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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie_zdrav%C3%AD_a_nemoci" title="Sociologie zdraví a nemoci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociologie zdraví a nemoci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesundheitssoziologie" title="Gesundheitssoziologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gesundheitssoziologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA_%D9%88_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جامعه‌شناسی سلامت و بیماری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه‌شناسی سلامت و بیماری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie_de_la_sant%C3%A9" title="Sociologie de la santé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sociologie de la santé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B4%EA%B0%95%EA%B3%BC_%EC%A7%88%EB%B3%91%EC%9D%98_%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%ED%95%99" title="건강과 질병의 사회학 – Korean" lang="ko" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of sociology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Health_and_Illness_(journal)" title="Sociology of Health and Illness (journal)">Sociology of Health and Illness (journal)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GCC_Nursing_%26_Health_Tech_Convocation_(14263129235).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Nursing student graduate (center) participates in the reading of the International Nurses' Pledge during Germanna Community College's Nursing and Health Technologies convocation, held at the Fredericksburg Expo and Conference Center in Fredericksburg, Virginia, USA." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/GCC_Nursing_%26_Health_Tech_Convocation_%2814263129235%29.jpg/350px-GCC_Nursing_%26_Health_Tech_Convocation_%2814263129235%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/GCC_Nursing_%26_Health_Tech_Convocation_%2814263129235%29.jpg/525px-GCC_Nursing_%26_Health_Tech_Convocation_%2814263129235%29.jpg 1.5x, 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>The <b>sociology of health and illness</b>, <b>sociology of health and wellness,</b> or <b>health sociology</b> examines the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>. As a field of study it is interested in all aspects of life, including contemporary as well as historical influences, that impact and alter health and wellbeing.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-White2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It establishes that, from birth to <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">death</a>, social processes interweave and influence health and wellbeing. These influences may include location of upbringing, how illness is understood and framed by immediate community members, or the impact that technology has on <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>. As such, it outlines that both health and the <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medical science</a> that engages it are <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructs</a>; that the way of knowing illness, wellbeing, and interactions with them are socially interpreted.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conrad2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conrad2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Health sociology uses this insight to critique long-established ideas around the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a> as a mechanical entity alongside disrupting the idea that the mind and body can be treated as <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">distinct spaces</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_model" title="Biomedical model">biomedical model</a> is viewed as not holistically placing humans within the wider social, cultural, economic, political, and environmental contexts that play a large part in how health and wellbeing are deprived, maintained, or improved. Alternative models include the <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model" title="Biopsychosocial model">biopsychosocial model</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which aims to incorporate these elements alongside the psychological aspect of the mind. </p><p>This field of research acts as a broad school overlapping with areas like the <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">sociology of medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">sociology of the body</a>, sociology of disease<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to wider sociologies like that of the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">family</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">education</a> as they contribute insights from their distinct focuses on the life-course of health and wellness.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_perspectives">Theoretical perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theoretical perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of sociology of health and illness has been shaped by the perspectives and contributing works of various authors that have enabled its development. Many research studies touch on the relationship between the patient and doctor as well as their environment within the healthcare system. One of the founders of the sociology of health and illness is <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, an American sociologist, who analyzed the relationship between patients and their doctors in his book <i>The Social System</i> written in 1951. In his sick role theory,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he argued that people who were sick adopted a social role, not just a biological condition. Those who were sick deviated from social roles were unable to fulfill their respective functions, thus if too many people claimed to be ill, this would create a dysfunctional society that needed regulating. Creating this mechanism would prevent people who were pretending to be sick to form a subculture of being sick. By developing the “sick role mechanism” patients and doctors had to abide by a set of “rights” and “obligations” that would monitor entry into the sick role. The “rights” of a patient constituted an exemption from performing their respective social roles, such as going to work or housekeeping with the further exemption being given to those severely ill. These rights were given if they maintained two obligations, the first being that they had to view being sick as undesirable and thus must find a way to get better. Second, after a while of being sick, the person must seek the help of a doctor and follow their advice in other to alleviate their illness. The “obligations” of the doctors were to be trained in their field, be motivated to help the patient, have objective and emotional detachment from the patient, and be bound by the rules of professional conduct. Their “rights” consisted of being able to examine the patient physically and ask about their personal life, and have a position of authority and autonomy in their professional practice. Lastly, receive status and reward from their important role in society. Parson’s perspective. In addition, Michel Foucault<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published <i>The Birth of the Clinic</i> in 1963, in which he developed his theory of the “medical gaze<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>” referring to how doctors filter patient information into a biomedical paradigm, which focuses solely on biological factors excluding how social, environmental and psychological factors can influence a patient’s condition. According to Foucault doctors are trained to be doctor-oriented rather than patient-oriented, which creates a form of abusive power structure. Among these authors have contributed to the development of the field of health and illness by bringing in their perspectives at the time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Akmanthor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Akmanthor.jpg/220px-Akmanthor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Akmanthor.jpg/330px-Akmanthor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Akmanthor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption>Wall painting found in the tomb of an Egyptian official known as the physicians tomb</figcaption></figure> <p>Humans have long sought advice from those with knowledge or skill in <a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">healing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a> and other historical records, allow an examination of how ancient societies dealt with illness and <a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">outbreak</a>. Rulers in Ancient Egypt sponsored physicians that were specialists in specific diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a> was the first medical doctor known by name. An Egyptian who lived around 2650 B.C., he was an adviser to King Zoser at a time when Egyptians were making progress in medicine. Among his contributions to medicine was a textbook on the treatment of wounds, broken bones, and even <a href="/wiki/Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stopping the spread of infectious disease was of utmost importance for maintaining a healthy society.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> was recorded by <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> who survived the <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>. From his account it is shown how factors outside the disease itself can affect society. The Athenians were under siege and concentrated within the city. Major city centers were the hardest hit.<sup id="cite_ref-Littman_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littman-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This made the outbreak even more deadly and with probable food shortages the fate of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> was inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-Littman_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littman-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 25% of the population died of the <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Littman_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littman-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thucydides stated that the <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> "carried away all alike". The <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> attacked people of different ages, sexes and nationalities.<sup id="cite_ref-Littman_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littman-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg/220px-Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg/330px-Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg/440px-Medicine_aryballos_Louvre_CA1989-2183.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1892" /></a><figcaption>Physician in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> treating a patient 480–470 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient medical systems stressed the importance of reducing illness through <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> and ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other codes of behavior and dietary protocols were widespread in the ancient world.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> in China, doctors suggested exercise, meditation and <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a> to preserve one's health.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese closely link health with spiritual well-being. Health regimes in ancient <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> focused on oral health as the best method for a healthy life.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic code</a> created rules for health which stressed ritual cleanliness, connected disease with certain animals and created diets.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples include the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Code">Mosaic Code</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_baths" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman baths">Roman baths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those that were most concerned with health, sanitation and illness in the ancient world were those in the elite class.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Good health was thought to reduce the risk of spiritual defilement and therefore enhanced the social status of the ruling class who saw themselves as the beacon of civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the late Roman Period, sanitation for the lower classes was a concern for the leisured class.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those that had the means would donate to charities that focused on the health of non-elites.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, physicians and concern with public health disappeared except in the largest cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health and public doctors remained in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Focusing on preventing the spread of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Small_pox" class="mw-redirect" title="Small pox">small pox</a> lead to a smaller mortality rate in much of the western world.<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors that allowed the modern rise in population include: better nutrition and environmental reforms (such as getting clean water supplies).<sup id="cite_ref-Porter_12-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The present day sense of health being a public concern for the state began in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindemann_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindemann-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few state interventions include maintaining clean towns, enforcing quarantines during <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a> and supervising sewer systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindemann_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindemann-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private corporations also played a role in public health. The funding for research and the institutions for them to work were funded by governments and private firms.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindemann_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindemann-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epidemics were the cause of most government interventions. The early goal of public health was <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> whereas the modern goal is to prevent disease before it becomes a problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindemann_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindemann-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the overall improvement of world health, there still has not been any decrease in the health gap between the affluent and the impoverished.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, society is more likely to blame health issues on the individual rather than society as a whole. This was the prevailing view in the late 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1980s the <a href="/wiki/Black_Report" title="Black Report">Black Report</a>, published in the United Kingdom, went against this view and argued that the true root of the problem was material deprivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This report proposed a comprehensive anti-poverty strategy to address these issues.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since this did not parallel the views of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> government, it did not go into action immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Conservative government was criticized by the Labour Party for not implementing the suggestions that the Black Report listed.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This criticism gave the Black Report the exposure it needed and its arguments were considered a valid explanation for health inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a debate over whether <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> causes ill-health or if ill-health causes poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments by the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> gave considerable emphasis to poverty and lack of access to health care. It has also been found that <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> has more of a bearing on health than social environment, but research has also proved that there is indeed a positive correlation between socioeconomic inequalities and illness.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sociology of Health and Illness focuses on three areas: the conceptualization, the study of measurement and social distribution, and the justification of patterns in health and illness. By looking at these things researchers can look at different diseases through a sociological lens. The prevalence and response to different diseases varies by <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By looking at bad health, researchers can see if health affects different social regulations or controls. When measuring the distribution of health and illness, it is useful to look at official <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> and community surveys. Official statistics make it possible to look at people who have been treated. It shows that they are both willing and able to use health services. It also sheds light on the infected person's view of their <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">illness</a>. On the other hand, community surveys look at people's rating of their health. Then looking at the relation of clinically defined illness and self reports and find that there is often a discrepancy. </p><p>A great deal of the time, mortality statistics take the place of the morbidity statistics because in many developed societies where people typically die from degenerative conditions, the age in which they die sheds more light on their life-time health. This produces many <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/limitation" class="extiw" title="wikt:limitation">limitations</a> when looking at the pattern of sickness, but sociologists try to look at various data to analyze the distribution better. Normally, developing societies have lower life expectancies in comparison to developed countries. They have also found correlations between mortality and sex and age. Very young and old people are more susceptible to sickness and <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>. On average women typically live longer than men, although women are more likely to have bad health.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expectancy_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Expectancy_of_life.svg/400px-Expectancy_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Expectancy_of_life.svg/600px-Expectancy_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Expectancy_of_life.svg/800px-Expectancy_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption> <table width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000CD; color:white;"> </span> >80</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4169E1; color:white;"> </span> 77.5–80</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:black;"> </span> 75–77.5</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#3CB371; color:black;"> </span> 72.5–75</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#32CD32; color:black;"> </span> 70–72.5</div> </td> <td valign="top"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ADFF2F; color:black;"> </span> 67.5–70</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFF00; color:black;"> </span> 65–67.5</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFD700; color:black;"> </span> 60–65</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF8C00; color:black;"> </span> 55–60</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF4500; color:black;"> </span> 50–55</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> Life expectancy by region in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p>Disparities in health were also found between people in different social classes and ethnicities within the same society, even though in the medical profession they put more importance in "health related behaviors" such as alcohol consumption, smoking, diet, and exercise. There is a great deal of data supporting the conclusion that these behaviors affect health more significantly than other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologists think that it is more helpful to look at health and illness through a broad lens. Sociologists agree that <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> consumption, smoking, diet, and exercise are important issues, but they also see the importance of analyzing the cultural factors that affect these patterns. Sociologists also look at the effects that the productive process has on health and illness. While also looking at things such as industrial <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, environmental pollution, accidents at work, and stress-related diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social factors play a significant role in developing health and illness. Studies of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> show that autonomy and control in the workplace are vital factors in the etiology of heart disease. One cause is an effort-reward imbalance. Decreasing career advancement opportunities and major imbalances in control over work have been coupled with various negative health costs. Various studies have shown that pension rights may shed light on mortality differences between retired men and women of different socioeconomic statuses. These studies show that there are outside factors that influence health and illness.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_perspective">International perspective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: International perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HIV_In_Africa.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/HIV_In_Africa.svg/220px-HIV_In_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/HIV_In_Africa.svg/330px-HIV_In_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/HIV_In_Africa.svg/440px-HIV_In_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Estimation of the number of adults in Africa who are infected with HIV or AIDS. Note that levels of infection are much higher in sub-Saharan Africa.</figcaption></figure> <p>HIV/AIDS is the leading epidemic that affects the social welfare of Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can cause AIDS which is an acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> begins to fail, leading to life-threatening infections. Two-thirds of the world's HIV population is located in Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the epidemic started more than 15 million Africans have died by complications with HIV/AIDS.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People who are a part of religious sub-groups of Sub-Saharan Africa, and those who actively and frequently participate in religious activities, are more likely to be at a lower risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. On the opposite end, there are many beliefs that an infected male can be cured of the <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> by having sex with a virgin. These beliefs increase the number of people with the <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virus</a> and also increase the number of rapes against women.<sup id="cite_ref-Babb,_DA._2007_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babb,_DA._2007-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in Africa. It is used more than standard treatment because it is more affordable.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched and is poorly regulated . This lack of research on whether the herbal medicines work and what the medicines consist of is a major flaw in the healing cycle of HIV in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Babb,_DA._2007_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babb,_DA._2007-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economically, HIV has a significant negative effect. The labor force in Africa is slowly diminishing, due to HIV-related deaths and illness. In response, government income declines and so does tax revenue. The government has to spend more money than it is making, in order to care for those affected with HIV/AIDS.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg/220px-Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg/330px-Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg/440px-Aid_Orphans_in_Malawi_2.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>AIDS orphans in Malawi</figcaption></figure> <p>A major social problem in Africa in regards to HIV is the orphan epidemic. The orphan epidemic in Africa is a regional problem. In most cases, both of the parents are affected with HIV. Due to this, the children are usually raised by their grandmothers and in extreme cases they are raised by themselves. In order to care for the sick parents, the children have to take on more responsibility by working to produce an income. Not only do the children lose their parents but they also lose their childhood as well. Having to provide care for their parents, the children also miss out on an education which increases the risk of teen pregnancy and people affected with HIV. The most efficient way to diminish the orphan epidemic is prevention: preventing children from acquiring HIV from their mothers at birth, as well as educating them on the disease as they grow older. Also, educating adults about HIV and caring for the infected people adequately will lower the orphan population.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The HIV/AIDS epidemic is reducing the average <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> of people in Africa by twenty years. The age range with the highest death rates, due to HIV, are those between the ages of 20 and 49 years. The fact that this age range is when adults acquire most of their <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> means they often cannot afford to send their children to school due to the high medication costs. It also removes the people who could help aid in responding to the epidemic.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asian countries have wide variations of population, wealth, technology and health care, causing attitudes towards health and illness to differ. <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, for example, has the third highest life expectancy (82 years old), while <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> has the 11th worst (44 years old).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key issues in Asian health include childbirth and maternal health, HIV and AIDS, mental health, and aging and the elderly. These problems are influenced by the sociological factors of religion or belief systems, attempts to reconcile traditional medicinal practices with modern professionalism, and the economic status of the inhabitants of Asia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG/220px-People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG/330px-People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG/440px-People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>People living with <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Like the rest of the world, Asia is threatened by a possible pandemic of HIV and AIDS. <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> is a good example of how society is shaping Asian HIV/AIDS awareness and attitudes towards this disease. Vietnam is a country with feudal, traditional roots, which, due to invasion, wars, technology and travel is becoming increasingly globalized. <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a> has altered traditional viewpoints and values. It is also responsible for the spread of HIV and AIDS in Vietnam. Even early globalization has added to this problem – Chinese influence made Vietnam a <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian society</a>, in which women are of less importance than men. Men in their superiority have no need to be sexually responsible, and women, generally not well educated, are often unaware of the risk, perpetuating the spread of HIV and AIDS as well as other STIs.<sup id="cite_ref-Micollier_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Micollier-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism has had a strong influence on the belief system in Asia for centuries, particularly in China, Japan, and Korea, and its influence can be seen in the way people chose to seek, or not seek, medical care.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> An important issue in Asia is societal effect on the ability of disabled individuals to adjust to a disability. Cultural beliefs shape attitudes towards physical and mental disabilities. China exemplifies this problem. According to Chinese Confucian tradition (which is also applicable in other countries where <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> has been spread), people should always pursue good health in their lives, with an emphasis on health promotion and disease prevention.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the Chinese, having a disability signifies that one has not led a proper lifestyle and therefore there is a lack of opportunities for disabled individuals to explore better ways to accept or adapt to their disability.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indigenous healing practices are extremely diverse throughout Asia but often follow certain patterns and are still prevalent today. Many traditional healing practices include <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbal medicines</a>, and may have been passed down orally in small groups or even institutionalized and professionalized.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many developing countries the only health care available until a few decades ago were those based on traditional medicine and spiritual healing. Now governments must be careful to create health policies that strike a balance between modernity and tradition. Organizations, like the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, try to create policies that respect tradition without trying to replace it with modern science, instead regulating it to ensure safety but keeping it accessible.<sup id="cite_ref-Packer_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Packer-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India in particular tries to make traditional medicines safe but still available to as many people as possible, adapting tradition to match modernization while still considering the economic positions and culture of its citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-Packer_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Packer-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_WHO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/220px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/330px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/440px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of World Health Organization</figcaption></figure> <p>Mental health issues are gaining an increasing amount of attention in the Asian countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many of these countries have a preoccupation with modernizing and developing their economies, resulting in cultural changes. In order to reconcile modern techniques with traditional practices, <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychologists</a> in India are in the process of "<a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">indigenizing</a> psychology". Indigenous psychology is that which is derived from the laws, theories, principals, and ideas of a culture and unique to each society.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many Asian countries, childbirth is still treated by traditional means and is thought of with regional attitudes. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, decisions concerning pregnancy and <a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">antenatal care</a> (ANC) are usually made by older women, often the pregnant woman's mother-in-law, while the mother and father to be are distanced from the process. They may or may not receive professional ANC depending on their education, class, and financial situation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally in Asia, childbirth is still a woman's area and male obstetricians are rare. Female midwives and healers are still the norm in most places. Western methods are overtaking the traditional in an attempt to improve maternal health and increase the number of live births.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozario_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozario-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Asian countries, which are mostly developing nations, are <a href="/wiki/Population_ageing" title="Population ageing">aging rapidly</a> even as they are attempting to build their economies. Even wealthy Asian nations, such as Japan, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, also have very elderly populations and thus have to try to sustain their economies and society with small younger generations while caring for their elderly citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elderly have been traditionally well respected and well cared for in most Asian cultures; experts predict that younger generations in the future are less likely to be concerned and involved in the health care of their older relatives due to various factors such as women joining the workforce more, the separation of families because of urbanization or migration, and the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Westernisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Westernisation">Western ideals</a> such as individualism.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The health patterns found on the continent of <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> which includes the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a>, have been very much influenced by <a href="/wiki/European_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization">European colonization</a>. While indigenous medicinal beliefs are not significantly prevalent in Australia, traditional ideas are still influential in the health care problems in many of the islands of the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> of Australia led to epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a>. Because of this, public health was professionalized beginning in the late 1870s in an effort to control these and other diseases. Since then Australia's health system has evolved similarly to Western countries and the main cultural influence affecting health care are the political ideologies of the parties in control of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg/170px-Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg/255px-Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg/340px-Bayer_Heroin_bottle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="3224" /></a><figcaption>Old heroin bottle</figcaption></figure> <p>Australia has had treatment facilities for 'problem drinkers' since the 1870s. In the 1960s and 1970s it was recognized that Australia had several hundred thousand alcoholics and prevention became a priority over cures, as there was a societal consensus that treatments are generally ineffective.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government began passing laws attempting to curb alcohol consumption but consistently met opposition from the <a href="/wiki/Australian_wine" title="Australian wine">wine-making regions of southern Australia</a>. The government has also waged a war on illegal drugs, particularly <a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, which in the 1950s became widely used as a pain reliever.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experts believe that many of the health problems in the Pacific Islands can be traced back to European colonization and the subsequent globalization and modernization of island communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Otsuka_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otsuka-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islands" title="History of the Pacific Islands">History of the Pacific Islands</a>.) European colonization and late independence meant modernization but also slow economic growth, which had an enormous effect on health care, particularly on <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a> in the Pacific Islands. The end of colonization meant a loss of medical resources, and the fledgling independent governments could not afford to continue the health policies put in place by the colonial governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Otsuka_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otsuka-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nutrition was changed radically, contributing to various other health problems. While more prosperous, urban areas could afford food, they chose poor diets, causing 'overnourishment', and leading to extremely high levels of <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, and cardiovascular diseases. Poorer rural communities, on the other hand, continue to suffer from <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Otsuka_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otsuka-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditional diets in the Pacific are very low in fat, but since World War II there has been a significant increase in <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> in Pacific diets. Native attitudes towards weight contribute to the obesity problem. <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tongan</a> natives see obesity as a positive thing, especially in men. They also believe that women should do as little physical work as possible while the men provide for them, meaning they get very little exercise.<sup id="cite_ref-Otsuka_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otsuka-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The largest endeavors to improve health across Europe is the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> European Region.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal is to improve the health of poor and disadvantaged populations by promoting healthy lifestyles including environmental, economic, social and providing <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall health in Europe is very high compared to the rest of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average life expectancy is around 78 in <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> countries but there is a wide gap between Western and Eastern Europe. It is as low as 67 in Russia and 73 in the <a href="/wiki/Balkan" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan">Balkan</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europe is seeing an increase in the spread of <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> in Eastern Europe because of a worsening socioeconomic situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a>, cancer and <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> are more prevalent is Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a> claims that poverty is the most important factor bringing on ill health across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those at low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> levels and many young people are also at risk because of their increased tobacco, alcohol, and non-medical substance use.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health and illness prevention in Europe is largely funded by the governmental services including: regulating health care, insurance and social programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Nosikov_32-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of religion and traditional medicine, however, is often left unexamined in such reports. </p><p>The study of <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> within the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> has turned to examining the role that beliefs play in its diagnosis and treatment. Hypertension is an essential topic for study since it is linked to increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>. The most common treatment for hypertension is medication but compliance for this treatment plan is low.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study conducted in the UK examined the differences between 'white' patients and first generation immigrants from the West Indies. There were differing reasons for non-compliance that involve the patients' perception and beliefs about the <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>. Patients commonly believe that high levels of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> when first diagnosed are the major cause and think that when stress levels decline so too will their hypertension. Other respondents in this UK based study had varying beliefs concerning the necessity of medication while others still argued that it was the <a href="/wiki/Side_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Side effects">side effects</a> of medication that made them end their prescribed regimen.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> West Indian respondents whose lay <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> teaches them to reject long-term drug therapy opted instead for folk remedies in higher numbers than the 'white' respondents. What can be seen here is that some people will choose to ignore a doctor's expert advice and will employ 'lay consultation' instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg/220px-World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg/330px-World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg/440px-World_Health_Organisation_regional_offices.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption> Regions of the <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before people seek medical help they try to interpret the symptoms themselves and often consult people in their lives or use 'self-help' measures.<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of 'everyday illness' in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> including: <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections">infections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Musculo-skeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculo-skeletal">musculo-skeletal</a> problems focused on reasons for consulting medical experts and explanations of illness. These common illness were examined not because of their seriousness but because of their frequency. The researchers explain five possible triggers that people seek medical aid: 1- the occurrence of an interpersonal crisis 2- perceived interference with social and personal relations 3- perceived interference with vocational & <a href="/wiki/Physical_activity" title="Physical activity">physical activity</a> 4- sanctioning by other people 5- patients' ideas about how long certain complaints should last. These kind of explanatory models are part of the process that people use to construct medical culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They give meaning to illness and health, answer questions about personal responsibility about health and most importantly are part of the dialogue between patients' and professionals' illness explanations. It can help explore why some patients will follow a doctors instructions to the letter and others ignore them completely. A patient's explanation or understanding of their illness can be much broader than a physician's and this dynamic has become a major criticism of modern medical practice since it normally excludes the "social, psychological and experiential dimensions of illness."<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Finnish study examined 127 patients and the results have been different from findings in other countries where there is more 'lay consultation'. Half of the respondents did not have any lay consultation before coming to the doctors office. One-third did not try any self-treatment and three-quarters of the sample consulted the doctor within three days of symptoms developing.<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possible explanations are that in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> there is an aspect "over-protectiveness" within their health care system. Many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> might conclude that the Finnish people are dependent and helpless but the researchers of this study found that people chose to consult professionals because they trusted them over some lay explanation. These results echo similar studies in Ireland that explain this phenomenon as being based in a strong work ethic. Illness in these countries will affect their work and Finnish people will quickly get treatment so they can return to work. This research out of Finland also describes that this relationship between patient and doctor is based on: </p> <ol><li>national and municipal administrative bureaucracies that demand more output and more satisfied patients</li> <li>the public demanding better care</li> <li>nurses criticizing physicians for not taking a holistic view of patients</li> <li>hospital specialists wanting better/earlier screening for serious illnesses (e.g. cancer).<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The conflict between medical and lay worlds is prominent. On one hand many patients believe they are the expert of their own body and view the <a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">Doctor-patient relationship</a> as <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a>. These people will often use knowledge outside the medical field to deal with health and illness. Others see the doctor as the expert and are shy about describing their symptoms and therefore rely on the doctor for diagnosis and treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Punamaki_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe, sociology of health and illness is represented by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eshms.eu/">European Society for Health and Medical Sociology</a> (ESHMS). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg/220px-Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg/330px-Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg/440px-Obesity_country_comparison_-_path.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption>Compares figures in the population of <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> countries and the percentage of total population (aged 15 and above) with a <a href="/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> greater than 30. Data was collected between 1996 and 2003.</figcaption></figure> <p>North America is a fairly recent settled continent, made up of the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. It was built by an amalgamation of wealth, ideas, culture, and practices. North America is highly advanced intellectually, technologically, and traditionally. This advantageous character of North American nations has caused a high average <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> of 75 years for males and 80 years for females. This leads to the conclusion that North America has cultivated a comparatively healthy society. As North America contains several core nations, the growing economies in those nations are able to maintain and develop medical institutions. This subsequently provides more access to health care for American citizens but health care is not universal. North America is known for being a leading nation in regards to <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> and modernization, but the United States lacks federal laws regarding health care as a basic human right. This lag of health care security causes subsequent issues with pharmaceutical competition, lack of care for the elderly, and little attention to alternative medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Conrad_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conrad-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health care and education are plentiful at a price and illness still persists for many reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A main reason is that a lower- and middle-class population still exists in plentiful numbers, maintaining a group that is highly vulnerable to physical ailment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alcohol_by_country.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Alcohol_by_country.svg/220px-Alcohol_by_country.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Alcohol_by_country.svg/330px-Alcohol_by_country.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Alcohol_by_country.svg/440px-Alcohol_by_country.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>World map showing alcohol consumption around the world</figcaption></figure> <p>North America's primary <a href="/wiki/Risk_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk factors">risk factors</a> for illness are currently<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2011)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> excessive alcohol use, <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> use, and water sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a> is a recent epidemic in North America. The 1990s brought a rise in the average <a href="/wiki/Body_Mass_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Body Mass Index">Body Mass Index</a>, or BMI. From the beginning and to the end of the decade, the median percent of adults who were obese rose from 12% to 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">Alcoholism</a> is the addiction of over-consumption of alcohol and is highly prevalent in the US. There are high incidence rates in many other world regions. Roughly 61% of American adults drank in 2007, and 21% of current drinkers consumed five or more drinks at one point in the last year. There have also been 22,073 alcohol induced deaths in the United States in the past year, about 13,000 of which were related to liver disease.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcoholism has many risk factors ingrained in North American culture, such as heredity, stress from competition or availability. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Swine_Flu" class="mw-redirect" title="Swine Flu">Swine Flu</a> (also known as H1N1) epidemic is a recent disease emerging in the early 21st century. In April 2009, during the early days of the outbreak, a molecular biologist named Dr. Henry Miller wrote in the <i>Wall Street Journal</i> about <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> high-school students. These students apparently brought the virus back from <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and infected their classmates.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All six cases so far reported in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> were connected directly or indirectly with travel to Mexico as well. Flu viruses can be directly transmitted (via droplets from sneezing or coughing) from pigs to people, and vice versa. These cross-species infections occur most commonly when people are close to large numbers of pigs, such as in barns, livestock exhibits at fairs, and slaughterhouses. The flu is transmissible from human to human, either directly or via contaminated surfaces."<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> that affect <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, but two major conditions are <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">Hepatitis</a> D. Malaria affects every country in South America except <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, and The <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">Elevation</a> is a major factor in the areas where malaria is found. The disease is spread from person to person via <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a> bites. People are typically bitten by mosquitoes at dusk and dawn. <a href="/wiki/Symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptoms">Symptoms</a> of this disorder are: high fever, chills, sweating, headaches, body aches, weakness, vomiting and <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>. If left untreated, new symptoms can occur; people that are infected may experience <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, delirium and <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>. Severe cases may end in <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>. Malaria can be cured, but the symptoms may not become noticeable until months later. There are three forms of medication that can cure Malaria. An infected person's accessibility to these drugs is dependent upon their access to medical care and their financial situation. Literature about Malaria treatment typically is focused toward people who are tourists. Most sources are not written with the native in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Malaria_map.PNG/220px-Malaria_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Malaria_map.PNG/330px-Malaria_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Malaria_map.PNG/440px-Malaria_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Malaria</figcaption></figure> <p>The first sign of <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">Hepatitis</a> D was detected in 1978 when a strange and unrecognizable internuclear <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> was discovered during a <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a> of several Italians who developed HBV infections. Scientists initially thought that it was an antigenic specificity of HBV, but they soon found that it was a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> from another disease altogether. They called it "Hepatitis Delta Virus" (HDV). This new virus was found to be defective. HDV needed HBV to act as a helper function in order for it to be detected. Normally Hepatitis B is transmitted through <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> or any type of blood product. In <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> Hepatitis D was found to be fatal. <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> are still unsure in what way this disease was being transmitted throughout certain South American countries. Sexual contact and <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">drug use</a> are the most common means of transmission. HDV is still considered an unusual form of hepatitis. Agents of this virus resemble that of plant viroids. It is still hard to tell how many stereotypes exist because HDV is under the umbrella of HBV. HDV causes very high titers in the blood of people who are infected. Incubation of Hepatitis D typically lasts for thirty five days. Most often Hepatitis D is a co-infection with Hepatitis B or a super-infection with chronic hepatitis. In terms of super infections there are high mortality rates, ranging seventy to eighty percent; in contrast with co-infections which have a one to three percent mortality rate. There is little information with the ecology of Hepatitis D. Epidemics have been found in Venezuela, Peru, Columbia, and Brazil. People who are treated for Hepatitis B have been able to control Hepatitis D. People who have chronic HDB will continue to get HDV.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another disease that affects South America is HIV and AIDS. In 2008 roughly two million people had HIV and AIDS. By the end of 2008 one hundred and seventy thousand people were infected with AIDS and HIV. Seventy seven thousand people died from this disease by the end of that year. Brazil has the most people that are affected with AIDS and HIV in South America. In Brazil sixty percent of the inhabitants are HIV positive because of drug use. Usually this disease is transmitted by either drug use involving needles or unprotected sex. Sharing needles and being infected with HIV and AIDS is most common in Paraguay and Uruguay. South America is trying to get treatment to the thousands of people infected by this disease. Brazil is offering generic AIDS prescriptions that are much less expensive than the name brand drugs. One hundred and eighty-one thousand inhabitants in Brazil who were infected are being treated. That accounts for eighty percent of those who needed immediate help. This aid from the government has had positive results. Statistics show that there was a fifty percent decrease in mortality rates, approximately sixty to eighty percent decrease in morbidity rates and a seventy percent decrease in hospitalization of infected people.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In very remote areas of South America, traditional healers are the only forms of health care people have.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In north Aymara and south Mapuche, where the indigenous groups have the strongest voices, they still heavily use traditional medicine. The government in Chile has implemented an Indigenous Health System to help strengthen the health care system. Even with Chile's indigenous groups, Chile still has the best public health services in South America.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They also have the lowest mortality rates in the area. Their health care policies are centered around family and community wellbeing by focusing on the strategies for prevention health strategies. Reports have shown an increase in mental health issues, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>South America's economy is developing rapidly and has a great deal of industries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The major industry in South America are agriculture. Other industries are fishing, handicrafts, and natural resources. Its trade and import-export market is continually thriving. In the past South American countries moved slowly in regards to economic development. South America began to build its economy ever since World War II. South America's largest economies are Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Columbia. Venezuela, Peru, and Argentina's economy are growing very rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals">Journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Health_and_Illness_(journal)" title="Sociology of Health and Illness (journal)">Sociology of Health and Illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Science_%26_Medicine" title="Social Science & Medicine">Social Science and Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_(journal)" title="Health (journal)">Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health</a></li> <li>Illness and Medicine</li> <li>Social Theory and Health</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health,_Risk_%26_Society" title="Health, Risk & Society">Health, Risk and Society</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_disease_theories" title="Naturalistic disease theories">Naturalistic disease theories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eshms.eu/">European Society for Health and Medical Sociology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNettleton2013" class="citation book cs1">Nettleton, Sarah (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/819519790"><i>The sociology of health and illness</i></a> (3 ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-4600-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-4600-8"><bdi>978-0-7456-4600-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/819519790">819519790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sociology+of+health+and+illness&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F819519790&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-4600-8&rft.aulast=Nettleton&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F819519790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2002" class="citation book cs1">White, Kevin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eZSmngEACAAJ"><i>An introduction to the sociology of health and illness</i></a>. SAGE Publishing. pp. 4–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6400-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6400-1"><bdi>978-0-7619-6400-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+sociology+of+health+and+illness&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=SAGE+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-6400-1&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeZSmngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConradBarker2010" class="citation journal cs1">Conrad, Peter; Barker, Kristin K. 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London: Routledge. pp. 98–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30871-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30871-7"><bdi>978-0-415-30871-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+cultures+in+East+Asia+the+social+construction+of+sexuality+and+sexual+risk+in+a+time+of+AIDS&rft.place=London&rft.pages=98-101&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30871-7&rft.aulast=Micollier&rft.aufirst=Evelyne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLMk5ngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yang_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2003" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Guoshu (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o4itQDGGvYgC"><i>Progress in Asian social psychology conceptual and empirical contributions</i></a>. Westport, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 11–12, 294–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32463-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32463-5"><bdi>978-0-313-32463-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Asian+social+psychology+conceptual+and+empirical+contributions&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=11-12%2C+294-295&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32463-5&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Guoshu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do4itQDGGvYgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnorSamuelGeoffrey_Samuel2001" class="citation book cs1">Connor, Linda; Samuel, Geoffrey; Geoffrey Samuel (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e0Zx44BOiDoC"><i>Healing powers and modernity traditional medicine, shamanism, and science in Asian societies</i></a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-715-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-715-0"><bdi>978-0-89789-715-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Healing+powers+and+modernity+traditional+medicine%2C+shamanism%2C+and+science+in+Asian+societies&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-89789-715-0&rft.aulast=Connor&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Samuel%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Geoffrey+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De0Zx44BOiDoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Packer-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Packer_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Packer_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPackerOngHalliwellChoon_Nam_Ong2004" class="citation book cs1">Packer, Lester; Ong, Choon Nam; Halliwell, Barry; Choon Nam Ong & Barry Halliwell (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xzj6ngEACAAJ"><i>Herbal and traditional medicine molecular aspects of health</i></a>. CRC Press. pp. 2–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-5436-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-5436-5"><bdi>978-0-8247-5436-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herbal+and+traditional+medicine+molecular+aspects+of+health&rft.pages=2-5&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-5436-5&rft.aulast=Packer&rft.aufirst=Lester&rft.au=Ong%2C+Choon+Nam&rft.au=Halliwell%2C+Barry&rft.au=Choon+Nam+Ong&rft.au=Barry+Halliwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxzj6ngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mumtaz and Salway. 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London: Routledge. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27792-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27792-1"><bdi>978-0-415-27792-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+Daughters+of+Hariti+childbirth+and+female+healers+in+South+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27792-1&rft.aulast=Rozario&rft.aufirst=Santi&rft.au=Samuel%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Geoffrey+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dge-JngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2000" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fS4YngEACAAJ"><i>Ageing in the Asia-Pacific region issues, policies, and future trends</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. xiv–xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22018-7"><bdi>978-0-415-22018-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ageing+in+the+Asia-Pacific+region+issues%2C+policies%2C+and+future+trends&rft.place=London&rft.pages=xiv-xv&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-22018-7&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfS4YngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermalin2002" class="citation book cs1">Hermalin, Albert (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzXqngEACAAJ"><i>the Well-being of the elderly in Asia a four-country comparative study</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11280-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11280-7"><bdi>978-0-472-11280-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+Well-being+of+the+elderly+in+Asia+a+four-country+comparative+study&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11280-7&rft.aulast=Hermalin&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzXqngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisMacphersonKerrie_L._Macpherson2007" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Milton James; Macpherson, Kerrie L.; Kerrie L. Macpherson (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pR14OqopGe8C"><i>Public health in Asia and the Pacific historical and comparative perspectives</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. 222–235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35962-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35962-7"><bdi>978-0-415-35962-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+health+in+Asia+and+the+Pacific+historical+and+comparative+perspectives&rft.place=London&rft.pages=222-235&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35962-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Milton+James&rft.au=Macpherson%2C+Kerrie+L.&rft.au=Kerrie+L.+Macpherson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpR14OqopGe8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Otsuka-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Otsuka_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otsuka_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otsuka_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otsuka_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhtsukaUlijaszekStanley_J._Ulijaszek2007" class="citation book cs1">Ohtsuka, Ryutaro; Ulijaszek, Stanley J.; Stanley J. Ulijaszek (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5M1nwEACAAJ"><i>Health change in the Asia-Pacific region biocultural and epidemiological approaches</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4, 7–9, 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83792-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83792-7"><bdi>978-0-521-83792-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Health+change+in+the+Asia-Pacific+region+biocultural+and+epidemiological+approaches&rft.pages=4%2C+7-9%2C+136&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83792-7&rft.aulast=Ohtsuka&rft.aufirst=Ryutaro&rft.au=Ulijaszek%2C+Stanley+J.&rft.au=Stanley+J.+Ulijaszek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5M1nwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nosikov-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nosikov_32-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNosikov2002" class="citation report cs1">Nosikov, Anatoliy (2002). The European Health Report 2002 (Report). World Health Organization Regional Office Europe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+European+Health+Report+2002&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization+Regional+Office+Europe&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Nosikov&rft.aufirst=Anatoliy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1988" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan, Myfanwy (1988). "Managing hypertension: beliefs and responses to medication among cultural groups". Sociology of Health & Illness, Vol. 10, No. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Managing+hypertension%3A+beliefs+and+responses+to+medication+among+cultural+groups&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Myfanwy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Punamaki-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Punamaki_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPunamaki1995" class="citation journal cs1">Punamaki, Raija-Leena (1995). "Reasons for consultation and explanations of illness among Finnish primary-care patients". Sociology of Health & Illness, Vol. 17, No. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Reasons+for+consultation+and+explanations+of+illness+among+Finnish+primary-care+patients&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Punamaki&rft.aufirst=Raija-Leena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conrad-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Conrad_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2008" class="citation book cs1">Conrad, Peter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYKWr2N19CgC"><i>The Sociology of Health and Illness Critical Perspectives</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>. pp. 1–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0558-0"><bdi>978-1-4292-0558-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Health+and+Illness+Critical+Perspectives&rft.pages=1-55&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-0558-0&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYKWr2N19CgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_World_Health_Statistics_2008_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2008/en/index.html">"World Health Statistics 2008"</a>. World Health Organization. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080521112713/http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2008/en/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 21, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Health+Statistics+2008&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwhosis%2Fwhostat%2F2008%2Fen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/alcohol.htm">"FastStats"</a>. <i>www.cdc.gov</i>. 2019-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdc.gov&rft.atitle=FastStats&rft.date=2019-09-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnchs%2Ffastats%2Falcohol.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Henry I. Wall Street Journal: Understanding Swine Flu, April 28, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerleeBaoBeech2004" class="citation book cs1">Palmerlee, Danny; Bao, Sandra; Beech, Charlotte (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetsout00dann/page/1056"><i>South America on a shoestring</i></a></span>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetsout00dann/page/1056">1056</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-163-7"><bdi>978-1-74104-163-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+America+on+a+shoestring&rft.pages=1056&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-74104-163-7&rft.aulast=Palmerlee&rft.aufirst=Danny&rft.au=Bao%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Beech%2C+Charlotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flonelyplanetsout00dann%2Fpage%2F1056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFfor_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences1995" class="citation book cs1">for the National Academy of Sciences (1995). <i>Infectious Diseases in an Age of Change The Impact of Human Ecology and Behavior on Disease Transmission</i>. National Academies Press. pp. 67–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-05136-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-05136-3"><bdi>0-309-05136-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infectious+Diseases+in+an+Age+of+Change+The+Impact+of+Human+Ecology+and+Behavior+on+Disease+Transmission&rft.pages=67-68&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-309-05136-3&rft.au=for+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillcoxBodekerRasoanaivo2004" class="citation book cs1">Willcox, Merlin; Bodeker, Gerard; Rasoanaivo, Philippe (2004). <i>Traditional Medicinal Plants and Malaria</i>. CRC Press. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30112-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30112-1"><bdi>978-0-415-30112-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditional+Medicinal+Plants+and+Malaria&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30112-1&rft.aulast=Willcox&rft.aufirst=Merlin&rft.au=Bodeker%2C+Gerard&rft.au=Rasoanaivo%2C+Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willcox, Merlin, Gerard Bodeker and Philippe Rasoanaivo. Traditional medicinal plants and malaria. United States of America: CRC Press, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Learning Study Abroad. 2009. 3 December 2009 <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sit.edu/studyabroad/ssa_cih.htm">http://www.sit.edu/studyabroad/ssa_cih.htm</a>>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Encyclopedia of World Geography China-Taiwan</i>. 2002. p. 672. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7289-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7289-6"><bdi>978-0-7614-7289-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Geography+China-Taiwan&rft.pages=672&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7289-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_health_and_illness&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNettleton2006" class="citation book cs1">Nettleton, Sarah (2006). <i>The Sociology of Health and Illness</i>. Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-2828-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-2828-1"><bdi>0-7456-2828-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Health+and+Illness&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7456-2828-1&rft.aulast=Nettleton&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2008" class="citation book cs1">Conrad, Peter (2008). <i>The Sociology of Health and Illness</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0558-0"><bdi>978-1-4292-0558-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Health+and+Illness&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-0558-0&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter1999" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Dorothy (1999). <i>Health, Civilization, and the State A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12244-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12244-3"><bdi>978-0-415-12244-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Health%2C+Civilization%2C+and+the+State+A+History+of+Public+Health+from+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12244-3&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization1978" class="citation book cs1">United Nations Industrial Development Organization (1978). <i>Technologies from Developing Countries</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6400-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6400-1"><bdi>978-0-7619-6400-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technologies+from+Developing+Countries&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-6400-1&rft.au=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology+of+health+and+illness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Seale, Gabe, Wainwright, Williams. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/shil">Sociology of Health & Illness</a>, Vol. 33 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1467-9566">1467-9566</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sociology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology2" title="Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology2" title="Template talk:Sociology2"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sociology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_sociology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic sociology topics">General aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological practice">Sociological practice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Subfields of sociology">Related fields<br />and subfields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_sociology" title="Comparative sociology">Comparative sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sociology_of" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%">Sociology of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">gender</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of medicine">medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of sports">sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_small_groups" title="Sociology of small groups">small groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Major theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Key themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology" title="Category:Sociology">Categories</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_lists" title="Category:Sociology lists">lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_journals" title="Category:Sociology journals">Journals</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sociology">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Sociology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Sociology">WikiProject</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></b></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public 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