and_liabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated driving system">Automated driving system § Risks and liabilities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Automotive_hacking" title="Automotive hacking">Automotive hacking</a></div> Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, <a href="/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-lock_brakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-lock brakes">anti-lock brakes</a>, seat belt tensioners, door locks, <a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">airbags</a> and <a href="/wiki/Advanced_driver-assistance_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced driver-assistance systems">advanced driver-assistance systems</a> on many models. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Connected_car" title="Connected car">connected cars</a> may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network.<a href="#cite_note-vox-140">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Self-driving_car" title="Self-driving car">Self-driving cars</a> are expected to be even more complex. All of these systems carry some security risks, and such issues have gained wide attention.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Simple examples of risk include a malicious <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">compact disc</a> being used as an attack vector,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal <a href="/wiki/Controller_area_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Controller area network">controller area network</a>, the danger is much greater<a href="#cite_note-vox-140">[140]</a> – and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with <a href="/wiki/Tesla_Motors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tesla Motors">Tesla</a> in 2016 pushing out some security fixes over the air into its cars' computer systems.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Transportation" title="United States Department of Transportation">United States Department of Transportation</a> announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Additionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of <a href="/wiki/Monterrey" title="Monterrey">Monterrey</a>, in the state of <a href="/wiki/Nuevo_Le%C3%B3n" title="Nuevo León">Nuevo León</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shipping">Shipping</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Shipping" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Shipping companies<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> have adopted <a href="/wiki/RFID" class="mw-redirect" title="RFID">RFID</a> (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, <a href="/wiki/Tracking_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracking device">tracking device</a>. Unlike a <a href="/wiki/Barcode" title="Barcode">barcode</a>, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by <a href="/wiki/FedEx" title="FedEx">FedEx</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Parcel_Service" title="United Parcel Service">UPS</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Government and <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> computer systems are commonly attacked by activists<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> and foreign powers.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Local and regional government infrastructure such as <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">traffic light</a> controls, police and intelligence agency communications, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach" title="Office of Personnel Management data breach">personnel records</a>, as well as student records.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a>, <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">Pentagon</a>, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_of_things_and_physical_vulnerabilities">Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a> (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded</a> with <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">network connectivity</a> that enables them to collect and exchange data.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> An attack aimed at physical infrastructure or human lives is often called a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances become more widespread, the prevalence and potential damage of cyber-kinetic attacks can increase substantially. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_systems">Medical systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Medical systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medical_device_hijack" title="Medical device hijack">Medical device hijack</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_data_breach" title="Medical data breach">Medical data breach</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Medical_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical devices">Medical devices</a> have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> and implanted devices including <a href="/wiki/Pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemaker">pacemakers</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insulin_pump" title="Insulin pump">insulin pumps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a> attacks,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-wiwo1-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Windows_XP" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a> exploits,<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> viruses,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-wiwo1-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> On 28 December 2016 the US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> released its recommendations for how medical <a href="/wiki/Medical_device_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical device manufacturing">device manufacturers</a> should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices – but no structure for enforcement.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_sector">Energy sector</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Energy sector" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to Daily Energy Insider. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, <a href="/wiki/Pepco" title="Pepco">Pepco</a>, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would "allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid."<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Telecommunications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the <a href="/wiki/Subscriber_Identity_Module" class="mw-redirect" title="Subscriber Identity Module">SIM</a> (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment. The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an <a href="/wiki/HTTP_server" class="mw-redirect" title="HTTP server">HTTP server</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Smart_card" title="Smart card">smart card</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Tests are being conducted to secure OTA ("over-the-air") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. Combination SIM/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>-compliant <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical disc</a> into the card body of a regular SIM card. Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include <a href="/wiki/Mobile_signature" title="Mobile signature">mobile signatures</a>, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding <a href="/wiki/Electronic_signature" title="Electronic signature">electronic signature</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Cost_and_impact_of_security_breaches">Cost and impact of security breaches</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Cost and impact of security breaches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> Serious financial damage has been caused by <a href="/wiki/Security_breaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Security breaches">security breaches</a>, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to <a href="/wiki/Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">virus</a> and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal."<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic <a href="/wiki/Gordon-Loeb_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon-Loeb Model">Gordon-Loeb Model</a> analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Expected_value" title="Expected value">expected value</a> of the loss resulting from a cyber/information <a href="/wiki/Security_breach" class="mw-redirect" title="Security breach">security breach</a>).<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Attacker_motivation">Attacker motivation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Attacker motivation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> As with <a href="/wiki/Physical_security" title="Physical security">physical security</a>, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandals</a>, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, as recounted by <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Stoll" title="Clifford Stoll">Clifford Stoll</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Cuckoo%27s_Egg" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cuckoo's Egg">The Cuckoo's Egg</a>. Attackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to political goals.<a href="#cite_note-DoS_guidance-15">[15]</a> For example, "hacktivists" may target a company or organization that carries out activities they do not agree with. This would be to create bad publicity for the company by having its website crash. High capability hackers, often with larger backing or state sponsorship, may attack based on the demands of their financial backers. These attacks are more likely to attempt more serious attack. An example of a more serious attack was the <a href="/wiki/2015_Ukraine_power_grid_hack" title="2015 Ukraine power grid hack">2015 Ukraine power grid hack</a>, which reportedly utilised the spear-phising, destruction of files, and denial-of-service attacks to carry out the full attack.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a> actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> A key aspect of threat modeling for any system is identifying the motivations behind potential attacks and the individuals or groups likely to carry them out. The level and detail of security measures will differ based on the specific system being protected. For instance, a home personal computer, a bank, and a classified military network each face distinct threats, despite using similar underlying technologies.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Computer_security_incident_management">Computer security incident management</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Computer security incident management" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_security_incident_management" title="Computer security incident management">Computer security incident management</a> is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a <a href="/wiki/Data_breach" title="Data breach">data breach</a> or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Incident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution. There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan: <ol><li>Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises</li> <li>Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident</li> <li>Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains</li> <li>Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></li></ol> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Notable_attacks_and_breaches">Notable attacks and breaches</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notable attacks and breaches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cyber-attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cyber-attacks">List of cyber-attacks</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_data_breaches" title="List of data breaches">List of data breaches</a></div> Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_Morris_and_the_first_computer_worm">Robert Morris and the first computer worm</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Robert Morris and the first computer worm" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morris_worm" title="Morris worm">Morris worm</a></div> In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">computer worm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-multiple-198">[198]</a> The software was traced back to 23-year-old <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> graduate student <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tappan_Morris" title="Robert Tappan Morris">Robert Tappan Morris</a> who said "he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet".<a href="#cite_note-multiple-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rome_Laboratory">Rome Laboratory</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Rome Laboratory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Laboratory" title="Rome Laboratory">Rome Laboratory</a>, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using <a href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">trojan horses</a>, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a>'s Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TJX_customer_credit_card_details">TJX customer credit card details</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: TJX customer credit card details" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company <a href="/wiki/TJX_Companies" title="TJX Companies">TJX</a> announced that it was the victim of an <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (computer security)">unauthorized computer systems intrusion</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on <a href="/wiki/Credit_card" title="Credit card">credit card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Debit_card" title="Debit card">debit card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">check</a>, and merchandise return transactions.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stuxnet_attack">Stuxnet attack</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Stuxnet attack" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 2010, the computer worm known as <a href="/wiki/Stuxnet" title="Stuxnet">Stuxnet</a> reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_centrifuge" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear centrifuge">nuclear centrifuges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> It did so by disrupting industrial <a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">programmable logic controllers</a> (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> – although neither has publicly admitted this. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_surveillance_disclosures">Global surveillance disclosures</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Global surveillance disclosures" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Global_surveillance_disclosures_(2013%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)">Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)</a></div> In early 2013, documents provided by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Snowden" title="Edward Snowden">Edward Snowden</a> were published by <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> exposing the massive scale of <a href="/wiki/NSA" class="mw-redirect" title="NSA">NSA</a> global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a <a href="/wiki/NIST" class="mw-redirect" title="NIST">NIST</a> standard for encryption.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>'s data centers.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Target_and_Home_Depot_breaches">Target and Home Depot breaches</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Target and Home Depot breaches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A Ukrainian hacker known as <a href="/wiki/Rescator" title="Rescator">Rescator</a> broke into <a href="/wiki/Target_Corporation" title="Target Corporation">Target Corporation</a> computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards,<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Home_Depot" title="Home Depot">Home Depot</a> computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using <a href="/wiki/Self-checkout" title="Self-checkout">self checkout machines</a> are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing <a href="/wiki/Antivirus_software" title="Antivirus software">antivirus software</a> had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach">Office of Personnel Management data breach</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Office of Personnel Management data breach" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In April 2015, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Personnel_Management" title="United States Office of Personnel Management">Office of Personnel Management</a> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Personnel_Management_data_breach" title="Office of Personnel Management data breach">discovered it had been hacked</a> more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled by the office.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Data targeted in the breach included <a href="/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Personally identifiable information">personally identifiable information</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_number" title="Social Security number">Social Security numbers</a>, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ashley_Madison_breach">Ashley Madison breach</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Ashley Madison breach" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ashley_Madison_data_breach" title="Ashley Madison data breach">Ashley Madison Data Breach</a></div> In July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack" title="Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack</a></div> In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Legal_issues_and_global_regulation">Legal issues and global regulation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Legal issues and global regulation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a> or form of <a href="/wiki/Cyber-Attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-Attacks">cyber attack</a>, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.<a href="#cite_note-ted.com-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> Proving <a href="/wiki/Cyber_attribution" title="Cyber attribution">attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks</a> is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. "<a href="/wiki/Computer_viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer viruses">Computer viruses</a> switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another – moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world."<a href="#cite_note-ted.com-221">[221]</a> The use of techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_DNS" title="Dynamic DNS">dynamic DNS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fast_flux" title="Fast flux">fast flux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulletproof_hosting" title="Bulletproof hosting">bullet proof servers</a> add to the difficulty of investigation and enforcement. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Role_of_government">Role of government</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Role of government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> The role of the government is to make <a href="/wiki/Cyber-security_regulation" title="Cyber-security regulation">regulations</a> to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national <a href="/wiki/Power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Power grid">power-grid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> The government's regulatory role in <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace" title="Cyberspace">cyberspace</a> is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual space">virtual space</a> that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian <a href="/wiki/Blockchain" title="Blockchain">blockchain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bitcoin" title="Bitcoin">bitcoin</a> discussions.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Clarke" title="Richard A. Clarke">R. Clarke</a> said during a panel discussion at the <a href="/wiki/RSA_Conference" title="RSA Conference">RSA Security Conference</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through."<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">international peace</a>. According to UN Secretary-General <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a>, new technologies are too often used to violate rights.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="International_actions">International actions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: International actions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> Many different teams and organizations exist, including: <ul><li>The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> The <a href="/wiki/US-CERT" class="mw-redirect" title="US-CERT">US-CERT</a>, <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cisco" title="Cisco">Cisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/McAfee" title="McAfee">McAfee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> are all members of this international team.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a></li> <li>The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/France_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9com" class="mw-redirect" title="France Télécom">France Telecom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cisco" title="Cisco">Cisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sprint_Nextel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sprint Nextel">Sprint</a> are some of the members of the MAAWG.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a></li> <li>ENISA : The <a href="/wiki/European_Network_and_Information_Security_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="European Network and Information Security Agency">European Network and Information Security Agency</a> (ENISA) is an <a href="/wiki/Agency_of_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency of the European Union">agency of the European Union</a> with the objective to improve network and information security in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> On 14 April 2016, the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union" title="Council of the European Union">Council of the European Union</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">General Data Protection Regulation</a> (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the <a href="/wiki/Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">protection of personal data</a>. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="National_actions">National actions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: National actions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_emergency_response_teams">Computer emergency response teams</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Computer emergency response teams" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_emergency_response_team" title="Computer emergency response team">Computer emergency response team</a></div> Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Canada" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-234">[234]</a> This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-235">[235]</a> The strategy has three main pillars: securing government systems, securing vital private cyber systems, and helping Canadians to be secure online.<a href="#cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-235">[235]</a> There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Cyber_Incident_Response_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre">Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre</a> (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond & recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> & operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations,<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015.<a href="#cite_note-Government_of_Canada-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Australia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Australian_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian federal government">Australian federal government</a> announced an $18.2 million investment to fortify the <a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersecurity">cybersecurity</a> resilience of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and enhance their capabilities in responding to cyber threats. This financial backing is an integral component of the soon-to-be-unveiled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/about-us/our-portfolios/cyber-security/strategy/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy">2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy</a>, slated for release within the current week. A substantial allocation of $7.2 million is earmarked for the establishment of a voluntary cyber health check program, facilitating businesses in conducting a comprehensive and tailored self-assessment of their cybersecurity upskill. This avant-garde health assessment serves as a diagnostic tool, enabling enterprises to ascertain the robustness of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-pubs/files/strengthening-australias-cyber-security-submissions/nsw-young-lawyers.pdf">Australia's cyber security regulations</a>. Furthermore, it affords them access to a repository of educational resources and materials, fostering the acquisition of skills necessary for an elevated cybersecurity posture. This groundbreaking initiative was jointly disclosed by Minister for Cyber Security <a href="/wiki/Clare_O%27Neil" title="Clare O'Neil">Clare O'Neil</a> and Minister for Small Business <a href="/wiki/Julie_Collins" title="Julie Collins">Julie Collins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: India" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Cyber_Security_Policy_2013" title="National Cyber Security Policy 2013">National Cyber Security Policy 2013</a> is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data". <a href="/wiki/Indian_Computer_Emergency_Response_Team" title="Indian Computer Emergency Response Team">CERT- In</a> is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of <a href="/wiki/National_Cyber_Coordination_Centre#National_Cyber_Security_Coordinator" title="National Cyber Coordination Centre">National Cyber Security Coordinator</a> has also been created in the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_(India)" title="Prime Minister's Office (India)">Prime Minister's Office (PMO)</a>. The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: South Korea" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011,<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cyber_Plan">Cyber Plan</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Cyber Plan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The new U.S. cyber strategy<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace" title="Cyberspace">cyberspace</a>, urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Office_of_Personnel_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Office of Personnel Management">U.S. Office of Personnel Management</a> (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Legislation">Legislation</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Legislation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The 1986 <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030">§ 1030</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act" title="Computer Fraud and Abuse Act">Computer Fraud and Abuse Act</a> is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of protected computers as defined in <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030#e_2">§ 1030(e)(2)</a>. Although various other measures have been proposed<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> – none have succeeded. In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">executive order</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13636" class="extiw" title="s:Executive Order 13636">13636</a> Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity was signed, which prompted the creation of the <a href="/wiki/NIST_Cybersecurity_Framework" title="NIST Cybersecurity Framework">NIST Cybersecurity Framework</a>. In response to the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Pipeline_ransomware_attack" title="Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack">Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> signed Executive Order 14028<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Standardized_government_testing_services">Standardized government testing services</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Standardized government testing services" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/General_Services_Administration" title="General Services Administration">General Services Administration</a> (GSA) has[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] standardized the penetration test service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Penetration_test#Standardized_government_penetration_test_services" title="Penetration test">Penetration test § Standardized government penetration test services</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Agencies">Agencies</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Agencies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a> has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a> program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the <a href="/wiki/National_Cyber_Security_Division" title="National Cyber Security Division">National Cyber Security Division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-259">[259]</a> The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.<a href="#cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-259">[259]</a> The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> The third priority of the FBI is to: "Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes",<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> and they, along with the <a href="/wiki/National_White_Collar_Crime_Center" title="National White Collar Crime Center">National White Collar Crime Center</a> (NW3C), and the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Assistance" title="Bureau of Justice Assistance">Bureau of Justice Assistance</a> (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The <a href="/wiki/Internet_Crime_Complaint_Center" title="Internet Crime Complaint Center">Internet Crime Complaint Center</a>, also known as IC3.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as <a href="/wiki/InfraGard" title="InfraGard">InfraGard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Computer_Crime_and_Intellectual_Property_Section" title="Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section">Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section</a> (CCIPS) operates in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Criminal_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Criminal Division">United States Department of Justice Criminal Division</a>. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating <a href="/wiki/Computer_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer crime">computer crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of <a href="/wiki/Digital_evidence" title="Digital evidence">digital evidence</a> in computers and <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">networks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations "clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. § 1030)."<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> The <a href="/wiki/USCYBERCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="USCYBERCOM">United States Cyber Command</a>, also known as USCYBERCOM, "has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners."<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> It has no role in the protection of civilian networks.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a>'s role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> has issued guidance for medical devices,<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration" title="National Highway Traffic Safety Administration">National Highway Traffic Safety Administration</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a>,<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Communications_Addressing_and_Reporting_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System">Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Concerns have also been raised about the future <a href="/wiki/Next_Generation_Air_Transportation_System" title="Next Generation Air Transportation System">Next Generation Air Transportation System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Computer_emergency_readiness_team">Computer emergency readiness team</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Computer emergency readiness team" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Computer_emergency_response_team" title="Computer emergency response team">Computer emergency response team</a> is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/US-CERT" class="mw-redirect" title="US-CERT">US-CERT</a>: part of the <a href="/wiki/National_Cyber_Security_Division" title="National Cyber Security Division">National Cyber Security Division</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">United States Department of Homeland Security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CERT_Coordination_Center" title="CERT Coordination Center">CERT/CC</a>: created by the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA) and run by the <a href="/wiki/Software_Engineering_Institute" title="Software Engineering Institute">Software Engineering Institute</a> (SEI).</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="U.S._NRC,_10_CFR_73.54_Cybersecurity">U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> In the context of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">U.S. nuclear power plants</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)</a> outlines cybersecurity requirements under <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security#Title_10_CFR_Part_73_(U.S._NRC)" title="Nuclear safety and security">10 CFR Part 73</a>, specifically in §73.54.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="NEI_08-09:_Cybersecurity_Plan_for_Nuclear_Power_Plants">NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> The <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Institute" title="Nuclear Energy Institute">Nuclear Energy Institute</a>'s NEI 08-09 document, Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors,<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> outlines a comprehensive framework for <a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersecurity">cybersecurity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power industry">nuclear power industry</a>. Drafted with input from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">U.S. NRC</a>, this guideline is instrumental in aiding <a href="/wiki/Licensee" title="Licensee">licensees</a> to comply with the <a href="/wiki/Title_10_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)</a>, which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="Modern_warfare">Modern warfare</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Modern warfare" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></div> There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a> wrote in a 2015 article titled "The New Cyber Arms Race": <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">In the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy. Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a></blockquote> This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and <a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">cyberterrorism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Cyber_Command" title="United States Cyber Command">United States Cyber Command</a> was created in 2009<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> and many other countries <a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare#Cyber_activities_by_nation" title="Cyberwarfare">have similar forces</a>. There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(16)"><h2 id="Careers">Careers</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Careers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16"> Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">IT</a> concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a "problematic shortage" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> However, the use of the term cybersecurity is more prevalent in government job descriptions.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include:<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_analyst">Security analyst</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Security analyst" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_engineer">Security engineer</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Security engineer" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other <a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">security engineering</a> methodologies.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_architect">Security architect</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Security architect" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chief_Information_Security_Officer_(CISO)">Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chief_Security_Officer_(CSO)">Chief Security Officer (CSO)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Chief Security Officer (CSO)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_Protection_Officer_(DPO)">Data Protection Officer (DPO)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Data Protection Officer (DPO)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with data protection laws (such as <a href="/wiki/GDPR" class="mw-redirect" title="GDPR">GDPR</a>), data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security_Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence">Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <dl><dd>Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments.</dd></dl> Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> A wide range of certified courses are also available.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the <a href="/wiki/UK_Cyber_Security_Forum" title="UK Cyber Security Forum">U.K Cyber Security Forum</a>, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> identified by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">U.K Government</a>. In Singapore, the <a href="/wiki/Cyber_Security_Agency_(Singapore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber Security Agency (Singapore)">Cyber Security Agency</a> has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/Infocomm_Media_Development_Authority" title="Infocomm Media Development Authority">Infocomm Media Development Authority</a> (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(17)"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Terminology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-17 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-17"> The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below: <ul><li>Access <a href="/wiki/Authorization" title="Authorization">authorization</a> restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of <a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive <a href="/wiki/Login" title="Login">login</a> screen, or individual services, such as a <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a> server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as <a href="/wiki/Passwords" class="mw-redirect" title="Passwords">passwords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Identification_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Identification card">identification cards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smart_card" title="Smart card">smart cards</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Biometric">biometric</a> systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-virus_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-virus software">Anti-virus software</a> consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate <a href="/wiki/Computer_viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer viruses">computer viruses</a> and other malicious software (<a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">Applications</a> are <a href="/wiki/Executable" title="Executable">executable code</a>, so general corporate practice is to <a href="/wiki/Superuser" title="Superuser">restrict or block users the power</a> to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access <a href="/wiki/Open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Open source software">to the computer code</a> used to create the application,- and to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Attack_surface" title="Attack surface">attack surface</a> by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with <a href="/wiki/Least_privilege" class="mw-redirect" title="Least privilege">least privilege</a>, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released <a href="/wiki/Security_patch" class="mw-redirect" title="Security patch">security patches</a> or updates for them. <ul><li>For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenBSD" title="OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using <a href="/wiki/Chroot" title="Chroot">chroot</a> or other means of <a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'</a>. For example. Linux provides <a href="/wiki/Linux_namespaces" title="Linux namespaces">namespaces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cgroups" title="Cgroups">Cgroups</a> to further restrict the access of an application to system resources.</li> <li>Generalized security frameworks such as <a href="/wiki/SELinux" class="mw-redirect" title="SELinux">SELinux</a> or <a href="/wiki/AppArmor" title="AppArmor">AppArmor</a> help administrators control access.</li> <li>Java and other languages which compile to <a href="/wiki/Java_byte_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Java byte code">Java byte code</a> and run in the <a href="/wiki/Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a> can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level.</li> <li>Some software can be run in <a href="/wiki/OS-level_virtualization" title="OS-level virtualization">software containers</a> which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">Authentication</a> techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">Automated theorem proving</a> and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backup" title="Backup">Backups</a> are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capability-based_security" title="Capability-based security">Capability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Access_control_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Access control list">access control list</a> techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. <a href="#Capabilities_vs._ACLs">Capabilities vs. ACLs</a> discusses their use.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_of_trust" title="Chain of trust">Chain of trust</a> techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a> is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptographic</a> techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_attribution" title="Cyber attribution">Cyber attribution</a>, is an <a href="/wiki/Legal_attribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal attribution">attribution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">cybercrime</a>, i.e., finding who perpetrated a <a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">cyberattack</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a> is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">Data integrity</a> is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encryption_-_decryption.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Encryption_-_decryption.svg/300px-Encryption_-_decryption.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 83px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Encryption_-_decryption.svg/300px-Encryption_-_decryption.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="83" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Encryption_-_decryption.svg/450px-Encryption_-_decryption.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Encryption_-_decryption.svg/600px-Encryption_-_decryption.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptographic</a> techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it, so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers cannot.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encryption" title="Encryption">Encryption</a> is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptographically</a> secure <a href="/wiki/Cipher" title="Cipher">ciphers</a> are designed to make any practical attempt of <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">breaking</a> them infeasible. <a href="/wiki/Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">Symmetric-key</a> ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using <a href="/wiki/Shared_key" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared key">shared keys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public-key_encryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Public-key encryption">public-key encryption</a> using <a href="/wiki/Digital_certificate" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital certificate">digital certificates</a> can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endpoint_security" title="Endpoint security">Endpoint security</a> software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(networking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Firewall (networking)">Firewalls</a> serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed <a href="/wiki/Logfile" class="mw-redirect" title="Logfile">logging</a>, and may include <a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">intrusion detection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system#Intrusion_prevention" title="Intrusion detection system">intrusion prevention</a> features. They are near-universal between company <a href="/wiki/Local_area_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Local area networks">local area networks</a> and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if <a href="/wiki/Network_segmentation" title="Network segmentation">network segmentation</a> is configured.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">hacker</a> is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeypot_(computing)" title="Honeypot (computing)">Honey pots</a> are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion-detection_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion-detection system">Intrusion-detection systems</a> are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a> is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level – and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged <a href="/wiki/User_space" class="mw-redirect" title="User space">user space</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping_(networking_utility)" title="Ping (networking utility)">Pinging</a>. The standard <a href="/wiki/Ping_(networking_utility)" title="Ping (networking utility)">ping application</a> can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a <a href="/wiki/Port_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Port scan">port scan</a> to detect which services are exposed.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Port_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Port scan">port scan</a> is used to probe an IP address for <a href="/wiki/Port_(computer_networking)" title="Port (computer networking)">open ports</a> to identify accessible network services and applications.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Key_logger" class="mw-redirect" title="Key logger">key logger</a> is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a> is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic bombs</a> is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Unikernel" title="Unikernel">unikernel</a> is a computer program that runs on a minimalistic operating system where a single application is allowed to run (as opposed to a general purpose operating system where many applications can run at the same time). This approach to minimizing the attack surface is adopted mostly in <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud</a> environments where software is deployed in <a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machines</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_trust_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero trust security">Zero trust security</a> means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(18)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-18 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-18"> Since the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>'s arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/academia" class="extiw" title="wikt:academia">academia</a> until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as <a href="/wiki/Distributed_denial_of_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed denial of service">distributed denial of service</a>.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Security_and_Privacy_in_Computer_Systems" title="Security and Privacy in Computer Systems">April 1967 session</a> organized by <a href="/wiki/Willis_Ware" title="Willis Ware">Willis Ware</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Spring_Joint_Computer_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring Joint Computer Conference">Spring Joint Computer Conference</a>, and the later publication of the <a href="/wiki/Ware_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Ware Report">Ware Report</a>, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security.<a href="#cite_note-MAHC.2016.48-307">[307]</a> Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns.<a href="#cite_note-MAHC.2016.48-307">[307]</a> A 1977 <a href="/wiki/NIST" class="mw-redirect" title="NIST">NIST</a> publication<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> introduced the CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">computer worm</a> <a href="/wiki/Creeper_and_Reaper" title="Creeper and Reaper">Creeper</a> written by Bob Thomas at <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a>, which propagated through the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, <a href="/wiki/Creeper_and_Reaper" title="Creeper and Reaper">Reaper</a>, was created by <a href="/wiki/Ray_Tomlinson" title="Ray Tomlinson">Ray Tomlinson</a> in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by <a href="/wiki/Markus_Hess" title="Markus Hess">Markus Hess</a>, who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990. In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the <a href="/wiki/Morris_worm" title="Morris worm">Morris worm</a>, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> In 1993, <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> started developing the protocol <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">SSL</a>, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. These weaknesses included <a href="/wiki/Replay_attack" title="Replay attack">replay attacks</a> and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February 1995, Netscape launched Version 2.0.<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (NSA) is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Protection" title="Protection">protection</a> of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-perlroth-319">[319]</a> NSA contractors created and sold click-and-shoot attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in <a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">cyberwarfare</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 2007, the United States and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> began exploiting security flaws in the <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States.<a href="#cite_note-perlroth-319">[319]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(19)"><h2 id="Notable_scholars">Notable scholars</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Notable scholars" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-19 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-19"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ross_J._Anderson" title="Ross J. Anderson">Ross J. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Anton" class="mw-redirect" title="Annie Anton">Annie Anton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Back" title="Adam Back">Adam Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Bernstein" title="Daniel J. Bernstein">Daniel J. Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Blaze" title="Matt Blaze">Matt Blaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefan_Brands" title="Stefan Brands">Stefan Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Jean_Camp" title="L. Jean Camp">L. Jean Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrie_Cranor" title="Lorrie Cranor">Lorrie Cranor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_E._Denning" title="Dorothy E. Denning">Dorothy E. Denning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter J. Denning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Dwork" title="Cynthia Dwork">Cynthia Dwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Easttom" title="Chuck Easttom">Chuck Easttom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Estrin" title="Deborah Estrin">Deborah Estrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Feigenbaum" title="Joan Feigenbaum">Joan Feigenbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Goldberg" title="Ian Goldberg">Ian Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi_Goldwasser" title="Shafi Goldwasser">Shafi Goldwasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_A._Gordon" title="Lawrence A. Gordon">Lawrence A. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gutmann_(computer_scientist)" title="Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)">Peter Gutmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Carl_Kocher" title="Paul Carl Kocher">Paul Kocher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monica_S._Lam" title="Monica S. Lam">Monica S. Lam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butler_Lampson" title="Butler Lampson">Butler Lampson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_LaMacchia" title="Brian LaMacchia">Brian LaMacchia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Landau" title="Susan Landau">Susan Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Landwehr" title="Carl Landwehr">Carl Landwehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_G._Neumann" title="Peter G. Neumann">Peter G. Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Nycum" title="Susan Nycum">Susan Nycum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._van_Oorschot" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. van Oorschot">Paul C. van Oorschot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_R._Schell" title="Roger R. Schell">Roger R. Schell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Schneier" title="Bruce Schneier">Bruce Schneier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_Song" title="Dawn Song">Dawn Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Spafford" title="Gene Spafford">Gene Spafford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_J._Stolfo" title="Salvatore J. Stolfo">Salvatore J. Stolfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Ware" title="Willis Ware">Willis Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moti_Yung" title="Moti Yung">Moti Yung</a></li></ul></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(20)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-20 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-20"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_tree" title="Attack tree">Attack tree</a> – Conceptual diagrams showing how an asset, or target, might be attacked</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_attack" title="Bicycle attack">Bicycle attack</a> – Method of discovering password length</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAPTCHA" title="CAPTCHA">CAPTCHA</a> – Test to determine whether a user is human</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Internet_Security" title="Center for Internet Security">Center for Internet Security</a> – Nonprofit organization focused on cybersecurity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing_security" title="Cloud computing security">Cloud computing security</a> – Methods used to protect cloud based assets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_antivirus_software" title="Comparison of antivirus software">Comparison of antivirus software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_Disarm_%26_Reconstruction" title="Content Disarm & Reconstruction">Content Disarm & Reconstruction</a> – Policy-based removal of components</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_Security_Policy" title="Content Security Policy">Content Security Policy</a> – Computer security standard to prevent cross-site scripting and related attacks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countermeasure_(computer)" title="Countermeasure (computer)">Countermeasure (computer)</a> – Process to reduce a security threat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_insurance" title="Cyber insurance">Cyber insurance</a> – Information technology risk insurance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_self-defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber self-defense">Cyber self-defense</a> – Protection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberbiosecurity" title="Cyberbiosecurity">Cyberbiosecurity</a> – Emerging field of computer security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_information_technology_list" title="Cybersecurity information technology list">Cybersecurity information technology list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dancing_pigs" title="Dancing pigs">Dancing pigs</a> – Users' disregard for IT security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a> – Protection of digital data</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_strategy_(computing)" title="Defense strategy (computing)">Defense strategy (computing)</a> – Concept to reduce computer security risks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a> – Resilience of systems to component failures or errors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a> – Security architecture implemented in hardware</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction_(security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human–computer interaction (security)">Human–computer interaction (security)</a> – Academic discipline studying the relationship between computer systems and their usersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity management">Identity management</a> – Technical and Policy systems to give users appropriate accessPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity-based_security" title="Identity-based security">Identity-based security</a> – Access control by authenticated ID</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security_awareness" title="Information security awareness">Information security awareness</a> – part of information security that focuses on raising consciousness regarding potential risks of the rapidly evolving forms of information and the accompanying threatsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet privacy</a> – Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_safety" title="Internet safety">Internet safety</a> – Being aware of safety and security risks on the Internet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a> – Branch of computer security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_risk" title="IT risk">IT risk</a> – Any risk related to information technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_security_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="IT security standards">IT security standards</a> – Technology standards and techniquesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_kill_chain" title="Cyber kill chain">Cyber kill chain</a> – Process of carrying out a cyberattack</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_security_certifications" title="List of computer security certifications">List of computer security certifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cyber_warfare_forces" title="List of cyber warfare forces">List of cyber warfare forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_security" title="Open security">Open security</a> – Open source approach to computer security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_security" title="Outline of computer security">Outline of computer security</a> – Overview of and topical guide to computer security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OWASP" title="OWASP">OWASP</a> – Computer security organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_information_security" title="Physical information security">Physical information security</a> – Common ground of physical and information security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_software" title="Privacy software">Privacy software</a> – Layer to protect users' privacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security engineering</a> – Process of incorporating security controls into an information system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_through_obscurity" title="Security through obscurity">Security through obscurity</a> – Reliance on design or implementation secrecy for security</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_protection_and_security" title="Separation of protection and security">Separation of protection and security</a> – Mechanism v. policy design choice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software-defined_perimeter" title="Software-defined perimeter">Software-defined perimeter</a> – Method of enhancing computer security</li></ul></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(21)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-21 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-21"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:2-1"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchatzBashroushWall2017" class="citation journal cs1">Schatz, Daniel; Bashroush, Rabih; Wall, Julie (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commons.erau.edu/jdfsl/vol12/iss2/8/">"Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security"</a>. Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law. 12 (2). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-7215">1558-7215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Digital+Forensics%2C+Security+and+Law&rft.atitle=Towards+a+More+Representative+Definition+of+Cyber+Security&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1558-7215&rft.aulast=Schatz&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Bashroush%2C+Rabih&rft.au=Wall%2C+Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.erau.edu%2Fjdfsl%2Fvol12%2Fiss2%2F8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/130682">Computer security</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTate2013" class="citation news cs1">Tate, Nick (7 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/reliance-spells-end-of-road-for-ict-amateurs/news-story/6f84ad403b8721100f5957a472a945eb">"Reliance spells end of road for ICT amateurs"</a>. The Australian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Reliance+spells+end+of+road+for+ICT+amateurs&rft.date=2013-05-07&rft.aulast=Tate&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Freliance-spells-end-of-road-for-ict-amateurs%2Fnews-story%2F6f84ad403b8721100f5957a472a945eb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKianpourKowalskiØverby2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kianpour, Mazaher; Kowalski, Stewart; Øverby, Harald (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu132413677">"Systematically Understanding Cybersecurity Economics: A Survey"</a>. Sustainability. 13 (24): 13677. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu132413677">10.3390/su132413677</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2978306">11250/2978306</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2071-1050">2071-1050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Systematically+Understanding+Cybersecurity+Economics%3A+A+Survey&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=13677&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2978306&rft.issn=2071-1050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu132413677&rft.aulast=Kianpour&rft.aufirst=Mazaher&rft.au=Kowalski%2C+Stewart&rft.au=%C3%98verby%2C+Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsu132413677&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Tim (11 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/97261726/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf">"Global Cybersecurity: New Directions in Theory and Methods"</a> (PDF). Politics and Governance. 6 (2): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1569">10.17645/pag.v6i2.1569</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190904151257/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/97261726/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&rft.atitle=Global+Cybersecurity%3A+New+Directions+in+Theory+and+Methods&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1569&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkclpure.kcl.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F97261726%2FPaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cve.org/About/Overview">"About the CVE Program"</a>. www.cve.org. Retrieved 12 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cve.org&rft.atitle=About+the+CVE+Program&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cve.org%2FAbout%2FOverview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZlatanov2015" class="citation conference cs1">Zlatanov, Nikola (3 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298807979">Computer Security and Mobile Security Challenges</a>. Tech Security Conference At: San Francisco, CA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Computer+Security+and+Mobile+Security+Challenges&rft.date=2015-12-03&rft.aulast=Zlatanov&rft.aufirst=Nikola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F298807979&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815201448/https://www.nsa.gov/resources/everyone/ghidra/">"Ghidra"</a>. nsa.gov. 1 August 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsa.gov/resources/everyone/ghidra/">the original</a> on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nsa.gov&rft.atitle=Ghidra&rft.date=2018-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsa.gov%2Fresources%2Feveryone%2Fghidra%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarabel2017" class="citation web cs1">Larabel, Michael (28 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Syzbot-Linux-Kernel-Fuzzing/">"Syzbot: Google Continuously Fuzzing The Linux Kernel"</a>. www.phoronix.com/. Retrieved 25 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.phoronix.com%2F&rft.atitle=Syzbot%3A+Google+Continuously+Fuzzing+The+Linux+Kernel&rft.date=2017-12-28&rft.aulast=Larabel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.phoronix.com%2Fscan.php%3Fpage%3Dnews_item%26px%3DSyzbot-Linux-Kernel-Fuzzing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crowdstrike.com-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crowdstrike.com_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crowdstrike.com/solutions/small-business/cyber-attacks-on-smbs/">"Cyber attacks on SMBs: Current Stats and How to Prevent Them"</a>. crowdstrike.com. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=crowdstrike.com&rft.atitle=Cyber+attacks+on+SMBs%3A+Current+Stats+and+How+to+Prevent+Them&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crowdstrike.com%2Fsolutions%2Fsmall-business%2Fcyber-attacks-on-smbs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cyber_breaches_2023-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_breaches_2023_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_breaches_2023_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023">"Cyber security breaches survey 2023"</a>. GOV.UK. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Cyber+security+breaches+survey+2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fstatistics%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cyber_attacks-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_attacks_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_attacks_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/information/how-cyber-attacks-work">"How cyber attacks work"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=How+cyber+attacks+work&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Finformation%2Fhow-cyber-attacks-work&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nordvpn.com/blog/backdoor-attack/">"What is a backdoor attack? Definition and prevention | NordVPN"</a>. nordvpn.com. 30 November 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nordvpn.com&rft.atitle=What+is+a+backdoor+attack%3F+Definition+and+prevention+%7C+NordVPN&rft.date=2023-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnordvpn.com%2Fblog%2Fbackdoor-attack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McAfee-2023-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McAfee-2023_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McAfee-2023_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mcafee.com/learn/backdoor-threat/">"What is a backdoor attack?"</a>. McAfee. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McAfee&rft.atitle=What+is+a+backdoor+attack%3F&rft.date=2023-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcafee.com%2Flearn%2Fbackdoor-threat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DoS_guidance-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DoS_guidance_15-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/denial-service-dos-guidance-collection">"Denial of Service (DoS) guidance"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Denial+of+Service+%28DoS%29+guidance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Fcollection%2Fdenial-service-dos-guidance-collection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interelectronix.com/computer-security.html">"Computer Security"</a>. www.interelectronix.com. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.interelectronix.com&rft.atitle=Computer+Security&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.interelectronix.com%2Fcomputer-security.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kroll-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kroll_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kroll_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kroll.com/en/insights/publications/cyber/what-is-dma-attack-understanding-mitigating-threat">"What Is a DMA Attack? Analysis & Mitigation"</a>. Kroll. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kroll&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+DMA+Attack%3F+Analysis+%26+Mitigation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kroll.com%2Fen%2Finsights%2Fpublications%2Fcyber%2Fwhat-is-dma-attack-understanding-mitigating-threat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fortinet-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fortinet_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fortinet_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/eavesdropping">"What Are Eavesdropping Attacks?"</a>. Fortinet. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fortinet&rft.atitle=What+Are+Eavesdropping+Attacks%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fortinet.com%2Fresources%2Fcyberglossary%2Feavesdropping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2010" class="citation cs2">York, Dan (1 January 2010), York, Dan (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978159749547900003X">"Chapter 3 – Eavesdropping and Modification"</a>, Seven Deadliest Unified Communications Attacks, Boston: Syngress, pp. 41–69, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-547-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59749-547-9"><bdi>978-1-59749-547-9</bdi></a>, retrieved 5 December 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seven+Deadliest+Unified+Communications+Attacks&rft.atitle=Chapter+3+%E2%80%93+Eavesdropping+and+Modification&rft.pages=41-69&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-547-9&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB978159749547900003X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/articles/s/what-are-eavesdropping-attacks/">"What Are Eavesdropping Attacks & How To Prevent Them"</a>. Verizon Enterprise. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Verizon+Enterprise&rft.atitle=What+Are+Eavesdropping+Attacks+%26+How+To+Prevent+Them&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenterprise.verizon.com%2Fresources%2Farticles%2Fs%2Fwhat-are-eavesdropping-attacks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malware-IBM-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malware-IBM_21-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/topics/malware">"What is Malware? | IBM"</a>. www.ibm.com. 14 April 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibm.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Malware%3F+%7C+IBM&rft.date=2022-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Ftopics%2Fmalware&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBendovschi2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bendovschi, Andreea (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2212-5671%2815%2901077-1">"Cyber-Attacks – Trends, Patterns and Security Countermeasures"</a>. Procedia Economics and Finance. 28: 24–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2212-5671%2815%2901077-1">10.1016/S2212-5671(15)01077-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+Economics+and+Finance&rft.atitle=Cyber-Attacks+%E2%80%93+Trends%2C+Patterns+and+Security+Countermeasures&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=24-31&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2212-5671%2815%2901077-1&rft.aulast=Bendovschi&rft.aufirst=Andreea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS2212-5671%252815%252901077-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mcafee.com/en-gb/antivirus/malware.html">"What is malware?"</a>. McAfee. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McAfee&rft.atitle=What+is+malware%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcafee.com%2Fen-gb%2Fantivirus%2Fmalware.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-verizon-mitm-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-verizon-mitm_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-verizon-mitm_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/articles/s/what-is-a-man-in-the-middle-attack-and-how-can-i-protect-my-organization/">"What is a man-in-the-middle attack and how can I protect my organization?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon">verizon.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=verizon.com&rft.atitle=What+is+a+man-in-the-middle+attack+and+how+can+I+protect+my+organization%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.verizon.com%2Fbusiness%2Fresources%2Farticles%2Fs%2Fwhat-is-a-man-in-the-middle-attack-and-how-can-i-protect-my-organization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msspalert.com/analysis/multi-vector-attacks-demand-multi-vector-protection">"Multi-Vector Attacks Demand Multi-Vector Protection"</a>. MSSP Alert. 24 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSSP+Alert&rft.atitle=Multi-Vector+Attacks+Demand+Multi-Vector+Protection&rft.date=2017-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msspalert.com%2Fanalysis%2Fmulti-vector-attacks-demand-multi-vector-protection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillman2017" class="citation news cs1">Millman, Renee (15 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scmagazineuk.com/new-polymorphic-malware-evades-three-quarters-of-av-scanners/article/718757/">"New polymorphic malware evades three-quarters of AV scanners"</a>. SC Magazine UK.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SC+Magazine+UK&rft.atitle=New+polymorphic+malware+evades+three-quarters+of+AV+scanners&rft.date=2017-12-15&rft.aulast=Millman&rft.aufirst=Renee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmagazineuk.com%2Fnew-polymorphic-malware-evades-three-quarters-of-av-scanners%2Farticle%2F718757%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tounsi-2019-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tounsi-2019_27-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTounsi2019" class="citation cs2">Tounsi, Wiem (15 May 2019), Tounsi, Wiem (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119618393.ch1">"What is Cyber Threat Intelligence and How is it Evolving?"</a>, Cyber-Vigilance and Digital Trust (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–49, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119618393.ch1">10.1002/9781119618393.ch1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78630-448-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78630-448-3"><bdi>978-1-78630-448-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:187294508">187294508</a>, retrieved 6 December 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cyber-Vigilance+and+Digital+Trust&rft.atitle=What+is+Cyber+Threat+Intelligence+and+How+is+it+Evolving%3F&rft.pages=1-49&rft.date=2019-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A187294508%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119618393.ch1&rft.isbn=978-1-78630-448-3&rft.aulast=Tounsi&rft.aufirst=Wiem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119618393.ch1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150913200707/http://www.case.edu/its/kba/its-kba-27196-phishing-attempt/">"Identifying Phishing Attempts"</a>. Case. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.case.edu/its/kba/its-kba-27196-phishing-attempt/">the original</a> on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Identifying+Phishing+Attempts&rft.pub=Case&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.case.edu%2Fits%2Fkba%2Fits-kba-27196-phishing-attempt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/protect-yourself-from-phishing-0c7ea947-ba98-3bd9-7184-430e1f860a44">"Protect yourself from phishing – Microsoft Support"</a>. support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 6 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=support.microsoft.com&rft.atitle=Protect+yourself+from+phishing+%E2%80%93+Microsoft+Support&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fwindows%2Fprotect-yourself-from-phishing-0c7ea947-ba98-3bd9-7184-430e1f860a44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazarus2018" class="citation web cs1">Lazarus, Ari (23 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/blog/2018/02/phishers-send-fake-invoices">"Phishers send fake invoices"</a>. Consumer Information. Retrieved 17 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Consumer+Information&rft.atitle=Phishers+send+fake+invoices&rft.date=2018-02-23&rft.aulast=Lazarus&rft.aufirst=Ari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.consumer.ftc.gov%2Fblog%2F2018%2F02%2Fphishers-send-fake-invoices&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-31"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522081555/https://www.trellix.com/en-us/platform/email-security.html">"Email Security"</a>. Trellix. 17 May 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trellix.com/en-us/platform/email-security.html">the original</a> on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Trellix&rft.atitle=Email+Security&rft.date=2022-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trellix.com%2Fen-us%2Fplatform%2Femail-security.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Privilege_escalation-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Privilege_escalation_32-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crowdstrike.com/cybersecurity-101/privilege-escalation/">"What is Privilege Escalation? – CrowdStrike"</a>. crowdstrike.com. Retrieved 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=crowdstrike.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Privilege+Escalation%3F+%E2%80%93+CrowdStrike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crowdstrike.com%2Fcybersecurity-101%2Fprivilege-escalation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpenceBangay2022" class="citation journal cs1">Spence, Aaron; Bangay, Shaun (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10207-021-00563-6">"Security beyond cybersecurity: side-channel attacks against non-cyber systems and their countermeasures"</a>. International Journal of Information Security. 21 (3): 437–453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10207-021-00563-6">10.1007/s10207-021-00563-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1615-5262">1615-5262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Information+Security&rft.atitle=Security+beyond+cybersecurity%3A+side-channel+attacks+against+non-cyber+systems+and+their+countermeasures&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=437-453&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10207-021-00563-6&rft.issn=1615-5262&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft.au=Bangay%2C+Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10207-021-00563-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcos_Sergio" class="citation web cs1">Arcos Sergio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://upcommons.upc.edu/pfc/bitstream/2099.1/12289/1/73827.pdf">"Social Engineering"</a> (PDF). upc.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203043630/http://upcommons.upc.edu/pfc/bitstream/2099.1/12289/1/73827.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=upc.edu&rft.atitle=Social+Engineering&rft.au=Arcos+Sergio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fupcommons.upc.edu%2Fpfc%2Fbitstream%2F2099.1%2F12289%2F1%2F73827.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScannell2016" class="citation news cs1">Scannell, Kara (24 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160623105523/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/83b4e9be-db16-11e5-a72f-1e7744c66818.html#axzz41pN5YBV4">"CEO email scam costs companies $2bn"</a>. Financial Times. No. 25 February 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/83b4e9be-db16-11e5-a72f-1e7744c66818.html#axzz41pN5YBV4">the original</a> on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=CEO+email+scam+costs+companies+%242bn&rft.issue=25+February+2016&rft.date=2016-02-24&rft.aulast=Scannell&rft.aufirst=Kara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fintl%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F83b4e9be-db16-11e5-a72f-1e7744c66818.html%23axzz41pN5YBV4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/15615363/milwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-information-players-employees-result-email-scam">"Bucks leak tax info of players, employees as result of email scam"</a>. Associated Press. 20 May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160520144908/http://espn.go.com/nba/story/_/id/15615363/milwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-informatiopn-players-employees-result-email-scam">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bucks+leak+tax+info+of+players%2C+employees+as+result+of+email+scam&rft.date=2016-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.espn.com%2Fnba%2Fstory%2F_%2Fid%2F15615363%2Fmilwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-information-players-employees-result-email-scam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5398/spoofing">"What is Spoofing? – Definition from Techopedia"</a>. techopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160630134737/https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5398/spoofing">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techopedia.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Spoofing%3F+%E2%80%93+Definition+from+Techopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techopedia.com%2Fdefinition%2F5398%2Fspoofing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfieldNgondi2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe, eds. (21 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-4987">"spoofing"</a>. A Dictionary of Computer Science. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199688975" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199688975"><bdi>978-0199688975</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=spoofing&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Computer+Science&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0199688975&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199688975.001.0001%2Facref-9780199688975-e-4987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcelNixonLi2014" class="citation book cs1">Marcel, Sébastien; Nixon, Mark; Li, Stan, eds. (2014). Handbook of Biometric Anti-Spoofing: Trusted Biometrics under Spoofing Attacks. Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. London: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6524-8">10.1007/978-1-4471-6524-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1447165248" title="Special:BookSources/978-1447165248"><bdi>978-1447165248</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2191-6594">2191-6594</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2014942635">2014942635</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27594864">27594864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Biometric+Anti-Spoofing%3A+Trusted+Biometrics+under+Spoofing+Attacks&rft.place=London&rft.series=Advances+in+Computer+Vision+and+Pattern+Recognition&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27594864%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6524-8&rft.issn=2191-6594&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014942635&rft.isbn=978-1447165248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trellix.com/en-us/about/newsroom/stories/research/80-to-0-in-under-5-seconds-falsifying-a-medical-patients-vitals.html">"80 to 0 in Under 5 Seconds: Falsifying a Medical Patient's Vitals"</a>. www.trellix.com. Retrieved 9 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.trellix.com&rft.atitle=80+to+0+in+Under+5+Seconds%3A+Falsifying+a+Medical+Patient%27s+Vitals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trellix.com%2Fen-us%2Fabout%2Fnewsroom%2Fstories%2Fresearch%2F80-to-0-in-under-5-seconds-falsifying-a-medical-patients-vitals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallagher2014" class="citation web cs1">Gallagher, Sean (14 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant/">"Photos of an NSA "upgrade" factory show Cisco router getting implant"</a>. Ars Technica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140804130416/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Photos+of+an+NSA+%22upgrade%22+factory+show+Cisco+router+getting+implant&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2F2014%2F05%2Fphotos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Intelligence-2021-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intelligence-2021_42-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIntelligence2021" class="citation web cs1">Intelligence, Microsoft Threat (11 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/security/blog/2021/11/11/html-smuggling-surges-highly-evasive-loader-technique-increasingly-used-in-banking-malware-targeted-attacks/">"HTML smuggling surges: Highly evasive loader technique increasingly used in banking malware, targeted attacks"</a>. Microsoft Security Blog. Retrieved 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Security+Blog&rft.atitle=HTML+smuggling+surges%3A+Highly+evasive+loader+technique+increasingly+used+in+banking+malware%2C+targeted+attacks&rft.date=2021-11-11&rft.aulast=Intelligence&rft.aufirst=Microsoft+Threat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fsecurity%2Fblog%2F2021%2F11%2F11%2Fhtml-smuggling-surges-highly-evasive-loader-technique-increasingly-used-in-banking-malware-targeted-attacks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://attack.mitre.org/techniques/T1027/006/">"Obfuscated Files or Information: HTML Smuggling, Sub-technique T1027.006 – Enterprise | MITRE ATT&CK®"</a>. attack.mitre.org. Retrieved 22 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=attack.mitre.org&rft.atitle=Obfuscated+Files+or+Information%3A+HTML+Smuggling%2C+Sub-technique+T1027.006+%E2%80%93+Enterprise+%7C+MITRE+ATT%26CK%C2%AE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fattack.mitre.org%2Ftechniques%2FT1027%2F006%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimChangMaynardAhmad2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lim, Joo S.; Chang, Shanton; Maynard, Sean; Ahmad, Atif (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ism/12">"Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture and Information Security Culture"</a>. Proceedings of the 7th Australian Information Security Management Conference. Perth. Security Research Institute (SRI), Edith Cowan University: 1st to 3rd December 2009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F75%2F57B4065130DEF">10.4225/75/57B4065130DEF</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+7th+Australian+Information+Security+Management+Conference&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+Relationship+between+Organizational+Culture+and+Information+Security+Culture&rft.volume=Perth&rft.pages=1st+to+3rd+December+2009&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F75%2F57B4065130DEF&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=Joo+S.&rft.au=Chang%2C+Shanton&rft.au=Maynard%2C+Sean&rft.au=Ahmad%2C+Atif&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fro.ecu.edu.au%2Fism%2F12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReimersAndersson2017" class="citation conference cs1">Reimers, Karl; Andersson, David (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.iated.org/view/REIMERS2017POS">Post-secondary Education Network Security: the End User Challenge and Evolving Threats</a>. ICERI2017 Proceedings. Vol. 1. IATED. pp. 1787–1796. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21125%2Ficeri.2017.0554">10.21125/iceri.2017.0554</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-697-6957-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-697-6957-7"><bdi>978-84-697-6957-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2340-1095">2340-1095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Post-secondary+Education+Network+Security%3A+the+End+User+Challenge+and+Evolving+Threats&rft.pages=1787-1796&rft.pub=IATED&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=2340-1095&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21125%2Ficeri.2017.0554&rft.isbn=978-84-697-6957-7&rft.aulast=Reimers&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft.au=Andersson%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.iated.org%2Fview%2FREIMERS2017POS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/reports/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf">Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020</a> (PDF). verizon.com (Report). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519161153/https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/reports/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Verizon+Data+Breach+Investigations+Report+2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenterprise.verizon.com%2Fresources%2Freports%2F2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchliengerTeufel2003" class="citation journal cs1">Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (2003). "Information security culture-from analysis to change". South African Computer Journal. 31: 46–52. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10520%2FEJC27949">10520/EJC27949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Computer+Journal&rft.atitle=Information+security+culture-from+analysis+to+change&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=46-52&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10520%2FEJC27949&rft.aulast=Schlienger&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Teufel%2C+Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2828">Internet Security Glossary</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2828">10.17487/RFC2828</a>. <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2828">2828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+Security+Glossary&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC2828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fhtml%2Frfc2828&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227163121/http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf">"CNSS Instruction No. 4009"</a> (PDF). 26 April 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CNSS+Instruction+No.+4009&rft.date=2010-04-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnss.gov%2FAssets%2Fpdf%2Fcnssi_4009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infosectoday.com/Articles/Glossary.pdf">"InfosecToday Glossary"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141120041536/http://www.infosectoday.com/Articles/Glossary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=InfosecToday+Glossary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infosectoday.com%2FArticles%2FGlossary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/cyber-security-design-principles/cyber-security-design-principles">"Cyber security design principles"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Cyber+security+design+principles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Fcollection%2Fcyber-security-design-principles%2Fcyber-security-design-principles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSCS_security_arch-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NSCS_security_arch_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NSCS_security_arch_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/blog-post/how-ncsc-thinks-about-security-architecture">"How the NCSC thinks about security architecture"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=How+the+NCSC+thinks+about+security+architecture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Fblog-post%2Fhow-ncsc-thinks-about-security-architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ukcybersecuritycouncil.org.uk/careers-and-learning/cyber-career-framework/secure-system-architecture-design">"Secure System Architecture and Design"</a>. UK Cyber Security Council. 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UK+Cyber+Security+Council&rft.atitle=Secure+System+Architecture+and+Design&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ukcybersecuritycouncil.org.uk%2Fcareers-and-learning%2Fcyber-career-framework%2Fsecure-system-architecture-design&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/security_architecture">"security architecture – Glossary | CSRC"</a>. csrc.nist.gov. Retrieved 18 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=csrc.nist.gov&rft.atitle=security+architecture+%E2%80%93+Glossary+%7C+CSRC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fglossary%2Fterm%2Fsecurity_architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJannsen" class="citation web cs1">Jannsen, Cory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techopedia.com/definition/72/security-architecture">"Security Architecture"</a>. Techopedia. Janalta Interactive Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141003064643/http://www.techopedia.com/definition/72/security-architecture">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Techopedia&rft.atitle=Security+Architecture&rft.aulast=Jannsen&rft.aufirst=Cory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techopedia.com%2Fdefinition%2F72%2Fsecurity-architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppliger-1997-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppliger-1997_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppliger-1997_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppliger1997" class="citation journal cs1">Oppliger, Rolf (1 May 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F253769.253802">"Internet security: firewalls and beyond"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 40 (5): 92–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F253769.253802">10.1145/253769.253802</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Internet+security%3A+firewalls+and+beyond&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=92-102&rft.date=1997-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F253769.253802&rft.issn=0001-0782&rft.aulast=Oppliger&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%252F253769.253802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isaca.org/resources/isaca-journal/issues/2019/volume-2/how-to-increase-cybersecurity-awareness">"How to Increase Cybersecurity Awareness"</a>. ISACA. Retrieved 25 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ISACA&rft.atitle=How+to+Increase+Cybersecurity+Awareness&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaca.org%2Fresources%2Fisaca-journal%2Fissues%2F2019%2Fvolume-2%2Fhow-to-increase-cybersecurity-awareness&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodie2016" class="citation news cs1">Woodie, Alex (9 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.datanami.com/2016/05/09/oni-may-best-hope-cyber-security-now/">"Why ONI May Be Our Best Hope for Cyber Security Now"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160820015812/https://www.datanami.com/2016/05/09/oni-may-best-hope-cyber-security-now/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+ONI+May+Be+Our+Best+Hope+for+Cyber+Security+Now&rft.date=2016-05-09&rft.aulast=Woodie&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.datanami.com%2F2016%2F05%2F09%2Foni-may-best-hope-cyber-security-now%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkowski2019" class="citation web cs1">Walkowski, Debbie (9 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.f5.com/labs/articles/education/what-is-the-cia-triad.html">"What Is The CIA Triad?"</a>. F5 Labs. Retrieved 25 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=F5+Labs&rft.atitle=What+Is+The+CIA+Triad%3F&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft.aulast=Walkowski&rft.aufirst=Debbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.f5.com%2Flabs%2Farticles%2Feducation%2Fwhat-is-the-cia-triad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.securityweek.com/knowing-value-data-assets-crucial-cybersecurity-risk-management">"Knowing Value of Data Assets is Crucial to Cybersecurity Risk Management | SecurityWeek.Com"</a>. www.securityweek.com. 3 December 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.securityweek.com&rft.atitle=Knowing+Value+of+Data+Assets+is+Crucial+to+Cybersecurity+Risk+Management+%7C+SecurityWeek.Com&rft.date=2018-12-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityweek.com%2Fknowing-value-data-assets-crucial-cybersecurity-risk-management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForeman2009" class="citation book cs1">Foreman, Park (2009). Vulnerability Management. Boca Raton, Fla.: Auerbach Publications. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-0150-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-0150-5"><bdi>978-1-4398-0150-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vulnerability+Management&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Fla.&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Auerbach+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-0150-5&rft.aulast=Foreman&rft.aufirst=Park&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2018" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FxRbDwAAQBAJ&q=Vulnerabilities+can+be+discovered+with+a+vulnerability+scanner,+which+analyzes+a+computer+system+in+search+of+known+vulnerabilities&pg=SA5-PA83">CCNA Cybersecurity Operations Companion Guide</a>. Cisco Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0135166246" title="Special:BookSources/978-0135166246"><bdi>978-0135166246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CCNA+Cybersecurity+Operations+Companion+Guide&rft.pub=Cisco+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0135166246&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFxRbDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DVulnerabilities%2Bcan%2Bbe%2Bdiscovered%2Bwith%2Ba%2Bvulnerability%2Bscanner%2C%2Bwhich%2Banalyzes%2Ba%2Bcomputer%2Bsystem%2Bin%2Bsearch%2Bof%2Bknown%2Bvulnerabilities%26pg%3DSA5-PA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalderWilliams2014" class="citation book cs1">Calder, Alan; Williams, Geraint (2014). PCI DSS: A Pocket Guide (3rd ed.). IT Governance Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849285544" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849285544"><bdi>978-1849285544</bdi></a>. <q>network vulnerability scans at least quarterly and after any significant change in the network</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PCI+DSS%3A+A+Pocket+Guide&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=IT+Governance+Limited&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1849285544&rft.aulast=Calder&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Williams%2C+Geraint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2003" class="citation conference cs1">Harrison, J. (2003). Formal verification at Intel. 18th Annual IEEE Symposium of Logic in Computer Science, 2003. Proceedings. pp. 45–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FLICS.2003.1210044">10.1109/LICS.2003.1210044</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0769518848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0769518848"><bdi>978-0769518848</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44585546">44585546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Formal+verification+at+Intel&rft.pages=45-54&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44585546%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FLICS.2003.1210044&rft.isbn=978-0769518848&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmrigarPitchumani1983" class="citation conference cs1">Umrigar, Zerksis D.; Pitchumani, Vijay (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=800667">Formal verification of a real-time hardware design</a>. Proceeding DAC '83 Proceedings of the 20th Design Automation Conference. IEEE Press. pp. 221–227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0818600265" title="Special:BookSources/978-0818600265"><bdi>978-0818600265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Formal+verification+of+a+real-time+hardware+design&rft.pages=221-227&rft.pub=IEEE+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0818600265&rft.aulast=Umrigar&rft.aufirst=Zerksis+D.&rft.au=Pitchumani%2C+Vijay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D800667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150521171234/https://sel4.systems/Docs/seL4-spec.pdf">"Abstract Formal Specification of the seL4/ARMv6 API"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sel4.systems/Docs/seL4-spec.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 May 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abstract+Formal+Specification+of+the+seL4%2FARMv6+API&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsel4.systems%2FDocs%2FseL4-spec.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumannBeckertBlasumBormer" class="citation conference cs1">Baumann, Christoph; Beckert, Bernhard; Blasum, Holger; Bormer, Thorsten. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719110932/http://www-wjp.cs.uni-saarland.de/publikationen/Ba10EW.pdf">Ingredients of Operating System Correctness? Lessons Learned in the Formal Verification of PikeOS</a> (PDF). Embedded World Conference, Nuremberg, Germany. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-wjp.cs.uni-saarland.de/publikationen/Ba10EW.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Ingredients+of+Operating+System+Correctness%3F+Lessons+Learned+in+the+Formal+Verification+of+PikeOS&rft.aulast=Baumann&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft.au=Beckert%2C+Bernhard&rft.au=Blasum%2C+Holger&rft.au=Bormer%2C+Thorsten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-wjp.cs.uni-saarland.de%2Fpublikationen%2FBa10EW.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanssle" class="citation web cs1">Ganssle, Jack. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130504191958/http://www.ganssle.com/rants/gettingitright.htm">"Getting it Right"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ganssle.com/rants/gettingitright.htm">the original</a> on 4 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Getting+it+Right&rft.aulast=Ganssle&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ganssle.com%2Frants%2Fgettingitright.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cybersecurityjobsite.com/staticpages/10300/everything-you-need-for-a-career-as-a-soc-analyst/">"Everything you need for a career as a SOC analyst"</a>. www.cybersecurityjobsite.com. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cybersecurityjobsite.com&rft.atitle=Everything+you+need+for+a+career+as+a+SOC+analyst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybersecurityjobsite.com%2Fstaticpages%2F10300%2Feverything-you-need-for-a-career-as-a-soc-analyst%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/top-tips-for-staying-secure-online/activate-2-step-verification-on-your-email">"Turn on 2-step verification (2SV)"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Turn+on+2-step+verification+%282SV%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Fcollection%2Ftop-tips-for-staying-secure-online%2Factivate-2-step-verification-on-your-email&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/blog-post/ncsc-cyber-security-training-for-staff-now-available">"NCSC's cyber security training for staff now available"</a>. www.ncsc.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncsc.gov.uk&rft.atitle=NCSC%27s+cyber+security+training+for+staff+now+available&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsc.gov.uk%2Fblog-post%2Fncsc-cyber-security-training-for-staff-now-available&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTregliaDelia2017" class="citation conference cs1">Treglia, J.; Delia, M. (2017). Cyber Security Inoculation. NYS Cyber Security Conference, Empire State Plaza Convention Center, Albany, NY, 3–4 June.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Cyber+Security+Inoculation&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Treglia&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Delia%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.revenera.com/software-monetization/glossary/license-dongle">"What is a license dongle?"</a>. www.revenera.com. Retrieved 12 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.revenera.com&rft.atitle=What+is+a+license+dongle%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.revenera.com%2Fsoftware-monetization%2Fglossary%2Flicense-dongle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safenet-inc.com/multi-factor-authentication/authenticators/pki-usb-authentication/etoken-5200-token-based-authentication/">"Token-based authentication"</a>. SafeNet.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320234026/http://www.safenet-inc.com/multi-factor-authentication/authenticators/pki-usb-authentication/etoken-5200-token-based-authentication/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Token-based+authentication&rft.pub=SafeNet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.safenet-inc.com%2Fmulti-factor-authentication%2Fauthenticators%2Fpki-usb-authentication%2Fetoken-5200-token-based-authentication%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thewindowsclub.com/lock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator">"Lock and protect your Windows PC"</a>. TheWindowsClub.com. 10 February 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320220321/http://www.thewindowsclub.com/lock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lock+and+protect+your+Windows+PC&rft.pub=TheWindowsClub.com&rft.date=2010-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thewindowsclub.com%2Flock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Greene2012" class="citation web cs1">James Greene (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/white-papers/trusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf">"Intel Trusted Execution Technology: White Paper"</a> (PDF). Intel Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140611161421/http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/white-papers/trusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intel+Trusted+Execution+Technology%3A+White+Paper&rft.pub=Intel+Corporation&rft.date=2012&rft.au=James+Greene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fwww%2Fpublic%2Fus%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fwhite-papers%2Ftrusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scmagazine.com/safenet-protectdrive-84/review/2596/">"SafeNet ProtectDrive 8.4"</a>. SCMagazine.com. 4 October 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320220133/http://www.scmagazine.com/safenet-protectdrive-84/review/2596/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SafeNet+ProtectDrive+8.4&rft.pub=SCMagazine.com&rft.date=2008-10-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmagazine.com%2Fsafenet-protectdrive-84%2Freview%2F2596%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2342798,00.asp">"Secure Hard Drives: Lock Down Your Data"</a>. PCMag.com. 11 May 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621202140/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2342798,00.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Secure+Hard+Drives%3A+Lock+Down+Your+Data&rft.pub=PCMag.com&rft.date=2009-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcmag.com%2Farticle2%2F0%2C2817%2C2342798%2C00.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouppayaScarfone2013" class="citation journal cs1">Souppaya, Murugiah P.; Scarfone, Karen (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise">"Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise"</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Special Publication (NIST SP). Gaithersburg, MD. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-124r1">10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+Managing+the+Security+of+Mobile+Devices+in+the+Enterprise&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-124r1&rft.aulast=Souppaya&rft.aufirst=Murugiah+P.&rft.au=Scarfone%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fguidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://entrycare.com/access-control-statistics/">"Access Control Statistics: Trends & Insights"</a>. 23 February 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Access+Control+Statistics%3A+Trends+%26+Insights&rft.date=2024-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fentrycare.com%2Faccess-control-statistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/2804966490001/forget-ids-use-your-phone-as-credentials/?playlist_id=937116503001#sp=show-clips">"Forget IDs, use your phone as credentials"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fox_Business_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox Business Network">Fox Business Network</a>. 4 November 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320215829/http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/2804966490001/forget-ids-use-your-phone-as-credentials/?playlist_id=937116503001#sp=show-clips">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forget+IDs%2C+use+your+phone+as+credentials&rft.pub=Fox+Business+Network&rft.date=2013-11-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.foxbusiness.com%2Fv%2F2804966490001%2Fforget-ids-use-your-phone-as-credentials%2F%3Fplaylist_id%3D937116503001%23sp%3Dshow-clips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://support.apple.com/guide/security/direct-memory-access-protections-seca4960c2b5/1/web/1">"Direct memory access protections for Mac computers"</a>. Apple. Retrieved 16 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Apple&rft.atitle=Direct+memory+access+protections+for+Mac+computers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.apple.com%2Fguide%2Fsecurity%2Fdirect-memory-access-protections-seca4960c2b5%2F1%2Fweb%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intel.com/content/dam/develop/external/us/en/documents/intel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf">"Using IOMMU for DMA Protection in UEFI Firmware"</a> (PDF). Intel Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211209062425/https://www.intel.com/content/dam/develop/external/us/en/documents/intel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Using+IOMMU+for+DMA+Protection+in+UEFI+Firmware&rft.pub=Intel+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fdevelop%2Fexternal%2Fus%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fintel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabaeiSchieleZohner2022" class="citation journal cs1">Babaei, Armin; Schiele, Gregor; Zohner, Michael (26 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9331300">"Reconfigurable Security Architecture (RESA) Based on PUF for FPGA-Based IoT Devices"</a>. Sensors. 22 (15): 5577. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Senso..22.5577B">2022Senso..22.5577B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs22155577">10.3390/s22155577</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1424-8220">1424-8220</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9331300">9331300</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35898079">35898079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sensors&rft.atitle=Reconfigurable+Security+Architecture+%28RESA%29+Based+on+PUF+for+FPGA-Based+IoT+Devices&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=5577&rft.date=2022-07-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9331300%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Senso..22.5577B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35898079&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fs22155577&rft.issn=1424-8220&rft.aulast=Babaei&rft.aufirst=Armin&rft.au=Schiele%2C+Gregor&rft.au=Zohner%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9331300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassijaChamolaGuptaJain2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hassija, Vikas; Chamola, Vinay; Gupta, Vatsal; Jain, Sarthak; Guizani, Nadra (15 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9203862">"A Survey on Supply Chain Security: Application Areas, Security Threats, and Solution Architectures"</a>. IEEE Internet of Things Journal. 8 (8): 6222–6246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJIOT.2020.3025775">10.1109/JIOT.2020.3025775</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2327-4662">2327-4662</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226767829">226767829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+of+Things+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Survey+on+Supply+Chain+Security%3A+Application+Areas%2C+Security+Threats%2C+and+Solution+Architectures&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=6222-6246&rft.date=2021-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226767829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2327-4662&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJIOT.2020.3025775&rft.aulast=Hassija&rft.aufirst=Vikas&rft.au=Chamola%2C+Vinay&rft.au=Gupta%2C+Vatsal&rft.au=Jain%2C+Sarthak&rft.au=Guizani%2C+Nadra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9203862&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tech.co/antivirus-software/what-is-the-most-secure-os">"The Most Secure OS: What is the Safest OS Available?"</a>. Tech.co. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tech.co&rft.atitle=The+Most+Secure+OS%3A+What+is+the+Safest+OS+Available%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftech.co%2Fantivirus-software%2Fwhat-is-the-most-secure-os&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanghavi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sanghavi, Alok (21 May 2010). "What is formal verification?". EE Times_Asia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EE+Times_Asia&rft.atitle=What+is+formal+verification%3F&rft.date=2010-05-21&rft.aulast=Sanghavi&rft.aufirst=Alok&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerraiolo,_D.F.Kuhn,_D.R.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Ferraiolo, D.F. & Kuhn, D.R. (October 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/rbac/documents/ferraiolo-kuhn-92.pdf">"Role-Based Access Control"</a> (PDF). 15th National Computer Security Conference: 554–563.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=15th+National+Computer+Security+Conference&rft.atitle=Role-Based+Access+Control&rft.pages=554-563&rft.date=1992-10&rft.au=Ferraiolo%2C+D.F.&rft.au=Kuhn%2C+D.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fgroups%2FSNS%2Frbac%2Fdocuments%2Fferraiolo-kuhn-92.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandhuCoyneFeinsteinYouman1996" class="citation journal cs1">Sandhu, R; Coyne, EJ; Feinstein, HL; Youman, CE (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csrc.nist.gov/rbac/sandhu96.pdf">"Role-Based Access Control Models"</a> (PDF). IEEE Computer. 29 (2): 38–47. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.50.7649">10.1.1.50.7649</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.485845">10.1109/2.485845</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1958270">1958270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Computer&rft.atitle=Role-Based+Access+Control+Models&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=38-47&rft.date=1996-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.50.7649%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1958270%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F2.485845&rft.aulast=Sandhu&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Coyne%2C+EJ&rft.au=Feinstein%2C+HL&rft.au=Youman%2C+CE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Frbac%2Fsandhu96.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbreu,_VilmarSantin,_Altair_O.Viegas,_Eduardo_K.Stihler,_Maicon2017" class="citation conference cs1">Abreu, Vilmar; Santin, Altair O.; Viegas, Eduardo K.; Stihler, Maicon (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secplab.ppgia.pucpr.br/files/papers/2017-1.pdf">A multi-domain role activation model</a> (PDF). 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC). IEEE Press. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICC.2017.7997247">10.1109/ICC.2017.7997247</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1467389990" title="Special:BookSources/978-1467389990"><bdi>978-1467389990</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6185138">6185138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=A+multi-domain+role+activation+model&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=IEEE+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6185138%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICC.2017.7997247&rft.isbn=978-1467389990&rft.au=Abreu%2C+Vilmar&rft.au=Santin%2C+Altair+O.&rft.au=Viegas%2C+Eduardo+K.&rft.au=Stihler%2C+Maicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecplab.ppgia.pucpr.br%2Ffiles%2Fpapers%2F2017-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2002-91"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2002_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA.C._O'ConnorR.J._Loomis2002" class="citation book cs1">A.C. O'Connor & R.J. Loomis (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/rbac/documents/20101219_RBAC2_Final_Report.pdf">Economic Analysis of Role-Based Access Control</a> (PDF). Research Triangle Institute. p. 145.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Analysis+of+Role-Based+Access+Control&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Research+Triangle+Institute&rft.date=2002&rft.au=A.C.+O%27Connor&rft.au=R.J.+Loomis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fgroups%2FSNS%2Frbac%2Fdocuments%2F20101219_RBAC2_Final_Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csoonline.com/article/2137210/security-awareness/studies-prove-once-again-that-users-are-the-weakest-link-in-the-security-chain.html">"Studies prove once again that users are the weakest link in the security chain"</a>. CSO Online. 22 January 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CSO+Online&rft.atitle=Studies+prove+once+again+that+users+are+the+weakest+link+in+the+security+chain&rft.date=2014-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csoonline.com%2Farticle%2F2137210%2Fsecurity-awareness%2Fstudies-prove-once-again-that-users-are-the-weakest-link-in-the-security-chain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://securityintelligence.com/the-role-of-human-error-in-successful-security-attacks/">"The Role of Human Error in Successful Security Attacks"</a>. IBM Security Intelligence. 2 September 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM+Security+Intelligence&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Human+Error+in+Successful+Security+Attacks&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecurityintelligence.com%2Fthe-role-of-human-error-in-successful-security-attacks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerworld.com/article/2910316/90-of-security-incidents-trace-back-to-pebkac-and-id10t-errors.html">"90% of security incidents trace back to PEBKAC and ID10T errors"</a>. Computerworld. 15 April 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=90%25+of+security+incidents+trace+back+to+PEBKAC+and+ID10T+errors&rft.date=2015-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2910316%2F90-of-security-incidents-trace-back-to-pebkac-and-id10t-errors.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzba.org.nz/2018/10/08/protect-your-online-banking-with-2fa/">"Protect your online banking with 2FA"</a>. NZ Bankers Association. 7 October 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NZ+Bankers+Association&rft.atitle=Protect+your+online+banking+with+2FA&rft.date=2018-10-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzba.org.nz%2F2018%2F10%2F08%2Fprotect-your-online-banking-with-2fa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pcsite.co.uk/computer-security/IBM_Security_Services_2014_Cyber_Security_Intelligence_Index.pdf">"IBM Security Services 2014 Cyber Security Intelligence Index"</a> (PDF). PcSite. 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PcSite&rft.atitle=IBM+Security+Services+2014+Cyber+Security+Intelligence+Index&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpcsite.co.uk%2Fcomputer-security%2FIBM_Security_Services_2014_Cyber_Security_Intelligence_Index.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell2013" class="citation news cs1">Caldwell, Tracey (12 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/2013/feb/12/business-cyber-security-risks-employees">"Risky business: why security awareness is crucial for employees"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 8 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Risky+business%3A+why+security+awareness+is+crucial+for+employees&rft.date=2013-02-12&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmedia-network%2Fmedia-network-blog%2F2013%2Ffeb%2F12%2Fbusiness-cyber-security-risks-employees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181009013120/https://www.cpni.gov.uk/developing-security-culture">"Developing a Security Culture"</a>. CPNI – Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpni.gov.uk/developing-security-culture">the original</a> on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CPNI+%E2%80%93+Centre+for+the+Protection+of+National+Infrastructure&rft.atitle=Developing+a+Security+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpni.gov.uk%2Fdeveloping-security-culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cyber_Hygiene-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cyber_Hygiene_99-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/cyber-hygiene">"Cyber Hygiene – ENISA"</a>. Retrieved 27 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cyber+Hygiene+%E2%80%93+ENISA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.enisa.europa.eu%2Fpublications%2Fcyber-hygiene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaljulaid-2017-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaljulaid-2017_100-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaljulaid2017" class="citation web cs1">Kaljulaid, Kersti (16 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/13671-president-of-the-republic-at-the-aftenpostens-technology-conference/index.html">"President of the Republic at the Aftenposten's Technology Conference"</a>. Retrieved 27 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+of+the+Republic+at+the+Aftenposten%27s+Technology+Conference&rft.date=2017-10-16&rft.aulast=Kaljulaid&rft.aufirst=Kersti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpresident.ee%2Fen%2Fofficial-duties%2Fspeeches%2F13671-president-of-the-republic-at-the-aftenpostens-technology-conference%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023">"Cyber security breaches survey 2023"</a>. GOV.UK. Retrieved 27 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Cyber+security+breaches+survey+2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fstatistics%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023%2Fcyber-security-breaches-survey-2023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuchler2015" class="citation news cs1">Kuchler, Hannah (27 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de">"Security execs call on companies to improve 'cyber hygiene'"</a>. Financial Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de">the original</a> on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Security+execs+call+on+companies+to+improve+%27cyber+hygiene%27&rft.date=2015-04-27&rft.aulast=Kuchler&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/from-ai-to-russia-heres-how-estonias-president-is-planning-for-the-future/">"From AI to Russia, Here's How Estonia's President Is Planning for the Future"</a>. Wired. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=From+AI+to+Russia%2C+Here%27s+How+Estonia%27s+President+Is+Planning+for+the+Future&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Ffrom-ai-to-russia-heres-how-estonias-president-is-planning-for-the-future%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welivesecurity.com/2017/11/01/professor-len-adleman-explains-computer-virus-term/">"Professor Len Adleman explains how he coined the term "computer virus""</a>. WeLiveSecurity. 1 November 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WeLiveSecurity&rft.atitle=Professor+Len+Adleman+explains+how+he+coined+the+term+%22computer+virus%22&rft.date=2017-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.welivesecurity.com%2F2017%2F11%2F01%2Fprofessor-len-adleman-explains-computer-virus-term%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jec.senate.gov/archive/Documents/Hearings/cerf22300.htm">"Statement of Dr. Vinton G. Cerf"</a>. www.jec.senate.gov. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jec.senate.gov&rft.atitle=Statement+of+Dr.+Vinton+G.+Cerf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jec.senate.gov%2Farchive%2FDocuments%2FHearings%2Fcerf22300.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/3010">Promoting Good Cyber Hygiene Act of 2017</a> at <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress.gov</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/paloma/the-cybersecurity-202/2018/07/26/the-cybersecurity-202-agencies-struggling-with-basic-cybersecurity-despite-trump-s-pledge-to-prioritize-it/5b58a84e1b326b1e64695548/">"Analysis | The Cybersecurity 202: Agencies struggling with basic cybersecurity despite Trump's pledge to prioritize it"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Analysis+%7C+The+Cybersecurity+202%3A+Agencies+struggling+with+basic+cybersecurity+despite+Trump%27s+pledge+to+prioritize+it&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fpowerpost%2Fpaloma%2Fthe-cybersecurity-202%2F2018%2F07%2F26%2Fthe-cybersecurity-202-agencies-struggling-with-basic-cybersecurity-despite-trump-s-pledge-to-prioritize-it%2F5b58a84e1b326b1e64695548%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/counterintelligence/foreign-influence/protected-voices">"Protected Voices"</a>. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 28 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&rft.atitle=Protected+Voices&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Finvestigate%2Fcounterintelligence%2Fforeign-influence%2Fprotected-voices&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2017" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Tom C. W. (3 July 2017). "The New Market Manipulation". Emory Law Journal. 66: 1253. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2996896">2996896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emory+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+New+Market+Manipulation&rft.volume=66&rft.pages=1253&rft.date=2017-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2996896%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Tom+C.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Tom C. W. (2016). "Financial Weapons of War". Minnesota Law Review. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2765010">2765010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Financial+Weapons+of+War&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2765010%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Tom+C.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeSumanSchrammvan_Bel2000" class="citation report cs1">Cole, Jeffrey I.; Suman, Michael; Schramm, Phoebe; van Bel, Daniel; Lunn, B.; Maguire, Phyllisane; Hanson, Koran; Singh, Rajesh; Aquino, Jedrix-Sean; Lebo, Harlan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030423221926/http://ccp.ucla.edu/UCLA-Internet-Report-2000.pdf">The UCLA Internet report: Surveying the digital future</a> (PDF). ccp.ucla.edu (Report). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccp.ucla.edu/UCLA-Internet-Report-2000.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 April 2003. Retrieved 15 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+UCLA+Internet+report%3A+Surveying+the+digital+future&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+I.&rft.au=Suman%2C+Michael&rft.au=Schramm%2C+Phoebe&rft.au=van+Bel%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Lunn%2C+B.&rft.au=Maguire%2C+Phyllisane&rft.au=Hanson%2C+Koran&rft.au=Singh%2C+Rajesh&rft.au=Aquino%2C+Jedrix-Sean&rft.au=Lebo%2C+Harlan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccp.ucla.edu%2FUCLA-Internet-Report-2000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagliery2014" class="citation web cs1">Pagliery, Jose (18 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/18/technology/security/energy-grid-hack/">"Hackers attacked the U.S. energy grid 79 times this year"</a>. CNN Money. Cable News Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150218070238/https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/18/technology/security/energy-grid-hack">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN+Money&rft.atitle=Hackers+attacked+the+U.S.+energy+grid+79+times+this+year&rft.date=2014-11-18&rft.aulast=Pagliery&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2014%2F11%2F18%2Ftechnology%2Fsecurity%2Fenergy-grid-hack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeumann1997" class="citation conference cs1">Neumann, P. G. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csl.sri.com/~neumann/air.html">Computer Security in Aviation: Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Risks</a>. International Conference on Aviation Safety and Security in the 21st Century, White House Commission on Safety and Security.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Computer+Security+in+Aviation%3A+Vulnerabilities%2C+Threats%2C+and+Risks&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Neumann&rft.aufirst=P.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csl.sri.com%2F~neumann%2Fair.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillingham2001" class="citation report cs1">Dillingham, Gerald L. (20 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/33937">Aviation security : terrorist acts demonstrate urgent need to improve security at the nation's airports</a> (Report). United States. General Accounting Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Aviation+security+%3A+terrorist+acts+demonstrate+urgent+need+to+improve+security+at+the+nation%27s+airports&rft.pub=United+States.+General+Accounting+Office&rft.date=2001-09-20&rft.aulast=Dillingham&rft.aufirst=Gerald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosap.ntl.bts.gov%2Fview%2Fdot%2F33937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.securityweek.com/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat">"Air Traffic Control Systems Vulnerabilities Could Make for Unfriendly Skies [Black Hat] – SecurityWeek.Com"</a>. 27 July 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150208070914/http://www.securityweek.com/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Air+Traffic+Control+Systems+Vulnerabilities+Could+Make+for+Unfriendly+Skies+%5BBlack+Hat%5D+%E2%80%93+SecurityWeek.Com&rft.date=2012-07-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityweek.com%2Fair-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/04/337794061/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi">"Hacker Says He Can Break into Airplane Systems Using In-Flight Wi-Fi"</a>. NPR. 4 August 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150208072554/http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/04/337794061/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Hacker+Says+He+Can+Break+into+Airplane+Systems+Using+In-Flight+Wi-Fi&rft.date=2014-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Falltechconsidered%2F2014%2F08%2F04%2F337794061%2Fhacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Finkle2014" class="citation news cs1">Jim Finkle (4 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804">"Hacker says to show passenger jets at risk of cyber attack"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151013061705/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/04/us-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Hacker+says+to+show+passenger+jets+at+risk+of+cyber+attack&rft.date=2014-08-04&rft.au=Jim+Finkle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCesar2023" class="citation magazine cs1">Cesar, Alan (15 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/AAE/Aerogram/2023-2024/articles/41-cyber-course">"Online course bolsters cybersecurity in aviation"</a>. Aerogram. Purdue University School of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Retrieved 9 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerogram&rft.atitle=Online+course+bolsters+cybersecurity+in+aviation&rft.date=2023-12-15&rft.aulast=Cesar&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fengineering.purdue.edu%2FAAE%2FAerogram%2F2023-2024%2Farticles%2F41-cyber-course&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/pan-european-network-services-pens">"Pan-European Network Services (PENS) – Eurocontrol.int"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161212175606/https://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/pan-european-network-services-pens">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pan-European+Network+Services+%28PENS%29+%E2%80%93+Eurocontrol.int&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurocontrol.int%2Farticles%2Fpan-european-network-services-pens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurocontrol.int/news/centralised-services-newpens-moves-forward">"Centralised Services: NewPENS moves forward – Eurocontrol.int"</a>. 17 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319025329/https://www.eurocontrol.int/news/centralised-services-newpens-moves-forward">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centralised+Services%3A+NewPENS+moves+forward+%E2%80%93+Eurocontrol.int&rft.date=2016-01-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurocontrol.int%2Fnews%2Fcentralised-services-newpens-moves-forward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150313110025/http://www.faa.gov/nextgen/update/progress_and_plans/data_comm/">"NextGen Data Communication"</a>. FAA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/nextgen/update/progress_and_plans/data_comm/">the original</a> on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NextGen+Data+Communication&rft.pub=FAA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fnextgen%2Fupdate%2Fprogress_and_plans%2Fdata_comm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhs.gov/e-passports">"e-Passports | Homeland Security"</a>. www.dhs.gov. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dhs.gov&rft.atitle=e-Passports+%7C+Homeland+Security&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fe-passports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150109033115/http://www.dfat.gov.au/dept/passports/">"The Australian ePassport. Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dfat.gov.au/dept/passports/">the original</a> on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Australian+ePassport.+Australian+Government+Department+of+Foreign+Affairs+and+Trade+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dfat.gov.au%2Fdept%2Fpassports%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nestwatch-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nestwatch_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nestwatch_124-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/06/338334508/is-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it">"Is Your Watch Or Thermostat A Spy? Cybersecurity Firms Are On It"</a>. NPR. 6 August 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150211064650/http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/06/338334508/is-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Is+Your+Watch+Or+Thermostat+A+Spy%3F+Cybersecurity+Firms+Are+On+It&rft.date=2014-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Falltechconsidered%2F2014%2F08%2F06%2F338334508%2Fis-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2024" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Jagbir (30 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijraset.com/best-journal/challenges-with-medical-devices-connected-to-hospital-network">"Challenges with Medical Devices Connected To Hospital Network"</a>. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology. 12 (6): 735–749. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22214%2Fijraset.2024.63187">10.22214/ijraset.2024.63187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+Research+in+Applied+Science+and+Engineering+Technology&rft.atitle=Challenges+with+Medical+Devices+Connected+To+Hospital+Network&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=735-749&rft.date=2024-06-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22214%2Fijraset.2024.63187&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Jagbir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijraset.com%2Fbest-journal%2Fchallenges-with-medical-devices-connected-to-hospital-network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNance_JrMeenanNagy2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nance Jr, John W.; Meenan, Christopher; Nagy, Paul G. (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ajronline.org/doi/10.2214/AJR.12.10326">"The Future of the Radiology Information System"</a>. American Journal of Roentgenology. 200 (5): 1064–1070. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2214%2FAJR.12.10326">10.2214/AJR.12.10326</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-803X">0361-803X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Roentgenology&rft.atitle=The+Future+of+the+Radiology+Information+System&rft.volume=200&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1064-1070&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2214%2FAJR.12.10326&rft.issn=0361-803X&rft.aulast=Nance+Jr&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft.au=Meenan%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Nagy%2C+Paul+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajronline.org%2Fdoi%2F10.2214%2FAJR.12.10326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Rogge, G; Bohnet-Joschko, S (2024), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlas-digitale-gesundheitswirtschaft.de/whitepaper-cybersecurity-atlas/">Cybersecurity: All Hands on Deck in a World of Connected Healthcare</a>. Whitepaper. ATLAS Innovation and Digitalization in Healthcare, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumana_Inc.2000" class="citation web cs1">Humana Inc. (15 November 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/11-15-2000/0001367189&EDATE=">"Humana Web Site Named Best Interactive Site by eHealthcare Strategy & Trends; re LOUISVILLE, Ky., Nov. 15 PRNewswire"</a>. prnewswire.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=prnewswire.com&rft.atitle=Humana+Web+Site+Named+Best+Interactive+Site+by+eHealthcare+Strategy+%26+Trends%3B+re+LOUISVILLE%2C+Ky.%2C+Nov.+15+PRNewswire&rft.date=2000-11-15&rft.au=Humana+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fstories.pl%3FACCT%3D104%26STORY%3D%2Fwww%2Fstory%2F11-15-2000%2F0001367189%26EDATE%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruseSmithVanderlindenNealand2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kruse, CB; Smith, B; Vanderlinden, H; Nealand, A (21 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5522514">"Security Techniques for the Electronic Health Records"</a>. Journal of Medical Systems. 41 (8): 127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10916-017-0778-4">10.1007/s10916-017-0778-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5522514">5522514</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28733949">28733949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Systems&rft.atitle=Security+Techniques+for+the+Electronic+Health+Records&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=127&rft.date=2017-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5522514%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28733949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10916-017-0778-4&rft.aulast=Kruse&rft.aufirst=CB&rft.au=Smith%2C+B&rft.au=Vanderlinden%2C+H&rft.au=Nealand%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5522514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelvin_Backman2014" class="citation news cs1">Melvin Backman (18 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2014/09/18/technology/security/home-depot-hack/">"Home Depot: 56 million cards exposed in breach"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNNMoney" class="mw-redirect" title="CNNMoney">CNNMoney</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141218221105/https://money.cnn.com/2014/09/18/technology/security/home-depot-hack/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Home+Depot%3A+56+million+cards+exposed+in+breach&rft.date=2014-09-18&rft.au=Melvin+Backman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2014%2F09%2F18%2Ftechnology%2Fsecurity%2Fhome-depot-hack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fortune.com/2014/12/19/staples-cards-affected-breach/">"Staples: Breach may have affected 1.16 million customers' cards"</a>. Fortune.com. 19 December 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141221160612/http://fortune.com/2014/12/19/staples-cards-affected-breach/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune.com&rft.atitle=Staples%3A+Breach+may+have+affected+1.16+million+customers%27+cards&rft.date=2014-12-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2014%2F12%2F19%2Fstaples-cards-affected-breach%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/18/news/companies/target-credit-card/index.html">"Target: 40 million credit cards compromised"</a>. CNN. 19 December 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035530/https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/18/news/companies/target-credit-card/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Target%3A+40+million+credit+cards+compromised&rft.date=2013-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2013%2F12%2F18%2Fnews%2Fcompanies%2Ftarget-credit-card%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowley2017" class="citation news cs1">Cowley, Stacy (2 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/02/business/equifax-breach.html">"2.5 Million More People Potentially Exposed in Equifax Breach"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201054900/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/02/business/equifax-breach.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=2.5+Million+More+People+Potentially+Exposed+in+Equifax+Breach&rft.date=2017-10-02&rft.aulast=Cowley&rft.aufirst=Stacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F10%2F02%2Fbusiness%2Fequifax-breach.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Finkle2014" class="citation news cs1">Jim Finkle (23 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423">"Exclusive: FBI warns healthcare sector vulnerable to cyber attacks"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604120725/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+FBI+warns+healthcare+sector+vulnerable+to+cyber+attacks&rft.date=2014-04-23&rft.au=Jim+Finkle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeals2015" class="citation news cs1">Seals, Tara (6 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/lack-of-employee-security-training/">"Lack of Employee Security Training Plagues US Businesses"</a>. Infosecurity Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171109081033/https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/lack-of-employee-security-training/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infosecurity+Magazine&rft.atitle=Lack+of+Employee+Security+Training+Plagues+US+Businesses&rft.date=2015-11-06&rft.aulast=Seals&rft.aufirst=Tara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infosecurity-magazine.com%2Fnews%2Flack-of-employee-security-training%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBright2011" class="citation web cs1">Bright, Peter (15 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars/">"Anonymous speaks: the inside story of the HBGary hack"</a>. Arstechnica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110327045801/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anonymous+speaks%3A+the+inside+story+of+the+HBGary+hack&rft.pub=Arstechnica.com&rft.date=2011-02-15&rft.aulast=Bright&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2Fnews%2F2011%2F02%2Fanonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2011" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Nate (9 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars/">"How one man tracked down Anonymous – and paid a heavy price"</a>. Arstechnica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110329090824/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+one+man+tracked+down+Anonymous+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3Band+paid+a+heavy+price&rft.pub=Arstechnica.com&rft.date=2011-02-09&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Nate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2Fnews%2F2011%2F02%2Fhow-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalilery2014" class="citation web cs1">Palilery, Jose (24 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.cnn.com/2014/12/24/technology/security/sony-hack-facts/">"What caused Sony hack: What we know now"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN_Money" class="mw-redirect" title="CNN Money">CNN Money</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150104195455/https://money.cnn.com/2014/12/24/technology/security/sony-hack-facts/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN+Money&rft.atitle=What+caused+Sony+hack%3A+What+we+know+now&rft.date=2014-12-24&rft.aulast=Palilery&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.cnn.com%2F2014%2F12%2F24%2Ftechnology%2Fsecurity%2Fsony-hack-facts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Cook2014" class="citation news cs1">James Cook (16 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12">"Sony Hackers Have Over 100 Terabytes Of Documents. Only Released 200 Gigabytes So Far"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141217204735/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Sony+Hackers+Have+Over+100+Terabytes+Of+Documents.+Only+Released+200+Gigabytes+So+Far&rft.date=2014-12-16&rft.au=James+Cook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fthe-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vox-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vox_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vox_140-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_B._Lee2015" class="citation web cs1">Timothy B. Lee (18 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2015/1/18/7629603/car-hacking-dangers">"The next frontier of hacking: your car"</a>. Vox. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170317212726/http://www.vox.com/2015/1/18/7629603/car-hacking-dangers">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=The+next+frontier+of+hacking%3A+your+car&rft.date=2015-01-18&rft.au=Timothy+B.+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2015%2F1%2F18%2F7629603%2Fcar-hacking-dangers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf">Tracking & Hacking: Security & Privacy Gaps Put American Drivers at Risk</a> (PDF) (Report). 6 February 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109040112/http://www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Tracking+%26+Hacking%3A+Security+%26+Privacy+Gaps+Put+American+Drivers+at+Risk&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.markey.senate.gov%2Fimo%2Fmedia%2Fdoc%2F2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%25202.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aol.com/article/news/2016/12/26/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity/21632630/">"Cybersecurity expert: It will take a 'major event' for companies to take this issue seriously"</a>. AOL.com. 5 January 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120180918/https://www.aol.com/article/news/2016/12/26/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity/21632630/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AOL.com&rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+expert%3A+It+will+take+a+%27major+event%27+for+companies+to+take+this+issue+seriously&rft.date=2017-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aol.com%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2F26%2Fexpert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity%2F21632630%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/dec/23/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code">"The problem with self-driving cars: who controls the code?"</a>. The Guardian. 23 December 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170316152605/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/dec/23/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+problem+with+self-driving+cars%3A+who+controls+the+code%3F&rft.date=2015-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2015%2Fdec%2F23%2Fthe-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_CheckowayDamon_McCoyBrian_KantorDanny_Anderson2011" class="citation conference cs1">Stephen Checkoway; Damon McCoy; <a href="/wiki/Brian_Kantor" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Kantor">Brian Kantor</a>; Danny Anderson; Hovav Shacham; <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Savage" title="Stefan Savage">Stefan Savage</a>; Karl Koscher; Alexei Czeskis; Franziska Roesner; Tadayoshi Kohno (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.autosec.org/pubs/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf">Comprehensive Experimental Analyses of Automotive Attack Surfaces</a> (PDF). SEC'11 Proceedings of the 20th USENIX conference on Security. Berkeley, California, US: USENIX Association. p. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150221064614/http://www.autosec.org/pubs/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Experimental+Analyses+of+Automotive+Attack+Surfaces&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California%2C+US&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=USENIX+Association&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Stephen+Checkoway&rft.au=Damon+McCoy&rft.au=Brian+Kantor&rft.au=Danny+Anderson&rft.au=Hovav+Shacham&rft.au=Stefan+Savage&rft.au=Karl+Koscher&rft.au=Alexei+Czeskis&rft.au=Franziska+Roesner&rft.au=Tadayoshi+Kohno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autosec.org%2Fpubs%2Fcars-usenixsec2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Greenberg, Andy (21 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway/">"Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway – With Me in It"</a>. Wired. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170119103855/https://www.wired.com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Hackers+Remotely+Kill+a+Jeep+on+the+Highway+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BWith+Me+in+It&rft.date=2015-07-21&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2015%2F07%2Fhackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html">"Hackers take control of car, drive it into a ditch"</a>. The Independent. 22 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061247/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Hackers+take+control+of+car%2C+drive+it+into+a+ditch&rft.date=2015-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fhackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/09/21/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control/">"Tesla fixes software bug that allowed Chinese hackers to control car remotely"</a>. The Telegraph. 21 September 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202014932/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/09/21/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Tesla+fixes+software+bug+that+allowed+Chinese+hackers+to+control+car+remotely&rft.date=2016-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2F09%2F21%2Ftesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang2016" class="citation news cs1">Kang, Cecilia (19 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/technology/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html">"Self-Driving Cars Gain Powerful Ally: The Government"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170214045032/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/technology/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html?_r=0">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Self-Driving+Cars+Gain+Powerful+Ally%3A+The+Government&rft.date=2016-09-19&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=Cecilia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F09%2F20%2Ftechnology%2Fself-driving-cars-guidelines.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf">"Federal Automated Vehicles Policy"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170121161404/https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federal+Automated+Vehicles+Policy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.transportation.gov%2Fsites%2Fdot.gov%2Ffiles%2Fdocs%2FAV%2520policy%2520guidance%2520PDF.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/vehicle-cybersecurity">"Vehicle Cybersecurity"</a>. nhtsa.gov. Retrieved 25 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nhtsa.gov&rft.atitle=Vehicle+Cybersecurity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhtsa.gov%2Ftechnology-innovation%2Fvehicle-cybersecurity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/markets/digital-identity-and-security/government/customer-cases/mexico">"Thales supplies smart driver license to 4 states in Mexico"</a>. Thales Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thales+Group&rft.atitle=Thales+supplies+smart+driver+license+to+4+states+in+Mexico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thalesgroup.com%2Fen%2Fmarkets%2Fdigital-identity-and-security%2Fgovernment%2Fcustomer-cases%2Fmexico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-insider/4-companies-using-rfid-for-supply-chain-management">"4 Companies Using RFID for Supply Chain Management"</a>. atlasRFIDstore. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=atlasRFIDstore&rft.atitle=4+Companies+Using+RFID+for+Supply+Chain+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlasrfidstore.com%2Frfid-insider%2F4-companies-using-rfid-for-supply-chain-management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supplychainmarket.com/doc/the-cutting-edge-of-rfid-technology-and-appli-0001">"The Cutting Edge of RFID Technology and Applications for Manufacturing and Distribution"</a>. Supply Chain Market.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supply+Chain+Market&rft.atitle=The+Cutting+Edge+of+RFID+Technology+and+Applications+for+Manufacturing+and+Distribution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supplychainmarket.com%2Fdoc%2Fthe-cutting-edge-of-rfid-technology-and-appli-0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahmanKhademSarder" class="citation conference cs1">Rahman, Mohammad Anwar; Khadem, Mohammad Miftaur; Sarder, MD. Application of RFID in Supply Chain System. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Dhaka, Bangladesh, January 9 – 10, 2010. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.397.7831">10.1.1.397.7831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Application+of+RFID+in+Supply+Chain+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.397.7831%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Anwar&rft.au=Khadem%2C+Mohammad+Miftaur&rft.au=Sarder%2C+MD.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/4320901/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html">"Gary McKinnon profile: Autistic 'hacker' who started writing computer programs at 14"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. London. 23 January 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100602065423/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/4320901/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Gary+McKinnon+profile%3A+Autistic+%27hacker%27+who+started+writing+computer+programs+at+14&rft.date=2009-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fnorthamerica%2Fusa%2F4320901%2FGary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090">"Gary McKinnon extradition ruling due by 16 October"</a>. BBC News. 6 September 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120906185731/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Gary+McKinnon+extradition+ruling+due+by+16+October&rft.date=2012-09-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-19506090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <cite>Mckinnon V Government of The United States of America and Another</cite> (House of Lords 16 June 2008) ("15. ... alleged to total over $700,000"), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldjudgmt/jd080730/mckinn-1.htm">Text</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151106193613/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html">"Fresh Leak on US Spying: NSA Accessed Mexican President's Email"</a>. SPIEGEL ONLINE. 20 October 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html">the original</a> on 6 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SPIEGEL+ONLINE&rft.atitle=Fresh+Leak+on+US+Spying%3A+NSA+Accessed+Mexican+President%27s+Email&rft.date=2013-10-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fworld%2Fnsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders,_Sam2015" class="citation web cs1">Sanders, Sam (4 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/06/04/412086068/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk">"Massive Data Breach Puts 4 Million Federal Employees' Records at Risk"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150605041629/http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/06/04/412086068/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Massive+Data+Breach+Puts+4+Million+Federal+Employees%27+Records+at+Risk&rft.date=2015-06-04&rft.au=Sanders%2C+Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2015%2F06%2F04%2F412086068%2Fmassive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak,_Kevin2015" class="citation news cs1">Liptak, Kevin (4 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/04/politics/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management/">"U.S. government hacked; feds think China is the culprit"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150606063139/http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/04/politics/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=U.S.+government+hacked%3B+feds+think+China+is+the+culprit&rft.date=2015-06-04&rft.au=Liptak%2C+Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2015%2F06%2F04%2Fpolitics%2Ffederal-agency-hacked-personnel-management%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSean_Gallagher" class="citation news cs1">Sean Gallagher. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/06/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official/">"Encryption "would not have helped" at OPM, says DHS official"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170624014751/https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/06/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Encryption+%22would+not+have+helped%22+at+OPM%2C+says+DHS+official&rft.au=Sean+Gallagher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2015%2F06%2Fencryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2015" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Michelle R. (19 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/10/21/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html">"Schools Learn Lessons From Security Breaches"</a>. Education Week. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610130749/http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/10/21/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Education+Week&rft.atitle=Schools+Learn+Lessons+From+Security+Breaches&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Michelle+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edweek.org%2Few%2Farticles%2F2015%2F10%2F21%2Flessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.securityinfowatch.com/access-identity/access-control/press-release/10577631/ge-infrastructure-security-ges-introduces-acuvision-as-a-single-panel-solution">"GE's Introduces ACUVision as a Single Panel Solution"</a>. www.securityinfowatch.com. Security Info Watch. 11 August 2005. Retrieved 24 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.securityinfowatch.com&rft.atitle=GE%27s+Introduces+ACUVision+as+a+Single+Panel+Solution&rft.date=2005-08-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityinfowatch.com%2Faccess-identity%2Faccess-control%2Fpress-release%2F10577631%2Fge-infrastructure-security-ges-introduces-acuvision-as-a-single-panel-solution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx">"Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative"</a>. ITU. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626125229/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ITU&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things+Global+Standards+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2FITU-T%2Fgsi%2Fiot%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinghPasquierBaconKo2015" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Jatinder; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean; Ko, Hajoon; Eyers, David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/35349952/1/iot-2016.pdf">"Twenty Cloud Security Considerations for Supporting the Internet of Things"</a> (PDF). IEEE Internet of Things Journal. 3 (3): 269–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333">10.1109/JIOT.2015.2460333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4732406">4732406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+of+Things+Journal&rft.atitle=Twenty+Cloud+Security+Considerations+for+Supporting+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=269-284&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4732406%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Jatinder&rft.au=Pasquier%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Bacon%2C+Jean&rft.au=Ko%2C+Hajoon&rft.au=Eyers%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1%2F35349952%2F1%2Fiot-2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Clearfield" class="citation news cs1">Chris Clearfield. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisclearfield/2013/09/18/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things/">"Why The FTC Can't Regulate The Internet Of Things"</a>. Forbes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150627090938/http://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisclearfield/2013/09/18/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Why+The+FTC+Can%27t+Regulate+The+Internet+Of+Things&rft.au=Chris+Clearfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fchrisclearfield%2F2013%2F09%2F18%2Fwhy-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hbr.org/resources/pdfs/comm/verizon/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf">"Internet of Things: Science Fiction or Business Fact?"</a> (PDF). Harvard Business Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150317052909/https://hbr.org/resources/pdfs/comm/verizon/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Science+Fiction+or+Business+Fact%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2Fresources%2Fpdfs%2Fcomm%2Fverizon%2F18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvidiu_VermesanPeter_Friess" class="citation web cs1">Ovidiu Vermesan; Peter Friess. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf">"Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems"</a> (PDF). River Publishers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161012010519/http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Converging+Technologies+for+Smart+Environments+and+Integrated+Ecosystems&rft.pub=River+Publishers&rft.au=Ovidiu+Vermesan&rft.au=Peter+Friess&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.internet-of-things-research.eu%2Fpdf%2FConverging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClearfield2013" class="citation journal cs1">Clearfield, Chris (20 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/06/rethinking-security-for-the-in/">"Rethinking Security for the Internet of Things"</a>. Harvard Business Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130920145534/http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/06/rethinking-security-for-the-in/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Security+for+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2013-06-20&rft.aulast=Clearfield&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.hbr.org%2F2013%2F06%2Frethinking-security-for-the-in%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/security/2012/11/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks/">"Hotel room burglars exploit critical flaw in electronic door locks"</a>. Ars Technica. 26 November 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514002208/http://arstechnica.com/security/2012/11/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Hotel+room+burglars+exploit+critical+flaw+in+electronic+door+locks&rft.date=2012-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2012%2F11%2Fhotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darkreading.com/vulnerabilities---threats/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks/d/d-id/1320751">"Hospital Medical Devices Used As Weapons in Cyberattacks"</a>. Dark Reading. 6 August 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529002947/http://www.darkreading.com/vulnerabilities---threats/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks/d/d-id/1320751">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dark+Reading&rft.atitle=Hospital+Medical+Devices+Used+As+Weapons+in+Cyberattacks&rft.date=2015-08-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkreading.com%2Fvulnerabilities---threats%2Fhospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks%2Fd%2Fd-id%2F1320751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_Kirk2012" class="citation web cs1">Jeremy Kirk (17 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerworld.com/article/2492453/malware-vulnerabilities/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html">"Pacemaker hack can deliver deadly 830-volt jolt"</a>. Computerworld. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604201841/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2492453/malware-vulnerabilities/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=Pacemaker+hack+can+deliver+deadly+830-volt+jolt&rft.date=2012-10-17&rft.au=Jeremy+Kirk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2492453%2Fmalware-vulnerabilities%2Fpacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/17/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html">"How Your Pacemaker Will Get Hacked"</a>. The Daily Beast. Kaiser Health News. 17 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160520155616/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/17/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&rft.atitle=How+Your+Pacemaker+Will+Get+Hacked&rft.date=2014-11-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F11%2F17%2Fhow-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeetaru" class="citation magazine cs1">Leetaru, Kalev. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/03/29/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016/">"Hacking Hospitals And Holding Hostages: Cybersecurity In 2016"</a>. Forbes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229104021/http://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/03/29/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Hacking+Hospitals+And+Holding+Hostages%3A+Cybersecurity+In+2016&rft.aulast=Leetaru&rft.aufirst=Kalev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fkalevleetaru%2F2016%2F03%2F29%2Fhacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wiwo1-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wiwo1_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wiwo1_175-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiwo.de/technologie/digitale-welt/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker/14946040.html">"Cyber-Angriffe: Krankenhäuser rücken ins Visier der Hacker"</a>. Wirtschafts Woche. 7 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101724/http://www.wiwo.de/technologie/digitale-welt/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker/14946040.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cyber-Angriffe%3A+Krankenh%C3%A4user+r%C3%BCcken+ins+Visier+der+Hacker&rft.pub=Wirtschafts+Woche&rft.date=2016-12-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiwo.de%2Ftechnologie%2Fdigitale-welt%2Fcyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker%2F14946040.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5">"Hospitals keep getting attacked by ransomware – Here's why"</a>. Business Insider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101247/http://www.businessinsider.com/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Hospitals+keep+getting+attacked+by+ransomware+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BHere%27s+why&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fhospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121">"MedStar Hospitals Recovering After 'Ransomware' Hack"</a>. NBC News. 31 March 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229103355/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=MedStar+Hospitals+Recovering+After+%27Ransomware%27+Hack&rft.date=2016-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fus-news%2Fmedstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauli" class="citation web cs1">Pauli, Darren. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/06/28/medjack/">"US hospitals hacked with ancient exploits"</a>. The Register. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161116141207/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/06/28/medjack">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=US+hospitals+hacked+with+ancient+exploits&rft.aulast=Pauli&rft.aufirst=Darren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2016%2F06%2F28%2Fmedjack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauli" class="citation web cs1">Pauli, Darren. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/01/19/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus/">"Zombie OS lurches through Royal Melbourne Hospital spreading virus"</a>. The Register. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101019/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/01/19/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Zombie+OS+lurches+through+Royal+Melbourne+Hospital+spreading+virus&rft.aulast=Pauli&rft.aufirst=Darren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2016%2F01%2F19%2Fmelbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37849746">"Hacked Lincolnshire hospital computer systems 'back up'"</a>. BBC News. 2 November 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101819/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37849746">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Hacked+Lincolnshire+hospital+computer+systems+%27back+up%27&rft.date=2016-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-humber-37849746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37822084">"Lincolnshire operations cancelled after network attack"</a>. BBC News. 31 October 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101209/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37822084">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Lincolnshire+operations+cancelled+after+network+attack&rft.date=2016-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-humber-37822084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167/">"Legion cyber-attack: Next dump is sansad.nic.in, say hackers"</a>. The Indian Express. 12 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229100631/http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Legion+cyber-attack%3A+Next+dump+is+sansad.nic.in%2C+say+hackers&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Ftechnology%2Ftech-news-technology%2Flegion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/12/27/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital/">"Former New Hampshire Psychiatric Hospital Patient Accused Of Data Breach"</a>. CBS Boston. 27 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233237/http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/12/27/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Former+New+Hampshire+Psychiatric+Hospital+Patient+Accused+Of+Data+Breach&rft.pub=CBS+Boston&rft.date=2016-12-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboston.cbslocal.com%2F2016%2F12%2F27%2Fformer-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records">"Texas Hospital hacked, affects nearly 30,000 patient records"</a>. Healthcare IT News. 4 November 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229171117/http://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Texas+Hospital+hacked%2C+affects+nearly+30%2C000+patient+records&rft.pub=Healthcare+IT+News&rft.date=2016-11-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2Ftexas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker2016" class="citation web cs1">Becker, Rachel (27 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/27/14095166/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines">"New cybersecurity guidelines for medical devices tackle evolving threats"</a>. The Verge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161228210257/http://www.theverge.com/2016/12/27/14095166/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=New+cybersecurity+guidelines+for+medical+devices+tackle+evolving+threats&rft.date=2016-12-27&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2016%2F12%2F27%2F14095166%2Ffda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM482022.pdf">"Postmarket Management of Cybersecurity in Medical Devices"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a>. 28 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161229102808/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM482022.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft.atitle=Postmarket+Management+of+Cybersecurity+in+Medical+Devices&rft.date=2016-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fdownloads%2FMedicalDevices%2FDeviceRegulationandGuidance%2FGuidanceDocuments%2FUCM482022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt2018" class="citation news cs1">Brandt, Jaclyn (18 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dailyenergyinsider.com/featured/13110-d-c-distributed-4:.energy-proposal-draws-concerns-of-increased-cybersecurity-risks/">"D.C. distributed energy proposal draws concerns of increased cybersecurity risks"</a>. Daily Energy Insider. Retrieved 4 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Energy+Insider&rft.atitle=D.C.+distributed+energy+proposal+draws+concerns+of+increased+cybersecurity+risks&rft.date=2018-06-18&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Jaclyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailyenergyinsider.com%2Ffeatured%2F13110-d-c-distributed-4%3A.energy-proposal-draws-concerns-of-increased-cybersecurity-risks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openmobilealliance.org/Technical/release_program/scws_v1_0.aspx">"Current Releases - The Open Mobile Alliance"</a>. openmobilealliance.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=openmobilealliance.org&rft.atitle=Current+Releases+-+The+Open+Mobile+Alliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openmobilealliance.org%2FTechnical%2Frelease_program%2Fscws_v1_0.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCashellJacksonJicklingWebel2004" class="citation report cs1">Cashell, B.; Jackson, W. D.; Jickling, M.; Webel, B. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL32331.pdf">The Economic Impact of Cyber-Attacks</a> (PDF) (Report). Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, Government, and Finance Division. RL32331.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Impact+of+Cyber-Attacks&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service%2C+Government%2C+and+Finance+Division&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Cashell&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+W.+D.&rft.au=Jickling%2C+M.&rft.au=Webel%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsgp.fas.org%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FRL32331.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordonLoeb2002" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Lawrence; Loeb, Martin (November 2002). "The Economics of Information Security Investment". ACM Transactions on Information and System Security. 5 (4): 438–457. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F581271.581274">10.1145/581271.581274</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1500788">1500788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Information+and+System+Security&rft.atitle=The+Economics+of+Information+Security+Investment&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=438-457&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F581271.581274&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1500788%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Loeb%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerBarnes2021" class="citation news cs1">Sanger, David E.; Barnes, Julian E. (20 December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/20/us/politics/russia-ukraine-cyberattacks.html">"U.S. and Britain Help Ukraine Prepare for Potential Russian Cyberassault"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+and+Britain+Help+Ukraine+Prepare+for+Potential+Russian+Cyberassault&rft.date=2021-12-20&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F12%2F20%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Frussia-ukraine-cyberattacks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/ics-alerts/ir-alert-h-16-056-01">"Cyber-Attack Against Ukrainian Critical Infrastructure | CISA"</a>. www.cisa.gov. 20 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cisa.gov&rft.atitle=Cyber-Attack+Against+Ukrainian+Critical+Infrastructure+%7C+CISA&rft.date=2021-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cisa.gov%2Fnews-events%2Fics-alerts%2Fir-alert-h-16-056-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanDongre2014" class="citation journal cs1">Han, Chen; Dongre, Rituja (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22215%2Ftimreview%2F838">"Q&A. What Motivates Cyber-Attackers?"</a>. Technology Innovation Management Review. 4 (10): 40–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22215%2Ftimreview%2F838">10.22215/timreview/838</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1927-0321">1927-0321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+Innovation+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Q%26A.+What+Motivates+Cyber-Attackers%3F&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=40-42&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22215%2Ftimreview%2F838&rft.issn=1927-0321&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Chen&rft.au=Dongre%2C+Rituja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.22215%252Ftimreview%252F838&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChermickFreilichHolt2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chermick, Steven; Freilich, Joshua; Holt, Thomas (April 2017). "Exploring the Subculture of Ideologically Motivated Cyber-Attackers". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 33 (3): 212–233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1043986217699100">10.1177/1043986217699100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152277480">152277480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+Subculture+of+Ideologically+Motivated+Cyber-Attackers&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=212-233&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1043986217699100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152277480%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chermick&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Freilich%2C+Joshua&rft.au=Holt%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2020" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Ross (2020). Security engineering : a guide to building dependable distributed systems (3rd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119642817" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119642817"><bdi>978-1119642817</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224516855">1224516855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+engineering+%3A+a+guide+to+building+dependable+distributed+systems&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224516855&rft.isbn=978-1119642817&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icims.com/gc/incident-response-procedures/">"The Leading Cloud Recruiting Software"</a>. iCIMS. Retrieved 13 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Leading+Cloud+Recruiting+Software&rft.pub=iCIMS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icims.com%2Fgc%2Fincident-response-procedures%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Wilcox, S. and Brown, B. (2005) 'Responding to Security Incidents – Sooner or Later Your Systems Will Be Compromised', Journal of Health Care Compliance, 7(2), pp. 41–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-multiple-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-multiple_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-multiple_198-1">b</a> Jonathan Zittrain, 'The Future of The Internet', Penguin Books, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm">Information Security</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306140354/http://fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm">Archived</a> 6 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. United States Department of Defense, 1986 </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businesswire.com/news/tjx/20070117005971/en">"The TJX Companies, Inc. Victimized by Computer System Intrusion; Provides Information to Help Protect Customers"</a> (Press release). The TJX Companies, Inc. 17 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014805/http://www.businesswire.com/news/tjx/20070117005971/en">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+TJX+Companies%2C+Inc.+Victimized+by+Computer+System+Intrusion%3B+Provides+Information+to+Help+Protect+Customers&rft.pub=The+TJX+Companies%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007-01-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Ftjx%2F20070117005971%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myfoxtwincities.com/myfox/pages/Home/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1">Largest Customer Info Breach Grows</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041047/http://www.myfoxtwincities.com/myfox/pages/Home/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1">Archived</a> 28 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. MyFox Twin Cities, 29 March 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11">"The Stuxnet Attack On Iran's Nuclear Plant Was 'Far More Dangerous' Than Previously Thought"</a>. Business Insider. 20 November 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140509020404/http://www.businessinsider.com/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=The+Stuxnet+Attack+On+Iran%27s+Nuclear+Plant+Was+%27Far+More+Dangerous%27+Than+Previously+Thought&rft.date=2013-11-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fstuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReals2010" class="citation news cs1">Reals, Tucker (24 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/stuxnet-worm-a-us-cyber-attack-on-iran-nukes/">"Stuxnet Worm a U.S. Cyber-Attack on Iran Nukes?"</a>. CBS News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131016133651/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-501465_162-20017507-501465.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=Stuxnet+Worm+a+U.S.+Cyber-Attack+on+Iran+Nukes%3F&rft.date=2010-09-24&rft.aulast=Reals&rft.aufirst=Tucker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Fstuxnet-worm-a-us-cyber-attack-on-iran-nukes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Zetter2011" class="citation magazine cs1">Kim Zetter (17 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/02/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe">"Cyberwar Issues Likely to Be Addressed Only After a Catastrophe"</a>. Wired. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110218154415/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/02/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Cyberwar+Issues+Likely+to+Be+Addressed+Only+After+a+Catastrophe&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.au=Kim+Zetter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fthreatlevel%2F2011%2F02%2Fcyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Carroll2011" class="citation web cs1">Chris Carroll (18 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stripes.com/news/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090">"Cone of silence surrounds U.S. cyberwarfare"</a>. Stars and Stripes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307021747/http://www.stripes.com/news/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 30 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cone+of+silence+surrounds+U.S.+cyberwarfare&rft.pub=Stars+and+Stripes&rft.date=2011-10-18&rft.au=Chris+Carroll&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stripes.com%2Fnews%2Fcone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Bumgarner2010" class="citation web cs1">John Bumgarner (27 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111219174833/http://www.crows.org/images/stories/pdf/IOI/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf">"Computers as Weapons of War"</a> (PDF). IO Journal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crows.org/images/stories/pdf/IOI/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 December 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computers+as+Weapons+of+War&rft.pub=IO+Journal&rft.date=2010-04-27&rft.au=John+Bumgarner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crows.org%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fpdf%2FIOI%2FIO%2520Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwald2013" class="citation news cs1">Greenwald, Glenn (6 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order">"NSA collecting phone records of millions of Verizon customers daily"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130816045641/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2013. <q>Exclusive: Top secret court order requiring <a href="/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon">Verizon</a> to hand over all call data shows scale of domestic surveillance under <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=NSA+collecting+phone+records+of+millions+of+Verizon+customers+daily&rft.date=2013-06-06&rft.aulast=Greenwald&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fjun%2F06%2Fnsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeipel" class="citation web cs1">Seipel, Hubert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freesnowden.is/fr/2014/01/27/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden/">"Transcript: ARD interview with Edward Snowden"</a>. La Foundation Courage. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714174333/https://www.freesnowden.is/fr/2014/01/27/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=La+Foundation+Courage&rft.atitle=Transcript%3A+ARD+interview+with+Edward+Snowden&rft.aulast=Seipel&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freesnowden.is%2Ffr%2F2014%2F01%2F27%2Fvideo-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2013" class="citation journal cs1">Newman, Lily Hay (9 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/can-you-trust-nist">"Can You Trust NIST?"</a>. IEEE Spectrum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160201095426/https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/can-you-trust-nist">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Can+You+Trust+NIST%3F&rft.date=2013-10-09&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Lily+Hay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fcan-you-trust-nist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/itl/csd/sp800-90-042114.cfm">"NIST Removes Cryptography Algorithm from Random Number Generator Recommendations"</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 21 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.atitle=NIST+Removes+Cryptography+Algorithm+from+Random+Number+Generator+Recommendations&rft.date=2014-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fitl%2Fcsd%2Fsp800-90-042114.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mashable.com/2013/10/30/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers/">"New Snowden Leak: NSA Tapped Google, Yahoo Data Centers"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140709131535/http://mashable.com/2013/10/30/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers/">Archived</a> 9 July 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 31 October 2013, Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, mashable.com </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_RileyBen_ElginDune_LawrenceCarol_Matlack2014" class="citation news cs1">Michael Riley; Ben Elgin; Dune Lawrence; Carol Matlack (17 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150127015928/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-03-13/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data">"Target Missed Warnings in Epic Hack of Credit Card Data"</a>. Businessweek. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-03-13/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data">the original</a> on 27 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Businessweek&rft.atitle=Target+Missed+Warnings+in+Epic+Hack+of+Credit+Card+Data&rft.date=2014-03-17&rft.au=Michael+Riley&rft.au=Ben+Elgin&rft.au=Dune+Lawrence&rft.au=Carol+Matlack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweek.com%2Farticles%2F2014-03-13%2Ftarget-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenblatt2014" class="citation web cs1">Rosenblatt, Seth (6 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnet.com/news/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach/">"Home Depot says 53 million emails stolen"</a>. CNET. CBS Interactive. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141209035159/http://www.cnet.com/news/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNET&rft.atitle=Home+Depot+says+53+million+emails+stolen&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.aulast=Rosenblatt&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2F53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709">"Millions more Americans hit by government personnel data hack"</a>. Reuters. 9 July 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170228005352/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Millions+more+Americans+hit+by+government+personnel+data+hack&rft.date=2017-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2015" class="citation news cs1">Barrett, Devlin (4 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888">"U.S. Suspects Hackers in China Breached About four (4) Million People's Records, Officials Say"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150604215718/http://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=U.S.+Suspects+Hackers+in+China+Breached+About+four+%284%29+Million+People%27s+Records%2C+Officials+Say&rft.date=2015-06-04&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Devlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fu-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisen2015" class="citation web cs1">Risen, Tom (5 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150606064331/http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/06/05/china-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records">"China Suspected in Theft of Federal Employee Records"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/06/05/china-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records">the original</a> on 6 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=China+Suspected+in+Theft+of+Federal+Employee+Records&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft.aulast=Risen&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015%2F06%2F05%2Fchina-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZengerle2015" class="citation news cs1">Zengerle, Patricia (19 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709">"Estimate of Americans hit by government personnel data hack skyrockets"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150710075449/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/09/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Estimate+of+Americans+hit+by+government+personnel+data+hack+skyrockets&rft.date=2015-07-19&rft.aulast=Zengerle&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanger2015" class="citation news cs1">Sanger, David (5 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/05/us/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html">"Hacking Linked to China Exposes Millions of U.S. Workers"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150605135158/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/05/us/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hacking+Linked+to+China+Exposes+Millions+of+U.S.+Workers&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F06%2F05%2Fus%2Fbreach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansfield-Devine2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mansfield-Devine, Steve (1 September 2015). "The Ashley Madison affair". Network Security. 2015 (9): 8–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1353-4858%2815%2930080-5">10.1016/S1353-4858(15)30080-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Network+Security&rft.atitle=The+Ashley+Madison+affair&rft.volume=2015&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=8-16&rft.date=2015-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1353-4858%2815%2930080-5&rft.aulast=Mansfield-Devine&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurton,_W.Mehrotra,_K.2021" class="citation news cs1">Turton, W.; Mehrotra, K. (4 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-04/hackers-breached-colonial-pipeline-using-compromised-password">"Hackers Breached Colonial Pipeline Using Compromised Password"</a>. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 3 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Hackers+Breached+Colonial+Pipeline+Using+Compromised+Password&rft.date=2021-06-04&rft.au=Turton%2C+W.&rft.au=Mehrotra%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2021-06-04%2Fhackers-breached-colonial-pipeline-using-compromised-password&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ted.com-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ted.com_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ted.com_221-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html">"Mikko Hypponen: Fighting viruses, defending the net"</a>. TED. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116010603/http://www.ted.com/talks/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mikko+Hypponen%3A+Fighting+viruses%2C+defending+the+net&rft.pub=TED&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fmikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4">"Mikko Hypponen – Behind Enemy Lines"</a>. Hack in the Box Security Conference. 9 December 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161125075257/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mikko+Hypponen+%E2%80%93+Behind+Enemy+Lines&rft.pub=Hack+in+the+Box+Security+Conference&rft.date=2012-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D0TMFRO66Wv4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gao.gov/highrisk/protecting_the_federal_government_information_systems/why_did_study">"Ensuring the Security of Federal Information Systems and Cyber Critical Infrastructure and Protecting the Privacy of Personally Identifiable Information"</a>. Government Accountability Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151119221200/http://www.gao.gov/highrisk/protecting_the_federal_government_information_systems/why_did_study">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ensuring+the+Security+of+Federal+Information+Systems+and+Cyber+Critical+Infrastructure+and+Protecting+the+Privacy+of+Personally+Identifiable+Information&rft.pub=Government+Accountability+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fhighrisk%2Fprotecting_the_federal_government_information_systems%2Fwhy_did_study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2018" class="citation news cs1">King, Georgia (23 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/1284178/almost-half-of-cryptocurrency-and-bitcoin-bros-identify-as-libertarian/">"The Venn diagram between libertarians and crypto bros is so close it's basically a circle"</a>. Quartz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quartz&rft.atitle=The+Venn+diagram+between+libertarians+and+crypto+bros+is+so+close+it%27s+basically+a+circle&rft.date=2018-05-23&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Georgia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F1284178%2Falmost-half-of-cryptocurrency-and-bitcoin-bros-identify-as-libertarian%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby2011" class="citation news cs1">Kirby, Carrie (24 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Former-White-House-aide-backs-some-Net-regulation-2729985.php">"Former White House aide backs some Net regulation / Clarke says government, industry deserve 'F' in cyber security"</a>. The San Francisco Chronicle.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Former+White+House+aide+backs+some+Net+regulation+%2F+Clarke+says+government%2C+industry+deserve+%27F%27+in+cyber+security&rft.date=2011-06-24&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=Carrie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fbusiness%2Farticle%2FFormer-White-House-aide-backs-some-Net-regulation-2729985.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy2018" class="citation journal cs1">McCarthy, Daniel (11 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/download/1335/800">"Privatizing Political Authority: Cybersecurity, Public-Private Partnerships, and the Reproduction of Liberal Political Order"</a>. Politics and Governance. 6 (2): 5–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1335">10.17645/pag.v6i2.1335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&rft.atitle=Privatizing+Political+Authority%3A+Cybersecurity%2C+Public-Private+Partnerships%2C+and+the+Reproduction+of+Liberal+Political+Order&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=5-12&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1335&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogitatiopress.com%2Fpoliticsandgovernance%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F1335%2F800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/26/its-time-treat-cybersecurity-human-rights-issue">"It's Time to Treat Cybersecurity as a Human Rights Issue"</a>. Human Rights Watch. 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+Treat+Cybersecurity+as+a+Human+Rights+Issue&rft.date=2020-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2020%2F05%2F26%2Fits-time-treat-cybersecurity-human-rights-issue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.first.org/about/mission/">"FIRST Mission"</a>. FIRST. Retrieved 6 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIRST+Mission&rft.pub=FIRST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.first.org%2Fabout%2Fmission%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.first.org/members/">"FIRST Members"</a>. FIRST. Retrieved 6 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIRST+Members&rft.pub=FIRST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.first.org%2Fmembers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coe.int/t/DGHL/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/default_en.asp">"European council"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141203223358/http://www.coe.int/t/DGHL/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/default_en.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coe.int%2Ft%2FDGHL%2Fcooperation%2Feconomiccrime%2Fcybercrime%2Fdefault_en.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maawg.org/about_maawg">"MAAWG"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140923153548/http://www.maawg.org/about_maawg">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MAAWG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maawg.org%2Fabout_maawg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maawg.org/about/roster">"MAAWG"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141017165203/http://www.maawg.org/about/roster">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MAAWG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maawg.org%2Fabout%2Froster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm">"Government of Canada Launches Canada's Cyber Security Strategy"</a>. Market Wired. 3 October 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102175904/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Market+Wired&rft.atitle=Government+of+Canada+Launches+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&rft.date=2010-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwired.com%2Fpress-release%2Fgovernment-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada's_Cyber_Security_Strategy_234-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-scrt-strtgy/index-eng.aspx">"Canada's Cyber Security Strategy"</a>. Public Safety Canada. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102175701/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-scrt-strtgy/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fcbr-scrt-strtgy%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Government_of_Canada-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_235-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Government_of_Canada_235-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx">"Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy"</a>. Public Safety Canada. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102173436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Action+Plan+2010%E2%80%932015+for+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fctn-pln-cbr-scrt%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-ncdnt-frmwrk/index-eng.aspx#_Toc360619104">"Cyber Incident Management Framework For Canada"</a>. Public Safety Canada. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102213822/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-ncdnt-frmwrk/index-eng.aspx#_Toc360619104">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Cyber+Incident+Management+Framework+For+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fcbr-ncdnt-frmwrk%2Findex-eng.aspx%23_Toc360619104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx">"Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy"</a>. Public Safety Canada. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102173436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Action+Plan+2010%E2%80%932015+for+Canada%27s+Cyber+Security+Strategy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fpblctns%2Fctn-pln-cbr-scrt%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx">"Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre"</a>. Public Safety Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141008035436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Canadian+Cyber+Incident+Response+Centre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fccirc-ccric-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/cybr-ctr/index-eng.aspx">"Cyber Security Bulletins"</a>. Public Safety Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141008194739/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/cybr-ctr/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Bulletins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Frsrcs%2Fcybr-ctr%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/rprt-eng.aspx">"Report a Cyber Security Incident"</a>. Public Safety Canada. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141111212708/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/rprt-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Report+a+Cyber+Security+Incident&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Frprt-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm">"Government of Canada Launches Cyber Security Awareness Month With New Public Awareness Partnership"</a>. Market Wired. Government of Canada. 27 September 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141103225408/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Market+Wired&rft.atitle=Government+of+Canada+Launches+Cyber+Security+Awareness+Month+With+New+Public+Awareness+Partnership&rft.date=2012-09-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwired.com%2Fpress-release%2Fgovernment-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx">"Cyber Security Cooperation Program"</a>. Public Safety Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102184754/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Cooperation+Program&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fcprtn-prgrm%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx">"Cyber Security Cooperation Program"</a>. Public Safety Canada. 16 December 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102184754/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Safety+Canada&rft.atitle=Cyber+Security+Cooperation+Program&rft.date=2015-12-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicsafety.gc.ca%2Fcnt%2Fntnl-scrt%2Fcbr-scrt%2Fcprtn-prgrm%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/index-eng.aspx">"GetCyberSafe"</a>. Get Cyber Safe. Government of Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141111210737/http://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/index-eng.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Get+Cyber+Safe&rft.atitle=GetCyberSafe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getcybersafe.gc.ca%2Findex-eng.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> "Australian federal government announces cybersecurity support for SMBs",<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/about-us/our-portfolios/cyber-security/strategy/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy">"2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy"</a>. Retrieved 22 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2023-2030+Australian+Cyber+Security+Strategy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.homeaffairs.gov.au%2Fabout-us%2Four-portfolios%2Fcyber-security%2Fstrategy%2F2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orfonline.org/cyfy-event/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks/">"Need for proper structure of PPPs to address specific cyberspace risks"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113165123/http://www.orfonline.org/cyfy-event/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Need+for+proper+structure+of+PPPs+to+address+specific+cyberspace+risks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orfonline.org%2Fcyfy-event%2Fneed-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180219150958/https://www.ncdrc.res.in/">"National Cyber Safety and Security Standards(NCSSS)-Home"</a>. www.ncdrc.res.in. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncdrc.res.in/">the original</a> on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncdrc.res.in&rft.atitle=National+Cyber+Safety+and+Security+Standards%28NCSSS%29-Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdrc.res.in%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"South Korea seeks global support in cyber attack probe". BBC Monitoring Asia Pacific. 7 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+Monitoring+Asia+Pacific&rft.atitle=South+Korea+seeks+global+support+in+cyber+attack+probe&rft.date=2011-03-07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwanwoo_Jun2013" class="citation news cs1">Kwanwoo Jun (23 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/09/23/seoul-puts-a-price-on-cyberdefense/">"Seoul Puts a Price on Cyberdefense"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130925102342/http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/09/23/seoul-puts-a-price-on-cyberdefense/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Seoul+Puts+a+Price+on+Cyberdefense&rft.date=2013-09-23&rft.au=Kwanwoo+Jun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Fkorearealtime%2F2013%2F09%2F23%2Fseoul-puts-a-price-on-cyberdefense%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2023" class="citation news cs1">White, House (March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/National-Cybersecurity-Strategy-2023.pdf">"National security strategy"</a> (PDF). No. March 2032. white house. US gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=National+security+strategy&rft.issue=March+2032&rft.date=2023-03&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F03%2FNational-Cybersecurity-Strategy-2023.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdil2023" class="citation web cs1">Adil, Sajid (16 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cybernexguard.com/do-you-know-about-biggest-cybersecurity-threats-in-2023/">"Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023?"</a>. Cybernexguard. Adil Sajid. Retrieved 18 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cybernexguard&rft.atitle=Do+You+Know+About+Biggest+Cybersecurity+Threats+In+2023%3F&rft.date=2023-10-16&rft.aulast=Adil&rft.aufirst=Sajid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcybernexguard.com%2Fdo-you-know-about-biggest-cybersecurity-threats-in-2023%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdil2018" class="citation web cs1">Adil, Sajid (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1259394/">"National Cyber Strategy of the United States of America"</a>. University Libraries UNT Digital Library. Retrieved 18 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Libraries+UNT+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=National+Cyber+Strategy+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.date=2018-09&rft.aulast=Adil&rft.aufirst=Sajid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1259394%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdil2018" class="citation web cs1">Adil, Sajid (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1259394/#collections">"Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023?"</a>. University Libraries UNT Digital Library. Retrieved 18 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Libraries+UNT+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Do+You+Know+About+Biggest+Cybersecurity+Threats+In+2023%3F&rft.date=2018-09&rft.aulast=Adil&rft.aufirst=Sajid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1259394%2F%23collections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/4962">International Cybercrime Reporting and Cooperation Act</a> at <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress.gov</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120040012/http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Files.View&FileStore_id=4ee63497-ca5b-4a4b-9bba-04b7f4cb0123">"Home | Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs Committee"</a>. www.hsgac.senate.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/">the original</a> on 20 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hsgac.senate.gov&rft.atitle=Home+%26%23124%3B+Homeland+Security+%26+Governmental+Affairs+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hsgac.senate.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996617560/biden-advisor-on-cyber-threats-and-the-new-executive-order-to-combat-them">"Biden Adviser On Cyber Threats And The New Executive Order To Combat Them"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Biden+Adviser+On+Cyber+Threats+And+The+New+Executive+Order+To+Combat+Them&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2021%2F05%2F13%2F996617560%2Fbiden-advisor-on-cyber-threats-and-the-new-executive-order-to-combat-them&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/05/12/executive-order-on-improving-the-nations-cybersecurity/">Executive Order on Improving the Nation's Cybersecurity</a> (full text) </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611210347/https://www.dhs.gov/xabout/structure/editorial_0839.shtm">"National Cyber Security Division"</a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhs.gov/xabout/structure/editorial_0839.shtm">the original</a> on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Cyber+Security+Division&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fxabout%2Fstructure%2Feditorial_0839.shtm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSRDC-FAQ-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSRDC-FAQ_259-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyber.st.dhs.gov/faq.html">"FAQ: Cyber Security R&D Center"</a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security S&T Directorate. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006042850/http://www.cyber.st.dhs.gov/faq.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+Cyber+Security+R%26D+Center&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security+S%26T+Directorate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cyber.st.dhs.gov%2Ffaq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> AFP-JiJi, "U.S. boots up cybersecurity center", 31 October 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/quick-facts">"Federal Bureau of Investigation – Priorities"</a>. Federal Bureau of Investigation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160711053557/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/quick-facts">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation+%E2%80%93+Priorities&rft.pub=Federal+Bureau+of+Investigation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fabout-us%2Fquick-facts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx">"Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) – Home"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120021742/http://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internet+Crime+Complaint+Center+%28IC3%29+%E2%80%93+Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ic3.gov%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infragard.net/">"Infragard, Official Site"</a>. Infragard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100909051004/http://www.infragard.net/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2010. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infragard&rft.atitle=Infragard%2C+Official+Site&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infragard.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617004540/http://www.infragard.net/media/files/dir_med.mov">"Robert S. Mueller, III – InfraGard Interview at the 2005 InfraGard Conference"</a>. Infragard (Official Site) – "Media Room". Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infragard.net/media/files/dir_med.mov">the original</a> on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infragard+%28Official+Site%29+%E2%80%93+%22Media+Room%22&rft.atitle=Robert+S.+Mueller%2C+III+%E2%80%93+InfraGard+Interview+at+the+2005+InfraGard+Conference&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infragard.net%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2Fdir_med.mov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cybercrime.gov/">"CCIPS"</a>. 25 March 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060823173821/http://www.cybercrime.gov/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CCIPS&rft.date=2015-03-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybercrime.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/criminal-ccips/page/file/983996/download">"A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems"</a>. Cybersecurity Unit, Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section Criminal Division U.S. Department of Justice. July 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Framework+for+a+Vulnerability+Disclosure+Program+for+Online+Systems&rft.pub=Cybersecurity+Unit%2C+Computer+Crime+%26+Intellectual+Property+Section+Criminal+Division+U.S.+Department+of+Justice&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fcriminal-ccips%2Fpage%2Ffile%2F983996%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cybercom.mil/About/Mission-and-Vision/">"Mission and Vision"</a>. www.cybercom.mil. Retrieved 20 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cybercom.mil&rft.atitle=Mission+and+Vision&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cybercom.mil%2FAbout%2FMission-and-Vision%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Lynn,_III2009" class="citation speech cs1">William J. Lynn, III (12 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100415113237/http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1399">Remarks at the Defense Information Technology Acquisition Summit</a> (Speech). Washington D.C. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1399">the original</a> on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 10 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remarks+at+the+Defense+Information+Technology+Acquisition+Summit&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.date=2009-11-12&rft.au=William+J.+Lynn%2C+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defense.gov%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech.aspx%3Fspeechid%3D1399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShachtman2010" class="citation web cs1">Shachtman, Noah (23 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101106032102/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx">"Military's Cyber Commander Swears: "No Role" in Civilian Networks"</a>. brookings.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx">the original</a> on 6 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brookings.edu&rft.atitle=Military%27s+Cyber+Commander+Swears%3A+%22No+Role%22+in+Civilian+Networks&rft.date=2010-09-23&rft.aulast=Shachtman&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fopinions%2F2010%2F0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100527095750/http://www.fcc.gov/pshs/emergency-information/cybersecurity.html">"FCC Cybersecurity"</a>. FCC. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/pshs/emergency-information/cybersecurity.html">the original</a> on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FCC+Cybersecurity&rft.pub=FCC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fpshs%2Femergency-information%2Fcybersecurity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/AlertsandNotices/ucm356423.htm">"Cybersecurity for Medical Devices and Hospital Networks: FDA Safety Communication"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160528153847/https://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/safety/alertsandnotices/ucm356423.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+for+Medical+Devices+and+Hospital+Networks%3A+FDA+Safety+Communication&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FMedicalDevices%2FSafety%2FAlertsandNotices%2Fucm356423.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160525195552/http://www.nhtsa.gov/Research/Crash+Avoidance/Automotive+Cybersecurity">"Automotive Cybersecurity – National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhtsa.gov/Research/Crash+Avoidance/Automotive+Cybersecurity">the original</a> on 25 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Automotive+Cybersecurity+%E2%80%93+National+Highway+Traffic+Safety+Administration+%28NHTSA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhtsa.gov%2FResearch%2FCrash%2BAvoidance%2FAutomotive%2BCybersecurity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-370">Air Traffic Control: FAA Needs a More Comprehensive Approach to Address Cybersecurity As Agency Transitions to NextGen</a> (Report). U. S. Government Accountability Office. 14 April 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160613150636/http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-370">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Air+Traffic+Control%3A+FAA+Needs+a+More+Comprehensive+Approach+to+Address+Cybersecurity+As+Agency+Transitions+to+NextGen&rft.pub=U.+S.+Government+Accountability+Office&rft.date=2015-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fproducts%2FGAO-15-370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliya_Sternstein2016" class="citation web cs1">Aliya Sternstein (4 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2016/03/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations/126449/">"FAA Working on New Guidelines for Hack-Proof Planes"</a>. Nextgov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160519181332/http://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2016/03/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations/126449/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nextgov&rft.atitle=FAA+Working+on+New+Guidelines+for+Hack-Proof+Planes&rft.date=2016-03-04&rft.au=Aliya+Sternstein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nextgov.com%2Fcybersecurity%2F2016%2F03%2Ffaa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations%2F126449%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBart_Elias2015" class="citation web cs1">Bart Elias (18 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/IN10296.pdf">"Protecting Civil Aviation from Cyberattacks"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100306/https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/IN10296.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protecting+Civil+Aviation+from+Cyberattacks&rft.date=2015-06-18&rft.au=Bart+Elias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fhomesec%2FIN10296.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonReimers2019" class="citation conference cs1">Anderson, David; Reimers, Karl (2019). CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT. EDULEARN19 Proceedings. Vol. 1. IATED. pp. 7858–7866. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21125%2Fedulearn.2019.1914">10.21125/edulearn.2019.1914</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-09-12031-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-09-12031-4"><bdi>978-84-09-12031-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2340-1117">2340-1117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=CYBER+SECURITY+EMPLOYMENT+POLICY+AND+WORKPLACE+DEMAND+IN+THE+U.S.+GOVERNMENT&rft.pages=7858-7866&rft.pub=IATED&rft.date=2019&rft.issn=2340-1117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21125%2Fedulearn.2019.1914&rft.isbn=978-84-09-12031-4&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Reimers%2C+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerton,_Dan2004" class="citation news cs1">Verton, Dan (28 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,89488,00.html">"DHS launches national cyber alert system"</a>. Computerworld. IDG. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050831162039/http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,89488,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2005. Retrieved 15 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=DHS+launches+national+cyber+alert+system&rft.date=2004-01-28&rft.au=Verton%2C+Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fsecuritytopics%2Fsecurity%2Fstory%2F0%2C10801%2C89488%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Details can be found in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-10/section-73.54">10 CFR 73.54, Protection of digital computer and communication systems and networks</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1011/ML101180437.pdf">Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors</a> - Nuclear Energy Institute </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Refer to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1011/ML101180437.pdf">NEI 08-09</a> for more details. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton2011" class="citation journal cs1">Clayton, Mark (7 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2011/0307/The-new-cyber-arms-race">"The new cyber arms race"</a>. The Christian Science Monitor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150416090310/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2011/0307/The-new-cyber-arms-race">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=The+new+cyber+arms+race&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FUSA%2FMilitary%2F2011%2F0307%2FThe-new-cyber-arms-race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakashima,_Ellen2016" class="citation news cs1">Nakashima, Ellen (13 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20161012083815/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa/2016/09/12/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html">"Obama to be urged to split cyberwar command from NSA"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa/2016/09/12/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html">the original</a> on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Obama+to+be+urged+to+split+cyberwar+command+from+NSA&rft.date=2016-09-13&rft.au=Nakashima%2C+Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fnational-security%2Fobama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa%2F2016%2F09%2F12%2F0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverland2019" class="citation journal cs1">Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018">"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths"</a>. Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ERSS...49...36O">2019ERSS...49...36O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018">10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2579292">11250/2579292</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2214-6296">2214-6296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Research+%26+Social+Science&rft.atitle=The+geopolitics+of+renewable+energy%3A+Debunking+four+emerging+myths&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=36-40&rft.date=2019-03-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2579292&rft.issn=2214-6296&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019ERSS...49...36O&rft.aulast=Overland&rft.aufirst=Indra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.erss.2018.10.018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManessValeriano2018" class="citation journal cs1">Maness, Ryan C.; Valeriano, Brandon (11 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368">"How We Stopped Worrying about Cyber Doom and Started Collecting Data"</a>. Politics and Governance. 6 (2): 49–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368">10.17645/pag.v6i2.1368</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10945%2F60589">10945/60589</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2183-2463">2183-2463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics+and+Governance&rft.atitle=How+We+Stopped+Worrying+about+Cyber+Doom+and+Started+Collecting+Data&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=49-60&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10945%2F60589&rft.issn=2183-2463&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fpag.v6i2.1368&rft.aulast=Maness&rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&rft.au=Valeriano%2C+Brandon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17645%252Fpag.v6i2.1368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManessValeriano2015" class="citation journal cs1">Maness, Ryan C.; Valeriano, Brandon (25 March 2015). "The Impact of Cyber Conflict on International Interactions". Armed Forces & Society. 42 (2): 301–323. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327x15572997">10.1177/0095327x15572997</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-327X">0095-327X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146145942">146145942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Society&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Cyber+Conflict+on+International+Interactions&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=301-323&rft.date=2015-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146145942%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0095-327X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0095327x15572997&rft.aulast=Maness&rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&rft.au=Valeriano%2C+Brandon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullard2016" class="citation book cs1">Bullard, Brittany (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119271260">Style and Statistics: The Art of Retail Analytics</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119271260.ch8">10.1002/9781119271260.ch8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119270317" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119270317"><bdi>978-1119270317</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Style+and+Statistics%3A+The+Art+of+Retail+Analytics&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781119271260.ch8&rft.isbn=978-1119270317&rft.aulast=Bullard&rft.aufirst=Brittany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781119271260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOltsik2016" class="citation web cs1">Oltsik, Jon (18 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160323042705/http://www.networkworld.com/article/3045801/security/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html">"Cybersecurity Skills Shortage Impact on Cloud Computing"</a>. Network World. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.networkworld.com/article/3045801/security/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html">the original</a> on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Network+World&rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+Skills+Shortage+Impact+on+Cloud+Computing&rft.date=2016-03-18&rft.aulast=Oltsik&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F3045801%2Fsecurity%2Fcybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2018" class="citation web cs1">Robinson, Terry (30 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211010052542/https://www.degreequery.com/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best/">"Why is a Degree in Cyber Security one of the Best?"</a>. DegreeQuery.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degreequery.com/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best/">the original</a> on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DegreeQuery.com&rft.atitle=Why+is+a+Degree+in+Cyber+Security+one+of+the+Best%3F&rft.date=2018-05-30&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degreequery.com%2Fwhy-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Silva2011" class="citation web cs1">de Silva, Richard (11 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defenceiq.com/defence-technology/articles/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you/">"Government vs. Commerce: The Cyber Security Industry and You (Part One)"</a>. Defence IQ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140424200253/http://www.defenceiq.com/defence-technology/articles/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Government+vs.+Commerce%3A+The+Cyber+Security+Industry+and+You+%28Part+One%29&rft.pub=Defence+IQ&rft.date=2011-10-11&rft.aulast=de+Silva&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defenceiq.com%2Fdefence-technology%2Farticles%2Fthe-cyber-security-industry-and-you%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603085633/http://www.cs.gwu.edu/academics/graduate_programs/master/cybersecurity/cybersecurity-jobs">"Department of Computer Science"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.gwu.edu/academics/graduate_programs/master/cybersecurity/cybersecurity-jobs">the original</a> on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Computer+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.gwu.edu%2Facademics%2Fgraduate_programs%2Fmaster%2Fcybersecurity%2Fcybersecurity-jobs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cisa.gov/security-architect">"About Cyber Security architect"</a>. cisa.gov. 1 August 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cisa.gov&rft.atitle=About+Cyber+Security+architect&rft.date=2021-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cisa.gov%2Fsecurity-architect&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cybersecuritycareer.org/chief-information-security-officer-ciso/">"How to become a Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)?"</a>. cybersecuritycareer.org. 1 August 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cybersecuritycareer.org&rft.atitle=How+to+become+a+Chief+Information+Security+Officer+%28CISO%29%3F&rft.date=2021-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcybersecuritycareer.org%2Fchief-information-security-officer-ciso%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data-protection/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/accountability-and-governance/data-protection-officers/">"Data Protection Officers"</a>. ico.org.uk. January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ico.org.uk&rft.atitle=Data+Protection+Officers&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fico.org.uk%2Ffor-organisations%2Fguide-to-data-protection%2Fguide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr%2Faccountability-and-governance%2Fdata-protection-officers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://niccs.cisa.gov/formal-education/students-launch-your-cyber-career">"Student Cybersecurity Resources"</a>. NICCS (US National Initiative for Cybercareers and Studies). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105234726/https://niccs.cisa.gov/formal-education/students-launch-your-cyber-career">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Student+Cybersecurity+Resources&rft.pub=NICCS+%28US+National+Initiative+for+Cybercareers+and+Studies%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fniccs.cisa.gov%2Fformal-education%2Fstudents-launch-your-cyber-career&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhs.gov/join-dhs-cybersecurity">"Current Job Opportunities at DHS"</a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130502135412/http://www.dhs.gov/join-dhs-cybersecurity">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 5 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Current+Job+Opportunities+at+DHS&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fjoin-dhs-cybersecurity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhs.gov/cybersecurity-training-exercises">"Cybersecurity Training & Exercises"</a>. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 12 May 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150107111146/http://www.dhs.gov/cybersecurity-training-exercises">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cybersecurity+Training+%26+Exercises&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Homeland+Security&rft.date=2010-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhs.gov%2Fcybersecurity-training-exercises&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://msisac.cisecurity.org/resources/videos/free-training.cfm">"Cyber Security Awareness Free Training and Webcasts"</a>. MS-ISAC (Multi-State Information Sharing & Analysis Center). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150106064140/http://msisac.cisecurity.org/resources/videos/free-training.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cyber+Security+Awareness+Free+Training+and+Webcasts&rft.pub=MS-ISAC+%28Multi-State+Information+Sharing+%26+Analysis+Center%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmsisac.cisecurity.org%2Fresources%2Fvideos%2Ffree-training.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161021073353/http://iase.disa.mil/iawip/Pages/iabaseline.aspx">"DoD Approved 8570 Baseline Certifications"</a>. iase.disa.mil. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iase.disa.mil/iawip/Pages/iabaseline.aspx">the original</a> on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iase.disa.mil&rft.atitle=DoD+Approved+8570+Baseline+Certifications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiase.disa.mil%2Fiawip%2FPages%2Fiabaseline.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386093/The_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf">"The UK Cyber Security Strategy: Report on Progress and Forward Plans December 2014"</a> (PDF). United Kingdom Cabinet Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180418230804/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386093/The_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+UK+Cyber+Security+Strategy%3A+Report+on+Progress+and+Forward+Plans+December+2014&rft.pub=United+Kingdom+Cabinet+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.publishing.service.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F386093%2FThe_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/cyber-skills-for-a-vibrant-and-secure-uk">"Cyber skills for a vibrant and secure UK"</a>. GOV.UK.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Cyber+skills+for+a+vibrant+and+secure+UK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fnews%2Fcyber-skills-for-a-vibrant-and-secure-uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211016185633/https://www.csa.gov.sg/News/Press-Releases/singapore-operational-technology-cybersecurity-competency-framework">"Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework"</a>. Cyber Security Agency (Press release). 8 October 2021. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csa.gov.sg/News/Press-Releases/singapore-operational-technology-cybersecurity-competency-framework">the original</a> on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Singapore+Operational+Technology+%28OT%29+Cybersecurity+Competency+Framework&rft.date=2021-10-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.gov.sg%2FNews%2FPress-Releases%2Fsingapore-operational-technology-cybersecurity-competency-framework&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/confidentiality">"Confidentiality"</a>. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Confidentiality&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2Fconfidentiality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/data-integrity.html">"Data Integrity"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111106055944/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/data-integrity.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Integrity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessdictionary.com%2Fdefinition%2Fdata-integrity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/endpoint_security.html">"Endpoint Security"</a>. 10 November 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140316021605/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/endpoint_security.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Endpoint+Security&rft.date=2010-11-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webopedia.com%2FTERM%2FE%2Fendpoint_security.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isaca.org/resources/news-and-trends/industry-news/2022/a-brief-history-of-the-cybersecurity-profession">"A Brief History of the Cybersecurity Profession"</a>. ISACA. Retrieved 13 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ISACA&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Cybersecurity+Profession&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaca.org%2Fresources%2Fnews-and-trends%2Findustry-news%2F2022%2Fa-brief-history-of-the-cybersecurity-profession&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rit.edu/news/one-step-ahead-computing-security">"One step ahead in computing security"</a>. RIT. Retrieved 13 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RIT&rft.atitle=One+step+ahead+in+computing+security&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rit.edu%2Fnews%2Fone-step-ahead-computing-security&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MAHC.2016.48-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MAHC.2016.48_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MAHC.2016.48_307-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisa2016" class="citation journal cs1">Misa, Thomas J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/MAHC.2016.48">"Computer Security Discourse at RAND, SDC, and NSA (1958-1970)"</a>. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 38 (4): 12–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.2016.48">10.1109/MAHC.2016.48</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17609542">17609542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=Computer+Security+Discourse+at+RAND%2C+SDC%2C+and+NSA+%281958-1970%29&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=12-25&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.2016.48&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17609542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Misa&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.2016.48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._J._Neumann,_N._Statland_and_R._D._Webb1977" class="citation web cs1">A. J. Neumann, N. Statland and R. D. Webb (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf">"Post-processing audit tools and techniques"</a> (PDF). nist.gov. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. pp. 11–3–11–4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161010044638/http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nist.gov&rft.atitle=Post-processing+audit+tools+and+techniques&rft.pages=11-3-11-4&rft.date=1977&rft.au=A.+J.+Neumann%2C+N.+Statland+and+R.+D.+Webb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FLegacy%2FSP%2Fnbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2018" class="citation web cs1">Irwin, Luke (5 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.itgovernanceusa.com/blog/how-nist-can-protect-the-cia-triad-including-the-often-overlooked-i-integrity">"How NIST can protect the CIA triad, including the often overlooked 'I' – integrity"</a>. www.itgovernanceusa.com. Retrieved 16 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.itgovernanceusa.com&rft.atitle=How+NIST+can+protect+the+CIA+triad%2C+including+the+often+overlooked+%27I%27+%E2%80%93+integrity&rft.date=2018-04-05&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.itgovernanceusa.com%2Fblog%2Fhow-nist-can-protect-the-cia-triad-including-the-often-overlooked-i-integrity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrin2008" class="citation web cs1">Perrin, Chad (30 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techrepublic.com/blog/security/the-cia-triad/488">"The CIA Triad"</a>. techrepublic.com. Retrieved 31 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techrepublic.com&rft.atitle=The+CIA+Triad&rft.date=2008-06-30&rft.aulast=Perrin&rft.aufirst=Chad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techrepublic.com%2Fblog%2Fsecurity%2Fthe-cia-triad%2F488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoneburnerHaydenFeringa2004" class="citation report cs1">Stoneburner, G.; Hayden, C.; Feringa, A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf">Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security</a> (PDF) (Report). csrc.nist.gov. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-27rA">10.6028/NIST.SP.800-27rA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041012074937/http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 October 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Engineering+Principles+for+Information+Technology+Security&rft.pub=csrc.nist.gov&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2FNIST.SP.800-27rA&rft.aulast=Stoneburner&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Hayden%2C+C.&rft.au=Feringa%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fnistpubs%2F800-27A%2FSP800-27-RevA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> Note: this document has been superseded by later versions. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYost2015" class="citation journal cs1">Yost, Jeffrey R. (April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7116464">"The Origin and Early History of the Computer Security Software Products Industry"</a>. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 37 (2): 46–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.2015.21">10.1109/MAHC.2015.21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1934-1547">1934-1547</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18929482">18929482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Early+History+of+the+Computer+Security+Software+Products+Industry&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=46-58&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18929482%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1934-1547&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMAHC.2015.21&rft.aulast=Yost&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F7116464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/threats/a-brief-history-of-computer-viruses-and-what-the-future-holds">"A Brief History of Computer Viruses & What the Future Holds"</a>. www.kaspersky.com. 19 April 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kaspersky.com&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Computer+Viruses+%26+What+the+Future+Holds&rft.date=2023-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kaspersky.com%2Fresource-center%2Fthreats%2Fa-brief-history-of-computer-viruses-and-what-the-future-holds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/612868-first-incident-of-cyber-espionage">"First incident of cyber-espionage"</a>. Guinness World Records. Retrieved 23 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Guinness+World+Records&rft.atitle=First+incident+of+cyber-espionage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guinnessworldrecords.com%2Fworld-records%2F612868-first-incident-of-cyber-espionage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFBI_News2018" class="citation web cs1">FBI News (2 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/morris-worm-30-years-since-first-major-attack-on-internet-110218">"The Morris Worm - 30 Years Since First Major Attack on the Internet"</a>. fbi.gov. Retrieved 23 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fbi.gov&rft.atitle=The+Morris+Worm+-+30+Years+Since+First+Major+Attack+on+the+Internet&rft.date=2018-11-02&rft.au=FBI+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fnews%2Fstories%2Fmorris-worm-30-years-since-first-major-attack-on-internet-110218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webdevelopmenthistory.com/1993-mosaic-launches-and-the-web-is-set-free/">"1993: Mosaic Launches and the Web is Set Free"</a>. Web Development History. 8 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Web+Development+History&rft.atitle=1993%3A+Mosaic+Launches+and+the+Web+is+Set+Free&rft.date=2021-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebdevelopmenthistory.com%2F1993-mosaic-launches-and-the-web-is-set-free%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webdesignmuseum.org/web-design-history/netscape-navigator-2-0-1995">"Web Design Museum - Netscape Navigator 2.0"</a>. 10 March 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Web+Design+Museum+-+Netscape+Navigator+2.0&rft.date=2023-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webdesignmuseum.org%2Fweb-design-history%2Fnetscape-navigator-2-0-1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakashima2008" class="citation news cs1">Nakashima, Ellen (26 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/25/AR2008012503261_pf.html">"Bush Order Expands Network Monitoring: Intelligence Agencies to Track Intrusions"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Bush+Order+Expands+Network+Monitoring%3A+Intelligence+Agencies+to+Track+Intrusions&rft.date=2008-01-26&rft.aulast=Nakashima&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2008%2F01%2F25%2FAR2008012503261_pf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-perlroth-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-perlroth_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perlroth_319-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicole_Perlroth2021" class="citation news cs1">Nicole Perlroth (7 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/technology/cyber-hackers-usa.html">"How the U.S. Lost to Hackers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/technology/cyber-hackers-usa.html">the original</a> on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+the+U.S.+Lost+to+Hackers&rft.date=2021-02-07&rft.au=Nicole+Perlroth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F02%2F06%2Ftechnology%2Fcyber-hackers-usa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerlrothSangerShane2019" class="citation web cs1">Perlroth, Nicole; Sanger, David; Shane, Scott (6 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/us/politics/china-hacking-cyber.html">"How Chinese Spies Got the N.S.A.'s Hacking Tools, and Used Them for Attacks"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 18 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Chinese+Spies+Got+the+N.S.A.%27s+Hacking+Tools%2C+and+Used+Them+for+Attacks&rft.date=2019-05-06&rft.aulast=Perlroth&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft.au=Sanger%2C+David&rft.au=Shane%2C+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F05%2F06%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fchina-hacking-cyber.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(22)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-22 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-22"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Computer security <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Computer+security">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Computer+security&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranch2020" class="citation journal cs1">Branch, Jordan (24 September 2020). "What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity". International Organization. 75 (1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 39–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002081832000051x">10.1017/s002081832000051x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8183">0020-8183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224886794">224886794</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=What%27s+in+a+Name%3F+Metaphors+and+Cybersecurity&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-70&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224886794%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-8183&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs002081832000051x&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCostiganHennessy2016" class="citation book cs1">Costigan, Sean; Hennessy, Michael (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_10/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf">Cybersecurity: A Generic Reference Curriculum</a> (PDF). NATO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9284501960" title="Special:BookSources/978-9284501960"><bdi>978-9284501960</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170310031437/http://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_10/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybersecurity%3A+A+Generic+Reference+Curriculum&rft.pub=NATO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-9284501960&rft.aulast=Costigan&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Hennessy%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nato.int%2Fnato_static_fl2014%2Fassets%2Fpdf%2Fpdf_2016_10%2F20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller2018" class="citation journal cs1">Fuller, Christopher J (11 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/407741/3/Fuller_Roots_of_Cyber_Insecurity_clean_images.doc">"The Roots of the United States' Cyber (In)Security"</a> (DOC). Diplomatic History. 43 (1). Oxford University Press (OUP): 157–185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdhy038">10.1093/dh/dhy038</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2096">0145-2096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+the+United+States%27+Cyber+%28In%29Security&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=157-185&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdhy038&rft.issn=0145-2096&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F407741%2F3%2FFuller_Roots_of_Cyber_Insecurity_clean_images.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBob2021" class="citation web cs1">Bob, Yonah Jeremy (21 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/ex-idf-cyber-intel-official-how-to-carry-out-a-cyber-offense-attack-677173">"Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense"</a>. The Jerusalem Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Ex-IDF+cyber+intel.+official+reveals+secrets+behind+cyber+offense&rft.date=2021-08-21&rft.aulast=Bob&rft.aufirst=Yonah+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fisrael-news%2Fex-idf-cyber-intel-official-how-to-carry-out-a-cyber-offense-attack-677173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2014" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Peter (2014). The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing. Seattle: <a href="/wiki/CreateSpace_Independent_Publishing_Platform" class="mw-redirect" title="CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform">CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1494932633" title="Special:BookSources/978-1494932633"><bdi>978-1494932633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hacker+Playbook%3A+Practical+Guide+To+Penetration+Testing&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1494932633&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Newton_Lee" title="Newton Lee">Lee, Newton</a> (2015). Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319172439" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319172439"><bdi>978-3319172439</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counterterrorism+and+Cybersecurity%3A+Total+Information+Awareness&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3319172439&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontagnaniCavallo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Montagnani, Maria Lillà; Cavallo, Mirta Antonella (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/mclawreview/article/view/325">"Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World"</a>. Market and Competition Law Review. 2 (2). Elsevier BV: 71–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3220475">10.2139/ssrn.3220475</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216704215">216704215</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3220475">3220475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Market+and+Competition+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Cybersecurity+and+Liability+in+a+Big+Data+World&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=71-98&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216704215%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3220475%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3220475&rft.aulast=Montagnani&rft.aufirst=Maria+Lill%C3%A0&rft.au=Cavallo%2C+Mirta+Antonella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucp.pt%2Findex.php%2Fmclawreview%2Farticle%2Fview%2F325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShariatiBahmaniShams2011" class="citation journal cs1">Shariati, Marzieh; Bahmani, Faezeh; Shams, Fereidoon (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089">"Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective"</a>. Procedia Computer Science. 3. Elsevier BV: 537–543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089">10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.089</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1877-0509">1877-0509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+Computer+Science&rft.atitle=Enterprise+information+security%2C+a+review+of+architectures+and+frameworks+from+interoperability+perspective&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=537-543&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.procs.2010.12.089&rft.issn=1877-0509&rft.aulast=Shariati&rft.aufirst=Marzieh&rft.au=Bahmani%2C+Faezeh&rft.au=Shams%2C+Fereidoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.procs.2010.12.089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingerFriedman2014" class="citation book cs1">Singer, P. W.; Friedman, Allan (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199918119" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199918119"><bdi>978-0199918119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybersecurity+and+Cyberwar%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0199918119&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=P.+W.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuIrwin2013" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Chwan-Hwa (John); Irwin, J. David (2013). Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1466572133" title="Special:BookSources/978-1466572133"><bdi>978-1466572133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Computer+Networks+and+Cybersecurity&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1466572133&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Chwan-Hwa+%28John%29&rft.au=Irwin%2C+J.+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+security" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cybersecurity Best Practices | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency CISA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2024, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices">https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices</a></li> <li>Sztyber-Betley, A., Syfert, M., Kościelny, J. M., & Górecka, Z. (2023). Controller Cyber-Attack Detection and Isolation †: Sensors (14248220). Sensors (14248220), 23(5), 2778. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs23052778">10.3390/s23052778</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_security" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Computer security">Computer security</a>.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&oldid=1259749951">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&oldid=1259749951</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 26 November 2024, at 21:12 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaarsekuriteit" title="Rekenaarsekuriteit – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rekenaarsekuriteit" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="أمن الحاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أمن الحاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segurid%C3%A1_inform%C3%A1tica" title="Seguridá informática – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Seguridá informática" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibert%C9%99hl%C3%BCk%C9%99sizlik" title="Kibertəhlükəsizlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kibertəhlükəsizlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="কম্পিউটার নিরাপত্তা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার নিরাপত্তা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-n%C3%A1u_an-cho%C3%A2n" title="Tiān-náu an-choân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-náu an-choân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Компютърна сигурност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Компютърна сигурност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigurnost_ra%C4%8Dunara" title="Sigurnost računara – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sigurnost računara" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguretat_inform%C3%A0tica" title="Seguretat informàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Seguretat informàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguridad_sa_kompyuter" title="Seguridad sa kompyuter – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Seguridad sa kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_bezpe%C4%8Dnost" title="Počítačová bezpečnost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Počítačová bezpečnost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/It-sikkerhed" title="It-sikkerhed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="It-sikkerhed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computersicherheit" title="Computersicherheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Computersicherheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCberturvalisus" title="Küberturvalisus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Küberturvalisus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Κυβερνοασφάλεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυβερνοασφάλεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguridad_inform%C3%A1tica" title="Seguridad informática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Seguridad informática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekurado_de_Informacioj" title="Sekurado de Informacioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sekurado de Informacioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zibersegurtasun" title="Zibersegurtasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zibersegurtasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="امنیت رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امنیت رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_des_syst%C3%A8mes_d%27information" title="Sécurité des systèmes d'information – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sécurité des systèmes d'information" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%DB%8A%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A4%D9%86%D9%8A" title="کامپيۊتري سؤني – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="کامپيۊتري سؤني" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="કમ્પ્યુટર સુરક્ષા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કમ્પ્યુટર સુરક્ષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0_%EB%B3%B4%EC%95%88" title="컴퓨터 보안 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨터 보안" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber_security" title="Cyber security – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Cyber security" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BE%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Համակարգչային անվտանգություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համակարգչային անվտանգություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कंप्यूटर सुरक्षा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कंप्यूटर सुरक्षा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalna_sigurnost" title="Računalna sigurnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Računalna sigurnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keamanan_komputer" title="Keamanan komputer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keamanan komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukuphepha_kwesicikizi" title="Ukuphepha kwesicikizi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukuphepha kwesicikizi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6lvu%C3%B6ryggi" title="Tölvuöryggi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tölvuöryggi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicurezza_informatica" title="Sicurezza informatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sicurezza informatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%98%D7%97%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99" title="אבטחת מחשב אישי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבטחת מחשב אישי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="კომპიუტერული უსაფრთხოება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კომპიუტერული უსაფრთხოება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Компьютерлік қауіпсіздік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Компьютерлік қауіпсіздік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usalama_wa_mtandao" title="Usalama wa mtandao – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Usalama wa mtandao" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Компьютердик коопсуздук – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Компьютердик коопсуздук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiberdro%C5%A1%C4%ABba" title="Kiberdrošība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kiberdrošība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicurezza_informatega" title="Sicurezza informatega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sicurezza informatega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ സുരക്ഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ സുരക്ഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="संगणक सुरक्षा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संगणक सुरक्षा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keselamatan_komputer" title="Keselamatan komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keselamatan komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%C3%A2manan_komputer" title="Kaâmanan komputer – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kaâmanan komputer" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Компьютерын аюулгүй байдал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Компьютерын аюулгүй байдал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerbeveiliging" title="Computerbeveiliging – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Computerbeveiliging" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्प्युटर सुरक्षा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%82%BB%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AA%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3" title="コンピュータセキュリティ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンピュータセキュリティ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%89%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80" title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ ਸਕਿਉਰਿਟੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ ਸਕਿਉਰਿਟੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%BC%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="د کمپيوټر امنيت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کمپيوټر امنيت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezpiecze%C5%84stwo_teleinformatyczne" title="Bezpieczeństwo teleinformatyczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bezpieczeństwo teleinformatyczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguran%C3%A7a_de_computadores" title="Segurança de computadores – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Segurança de computadores" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter_q%C3%A1wipsizligi" title="Kompyuter qáwipsizligi – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Kompyuter qáwipsizligi" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitate_(informatic%C4%83)" title="Securitate (informatică) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Securitate (informatică)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Компьютерная безопасность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Компьютерная безопасность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siguria_kibernetike" title="Siguria kibernetike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Siguria kibernetike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Computer security" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_bezpe%C4%8Dnos%C5%A5" title="Počítačová bezpečnosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Počítačová bezpečnosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informati%C4%8Dna_varnost" title="Informatična varnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Informatična varnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1" title="ئاسایشی کۆمپیوتەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئاسایشی کۆمپیوتەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Рачунарска безбедност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рачунарска безбедност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarska_sigurnost" title="Računarska sigurnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Računarska sigurnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyberturvallisuus" title="Kyberturvallisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kyberturvallisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybers%C3%A4kerhet" title="Cybersäkerhet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cybersäkerhet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4" title="కంప్యూటర్ భద్రత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంప్యూటర్ భద్రత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ความมั่นคงคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความมั่นคงคอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_g%C3%BCvenli%C4%9Fi" title="Bilgisayar güvenliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar güvenliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%27%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Комп'ютерна безпека – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Комп'ютерна безпека" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_ninh_m%E1%BA%A1ng" title="An ninh mạng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="An ninh mạng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8" title="计算机安全 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="计算机安全" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E4%BF%9D%E5%AE%89" title="電腦保安 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦保安" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8" title="计算机安全 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="计算机安全" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 November 2024, at 21:12 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_security&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6bb4bcc5b5-fslm2","wgBackendResponseTime":443,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.697","walltime":"3.103","ppvisitednodes":{"value":24919,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":710497,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":28619,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":34,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1169992,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2661.734 1 -total"," 58.10% 1546.376 1 Template:Reflist"," 24.86% 661.738 182 Template:Cite_web"," 13.82% 367.863 2 Template:Columns-list"," 13.32% 354.587 39 Template:Annotated_link"," 9.45% 251.483 38 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.79% 234.062 53 Template:Cite_news"," 3.31% 88.002 1 Template:Computer_hacking"," 3.23% 86.010 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 2.70% 71.783 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.695","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21774666,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","240","13.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","200","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","200","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","9.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","8.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","3.4"],["is_alias_used \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Utilities:275\u003E","60","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::redirectTarget","60","3.4"],["[others]","460","26.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-cc877b49b-66rmj","timestamp":"20241127125018","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Computer security","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3510521","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3510521","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-05T23:06:35Z","dateModified":"2024-11-26T21:12:49Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e1\/Operating_system_placement.svg","headline":"the protection of computer systems and networks from theft, damage, misuse or data leak"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>