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href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics_and_strains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_and_strains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Genetics and strains</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics_and_strains-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics and strains subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics_and_strains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Genome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutant_and_transgenic_strains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutant_and_transgenic_strains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mutant and transgenic strains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutant_and_transgenic_strains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commonly_used_inbred_strains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commonly_used_inbred_strains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Commonly used inbred strains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commonly_used_inbred_strains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jackson_Labs_DO_project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jackson_Labs_DO_project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Jackson Labs DO project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jackson_Labs_DO_project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appearance_and_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appearance_and_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Appearance and behaviour</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Appearance_and_behaviour-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Appearance and behaviour subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Appearance_and_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-C57BL/6" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C57BL/6"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>C57BL/6</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C57BL/6-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BALB/c" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BALB/c"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>BALB/c</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BALB/c-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tg2576" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tg2576"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Tg2576</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tg2576-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Husbandry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Husbandry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Husbandry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Husbandry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Husbandry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Husbandry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Handling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Handling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Handling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Handling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Injection_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injection_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Injection procedures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injection_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anaesthesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anaesthesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Anaesthesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anaesthesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Euthanasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Euthanasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Euthanasia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Euthanasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogen_susceptibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogen_susceptibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Pathogen susceptibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogen_susceptibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation_in_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation_in_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legislation in research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legislation_in_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legislation in research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legislation_in_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Market_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Market_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Market size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Market_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="فئران التجارب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فئران التجارب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratorijski_mi%C5%A1" title="Laboratorijski miš – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Laboratorijski miš" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratol%C3%AD_de_laboratori" title="Ratolí de laboratori – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ratolí de laboratori" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborihiir" title="Laborihiir – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Laborihiir" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat%C3%B3n_de_laboratorio" title="Ratón de laboratorio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ratón de laboratorio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborategiko_sagu" title="Laborategiko sagu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Laborategiko sagu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B4_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="موش آزمایشگاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="موش آزمایشگاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souris_de_laboratoire" title="Souris de laboratoire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Souris de laboratoire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rato_de_laboratorio" title="Rato de laboratorio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rato de laboratorio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%ED%97%98%EC%8B%A4_%EC%A5%90" title="실험실 쥐 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="실험실 쥐" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topo_da_laboratorio" title="Topo da laboratorio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Topo da laboratorio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feh%C3%A9r_eg%C3%A9r" title="Fehér egér – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fehér egér" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rato_de_laborat%C3%B3rio" title="Rato de laboratório – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rato de laboratório" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratuvar_faresi" title="Laboratuvar faresi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Laboratuvar faresi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu%E1%BB%99t_nh%E1%BA%AFt_th%C3%AD_nghi%E1%BB%87m" title="Chuột nhắt thí nghiệm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chuột nhắt thí nghiệm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C%E5%B0%8F%E9%BC%A0" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mouse used for scientific research</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_(black_and_white).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Line drawing of a laboratory mouse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg/250px-Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg/375px-Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg/500px-Vector_diagram_of_laboratory_mouse_%28black_and_white%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albinism in biology">albino</a> laboratory mouse is an iconic model organism for scientific research in a variety of fields</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scid_mouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Albino SCID" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Scid_mouse.jpg/250px-Scid_mouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Scid_mouse.jpg/375px-Scid_mouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Scid_mouse.jpg/500px-Scid_mouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency_(non-human)" title="Severe combined immunodeficiency (non-human)">SCID</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="With intermediate coat colour" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg/250px-Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg/375px-Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg/500px-Lab_mouse_mg_3244.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>Intermediate coat colour</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Kept as a pet standing on a patch of grass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg/220px-Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg/330px-Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg/440px-Pet_lab_mouse_in_the_grass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1668" data-file-height="1713" /></a><figcaption>Kept as a pet</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>laboratory mouse</b> or <b>lab mouse</b> is a small <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammal</a> of the order <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a> which is bred and used for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a> or <a href="/wiki/Live_food" title="Live food">feeders</a> for certain pets. <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a> <a href="/wiki/Mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Mice">mice</a> are usually of the species <i><a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a></i>. They are the most commonly used mammalian <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">research model</a> and are used for research in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discipline">scientific disciplines</a>. Mice belong to the <a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a> clade, which includes <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>. This close relationship, the associated high <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a> with humans, their ease of maintenance and handling, and their high reproduction rate, make mice particularly suitable models for human-oriented research. The laboratory mouse genome has been sequenced and many mouse genes have human homologues.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lab mice are sold at <a href="/wiki/Pet_store" title="Pet store">pet stores</a> for <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a> <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> and can also be kept as <a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">pets</a>. </p><p>Other mouse species sometimes used in laboratory research include two American species, the <a href="/wiki/White-footed_mouse" title="White-footed mouse">white-footed mouse</a> (<i>Peromyscus leucopus</i>) and the North American deer mouse (<i><a href="/wiki/Peromyscus_maniculatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peromyscus maniculatus">Peromyscus maniculatus</a></i>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_as_a_biological_model">History as a biological model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History as a biological model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mice have been used in biomedical research since the 17th century when <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> used them for his studies on reproduction and blood circulation and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> used them to investigate the biological consequences of an increase in air pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Hedrich_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> both used mice to study <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiration</a>. In the 19th century <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> carried out his early investigations of inheritance on mouse coat color but was asked by his superior to stop breeding in his cell "smelly creatures that, in addition, copulated and had sex".<sup id="cite_ref-Hedrich_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then switched his investigations to peas but, as his observations were published in a somewhat obscure botanical journal, they were virtually ignored for over 35 years until they were rediscovered in the early 20th century. In 1902 <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Cu%C3%A9not" title="Lucien Cuénot">Lucien Cuénot</a> published the results of his experiments using mice which showed that Mendel's laws of inheritance were also valid for animals — results that were soon confirmed and extended to other species.<sup id="cite_ref-Hedrich_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early part of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> undergraduate <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Cook_Little" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Cook Little">Clarence Cook Little</a> was conducting studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of <a href="/wiki/William_Ernest_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ernest Castle">William Ernest Castle</a>. Little and Castle collaborated closely with <a href="/wiki/Abbie_Lathrop" title="Abbie Lathrop">Abbie Lathrop</a> who was a breeder of <a href="/wiki/Fancy_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Fancy mice">fancy mice</a> and rats which she marketed to rodent hobbyists and keepers of exotic pets, and later began selling in large numbers to scientific researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-Steensma_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steensma-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together they generated the DBA (Dilute, Brown and non-Agouti) inbred mouse strain and initiated the systematic generation of inbred strains.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mouse has since been used extensively as a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st Centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Hedrich_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Laboratory" title="Jackson Laboratory">Jackson Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bar_Harbor,_Maine" title="Bar Harbor, Maine">Bar Harbor, Maine</a> is currently one of the world's largest suppliers of laboratory mice, at around 3 million mice a year.<sup id="cite_ref-economist.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laboratory is also the world's source for more than 8,000 strains of genetically defined mice and is home of the <a href="/wiki/Mouse_Genome_Informatics" title="Mouse Genome Informatics">Mouse Genome Informatics</a> database.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Day-old_mice.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Day-old_mice.JPG/220px-Day-old_mice.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Day-old_mice.JPG/330px-Day-old_mice.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Day-old_mice.JPG/440px-Day-old_mice.JPG 2x" data-file-width="813" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>1-day-old pups</figcaption></figure> <p>Breeding onset occurs at about 50 days of age in both females and males, although females may have their first <a href="/wiki/Estrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrus">estrus</a> at 25–40 days. Mice are polyestrous and breed year round; ovulation is spontaneous. The duration of the <a href="/wiki/Estrous_cycle" title="Estrous cycle">estrous cycle</a> is 4–5 days and lasts about 12 hours, occurring in the evening. Vaginal smears are useful in timed matings to determine the stage of the estrous cycle. Mating can be confirmed by the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Copulatory_plug" class="mw-redirect" title="Copulatory plug">copulatory plug</a> in the vagina up to 24 hours post-copulation. The presence of sperm on a vaginal smear is also a reliable indicator of mating.<sup id="cite_ref-lvma_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lvma-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The average gestation period is 20 days. A fertile <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_estrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Postpartum estrus">postpartum estrus</a> occurs 14–24 hours following <a href="/wiki/Parturition" class="mw-redirect" title="Parturition">parturition</a>, and simultaneous lactation and gestation prolongs gestation by 3–10 days owing to delayed implantation. The average <a href="/wiki/Litter_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Litter (animal)">litter</a> size is 10–12 during optimum production, but is highly strain-dependent. As a general rule, <a href="/wiki/Inbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Inbred">inbred</a> mice tend to have longer gestation periods and smaller litters than <a href="/wiki/Outbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbred">outbred</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> mice. The young are called pups and weigh 0.5–1.5 g (0.018–0.053 oz) at birth, are hairless, and have closed eyelids and ears. Pups are weaned at 3 weeks of age when they weigh about 10–12 g (0.35–0.42 oz). If the female does not mate during the postpartum estrus, she resumes cycling 2–5 days post-weaning.<sup id="cite_ref-lvma_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lvma-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newborn males are distinguished from newborn females by noting the greater <a href="/wiki/Anogenital_distance" title="Anogenital distance">anogenital distance</a> and larger <a href="/wiki/Genital_papilla" title="Genital papilla">genital papilla</a> in the male. This is best accomplished by lifting the tails of <a href="/wiki/Littermate" class="mw-redirect" title="Littermate">littermates</a> and comparing <a href="/wiki/Perineum" title="Perineum">perinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lvma_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lvma-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics_and_strains">Genetics and strains</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Genetics and strains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mice are mammals of the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> (a group consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants) <a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a>, which means they are amongst the closest non-<a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> relatives of humans along with <a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">lagomorphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">treeshrews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flying_lemurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying lemurs">flying lemurs</a>. </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Glires</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a> (rodents) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha</a> (rabbits, hares, pikas) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Euarchonta" title="Euarchonta">Euarchonta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">Scandentia</a> (treeshrews) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Primatomorpha" title="Primatomorpha">Primatomorpha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Colugo" title="Colugo">Dermoptera</a> (flying lemurs) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a> (†<a href="/wiki/Plesiadapiformes" title="Plesiadapiformes">Plesiadapiformes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplorrhini" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplorrhini">Haplorrhini</a>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Laboratory mice are the same species as the <a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">house mouse</a>; however, they are often very different in <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">behaviour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>. There are hundreds of established <a href="/wiki/Inbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Inbred">inbred</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbred">outbred</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transgenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic">transgenic</a> strains. A <i><a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strain</a></i>, in reference to rodents, is a group in which all members are as nearly as possible genetically identical. In laboratory mice, this is accomplished through <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a>. By having this type of population, it is possible to conduct experiments on the roles of genes, or conduct experiments that exclude genetic variation as a factor. In contrast, outbred populations are used when identical <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotypes</a> are unnecessary or a population with genetic variation is required, and are usually referred to as <i>stocks</i> rather than <i>strains</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-mgi_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mgi-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isogenic_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isogenic-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 400 standardized, inbred strains have been developed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Most laboratory mice are hybrids of different subspecies, most commonly of <i>Mus musculus domesticus</i> and <i>Mus musculus musculus</i>. Laboratory mice can have a variety of coat colours, including agouti, black and <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a>. Many (but not all) laboratory strains are inbred. The different strains are identified with specific letter-digit combinations; for example <a href="/wiki/C57BL/6" title="C57BL/6">C57BL/6</a> and <a href="/wiki/BALB/c" title="BALB/c">BALB/c</a>. The first such inbred strains were produced in 1909 by <a href="/wiki/C._C._Little" title="C. C. Little">Clarence Cook Little</a>, who was influential in promoting the mouse as a laboratory organism.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2011, an estimated 83% of laboratory rodents supplied in the U.S. were C57BL/6 laboratory mice.<sup id="cite_ref-Trouble_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trouble-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genome">Genome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Genome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sequencing of the laboratory mouse <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> was completed in late 2002 using the C57BL/6 strain. This was only the second mammalian genome to be sequenced after humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Trouble_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trouble-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> genome is about three billion <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> long (3,000 Mb distributed over 19 autosomal chromosomes plus 1 respectively 2 sex chromosomes), therefore equal to the size of the human genome.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Estimating the number of genes contained in the mouse genome is difficult, in part because the definition of a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> is still being debated and extended. The current count of primary coding genes in the laboratory mouse is 23,139.<sup id="cite_ref-Ensembl_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ensembl-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compared to an estimated 20,774 in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Ensembl_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ensembl-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutant_and_transgenic_strains">Mutant and transgenic strains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mutant and transgenic strains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GFP_Mice_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/170px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/255px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/340px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Two mice expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein under UV-illumination flanking one plain mouse from the non-transgenic parental line</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fatmouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fatmouse.jpg/170px-Fatmouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fatmouse.jpg/255px-Fatmouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fatmouse.jpg/340px-Fatmouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of a knockout <a href="/wiki/Ob/ob_mouse" title="Ob/ob mouse">obese mouse</a> (left) and a normal laboratory mouse (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Various <a href="/wiki/Mutant" title="Mutant">mutant</a> strains of mice have been created by a number of methods. A small selection from the many available strains includes - </p> <ul><li>Mice resulting from ordinary <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">breeding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NOD_mice" title="NOD mice">Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice</a>, which develop <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murphy_Roths_large" title="Murphy Roths large">Murphy Roths large</a> (MRL) mice, with unusual <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerative</a> capacities<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_waltzing_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese waltzing mice">Japanese waltzing mice</a>, which walk in a circular pattern due to a mutation adversely affecting their inner <a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunodeficient">Immunodeficient</a> <a href="/wiki/Nude_mouse" title="Nude mouse">nude mice</a>, lacking hair and a <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a>: these mice do not produce <a href="/wiki/T_lymphocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="T lymphocyte">T lymphocytes</a>; therefore, they do not mount cellular immune responses. They are used for research in <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplantation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency" title="Severe combined immunodeficiency">Severe combined immunodeficiency</a> (SCID) mice, with an almost completely defective <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FVB_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="FVB mice">FVB mice</a>, whose large litter sizes and large oocyte pronuclei expedite use in genetic research</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Toxic_milk_mouse"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxic_milk_mouse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toxic milk mouse (page does not exist)">Toxic milk mice</a></span></span>, which fail to recruit nutrient copper into milk causing pup death. It is caused by an <a href="/wiki/Autosomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal">autosomal</a> <a href="/wiki/Recessive_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive (genetics)">recessive</a> mutation <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tx_(gene)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tx (gene) (page does not exist)">tx</a></i> which arose in an inbred. Theophilos et al. 1996 found this to be genetic and localized to chromosome 8, near the <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pierson-et-al-2019_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierson-et-al-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_mouse" title="Genetically modified mouse">Transgenic mice</a>, with foreign genes inserted into their genome: <ul><li>Abnormally large mice, with an inserted rat <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a> gene</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncomouse" title="Oncomouse">Oncomice</a>, with an activated <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogene</a>, so as to significantly increase the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation#Spatial_memory" title="Long-term potentiation">Doogie mice</a>, with enhanced <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> function, resulting in improved memory and learning</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knockout_mouse" title="Knockout mouse">Knockout mice</a>, where a specific gene was made inoperable by a technique known as <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a>: the purpose is to study the function of the gene's product or to simulate a human disease <ul><li>Fat mice, prone to obesity due to a carboxypeptidase E deficiency</li> <li>Strong muscular mice, with a disabled <a href="/wiki/Myostatin" title="Myostatin">myostatin</a> gene, nicknamed "mighty mice".</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Since 1998, it has been possible to <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clone</a> mice from cells derived from adult animals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commonly_used_inbred_strains">Commonly used inbred strains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Commonly used inbred strains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory mice">mice</a> used in research, however, <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbred</a> strains are usually the animals of choice for most fields. Inbred mice are defined as being the product of at least 20 generations of brother X sister mating, with all individuals being derived from a single breeding pair.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inbred mice have several traits that make them ideal for research purposes. They are <a href="/wiki/Isogenic_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Isogenic line">isogenic</a>, meaning that all animals are nearly genetically identical.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 98.7% of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_loci" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic loci">genetic loci</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> are <a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a>, so there are probably no "hidden" <a href="/wiki/Recessive_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive trait">recessive traits</a> that could cause problems.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also have very unified <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> due to this stability.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many inbred strains have well documented traits that make them ideal for specific types of research. The following table shows the top 10 most popular strains according to <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Laboratory" title="Jackson Laboratory">Jackson Laboratories</a>.<br /> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Common inbred strains of laboratory mice available from Jackson Laboratories </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Strain</th> <th>Coat color<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Common research uses</th> <th>Total Pubmed publications referencing the strain as of April 19, 2023<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>C3HeB/FeJ</td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">autoimmunity</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>482 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NOD/ShiLtJ</td> <td>Albino</td> <td>Autoimmune <a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">type 1 diabetes</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>105 </td></tr> <tr> <td>DBA/1J</td> <td>Dilute brown</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">Rheumatoid arthritis</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>445 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/BALB/c" title="BALB/c">BALB/cByJ</a></td> <td>Albino</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>628 </td></tr> <tr> <td>DBA/2J</td> <td>Dilute brown</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">dermatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>2,722 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C3H/HeJ</td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">hematology</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>4,037 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/C57BL/6" title="C57BL/6">C57BL/6J</a></td> <td>Black</td> <td>General purpose, background<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>25,723 </td></tr> <tr> <td>SJL/J</td> <td>Albino</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">dermatology</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>1,448 </td></tr> <tr> <td>FVB/NJ</td> <td>Albino</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">autoimmunity</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>350 </td></tr> <tr> <td>129S1/SvImJ</td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Targeted mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto5_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>222 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jackson_Labs_DO_project">Jackson Labs DO project</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jackson Labs DO project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png/220px-PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png/330px-PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png/440px-PHYLOGENTIC_TREE_REDRAW.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Phylogenetic tree of the eight founder strains used in the DO project, as well as their approximate age of divergence. M. spretus is included as an outgroup that diverged ~2 million years ago (mya), it is not part of the DO project.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Laboratory" title="Jackson Laboratory">Jackson Labs</a> DO (<a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">Diversity Outbred</a>) project<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a mouse breeding program using multiple inbred founder strains to create a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetically diverse</a> population of mice for use in scientific research. </p><p>These mice are designed for fine <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mapping">genetic mapping</a>, and capture a large portion of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> of the mouse genome.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This project has resulted in over 1,000 genetically diverse mice which have been used to identify genetic factors for diseases such as obesity, cancer, diabetes, and alcohol use disorder. <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Founder strains used in the DO project </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Strain</th> <th>Derivation</th> <th>Subspecies origin</th> <th>Coat color<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Common research uses</th> <th>Total Pubmed publications referencing the strain as of April 19, 2023 </th></tr> <tr> <td>A/J</td> <td>Laboratory</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Albino</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>5,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/C57BL/6" title="C57BL/6">C57BL/6J</a></td> <td>Laboratory</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Black</td> <td>General purpose, background<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>25,723 </td></tr> <tr> <td>129S1/SvImJ</td> <td>Laboratory</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i></td> <td>Agouti<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Targeted <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto5_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>222 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NOD/ShiLtJ</td> <td>Laboratory</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Albino</td> <td>Autoimmune <a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">type 1 diabetes</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>105 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NZO/HILtJ</td> <td>Laboratory</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>CAST/EiJ</td> <td>Wild-derived</td> <td><i>Mus musculus castaneus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Crossbreeding heterozygous F1 hybrids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mapping">genetic mapping</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>154 </td></tr> <tr> <td>PWK/PhJ</td> <td>Wild-derived</td> <td><i>Mus musculus musculus</i> <sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Agouti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genetic_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mapping">Genetic mapping</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>52 </td></tr> <tr> <td>WSB/EiJ</td> <td>Wild-derived</td> <td><i>Mus musculus domesticus</i><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Agouti with head blaze, greyish coat </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genetic_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mapping">Genetic mapping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>65 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appearance_and_behaviour">Appearance and behaviour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Appearance and behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laboratory mice have retained many of the physical and behavioural characteristics of house mice; however, due to many generations of artificial selection, some of these characteristics now vary markedly. Due to the large number of strains of laboratory mice, it is impractical to comprehensively describe the appearance and behaviour of all of them; however, they are described below for two of the most commonly used strains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C57BL/6"><span id="C57BL.2F6"></span>C57BL/6</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: C57BL/6"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg/220px-Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg/330px-Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg/440px-Black_6_mouse_eating.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>A female C57BL/6 laboratory mouse</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/C57BL/6" title="C57BL/6">C57BL/6</a></div> <p>C57BL/6 mice have a dark brown, nearly black coat. They are more sensitive to noise and odours and are more likely to bite than the more docile laboratory strains such as <a href="/wiki/BALB/c" title="BALB/c">BALB/c</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Group-housed C57BL/6 mice (and other strains) display barbering behaviour, which used to be seen as a sign of dominance. However, it is now known that this is more of a stereotypical behaviour triggered by stress, comparable to trichotillomania in humans or feather plucking in parrots.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mice that have been barbered extensively can have large bald patches on their bodies, commonly around the head, snout, and shoulders, although barbering may appear anywhere on the body. Also self-barbering can occure. Both hair and <a href="/wiki/Whiskers" title="Whiskers">vibrissae</a> may be removed. Barbering is more frequently seen in female mice; male mice are more likely to display dominance through fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>C57BL/6 has several unusual characteristics which make it useful for some research studies but inappropriate for others: It is unusually sensitive to pain and to cold, and <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesic</a> medications are less effective in this strain.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike most laboratory mouse strains, the C57BL/6 drinks <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a> voluntarily. It is more susceptible than average to <a href="/wiki/Morphine_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphine addiction">morphine addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, and age-related <a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">hearing loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trouble_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trouble-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When compared directly to BALB/c mice, C57BL/6 mice also express both a robust response to social rewards<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and empathy.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="BALB/c"><span id="BALB.2Fc"></span>BALB/c</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: BALB/c"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/BALB/c" title="BALB/c">BALB/c</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/220px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/330px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/440px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>BALB/c laboratory mice</figcaption></figure> <p>BALB/c is an <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a> laboratory-bred strain from which a number of common substrains are derived. With over 200 generations bred since 1920, BALB/c mice are distributed globally and are among the most widely used inbred strains used in <a href="/wiki/Animal_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal experimentation">animal experimentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Festing_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Festing-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>BALB/c are noted for displaying high levels of anxiety and for being relatively resistant to diet-induced <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, making them a useful model for cardiovascular research.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Male BALB/c mice are aggressive and will fight other males if housed together. However, the BALB/Lac substrain is much more docile.<sup id="cite_ref-aggressive_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aggressive-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most BALB/c mice substrains have a long reproductive life-span.<sup id="cite_ref-Festing_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Festing-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are noted differences between different BALB/c substrains, though these are thought to be due to <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> rather than genetic contamination.<sup id="cite_ref-strains_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strains-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BALB/cWt is unusual in that 3% of progeny display true <a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditism">hermaphroditism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cWt_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cWt-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tg2576">Tg2576</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tg2576"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A useful model for <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> (AD) in the lab is the Tg2576 strain of mice. The K670M and N671L double <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a> seen in the human 695 splice-variant of the <a href="/wiki/Amyloid_precursor_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloid precursor protein">amyloid precursor protein</a> (APP) are expressed by this strain. A <a href="/wiki/Hamster" title="Hamster">hamster</a> <a href="/wiki/Prion_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Prion protein">prion protein</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_promoter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene promoter">gene promoter</a>, predominantly in neurons, drives the expression. When compared to non-transgenic littermates, Tg2576 mice show a five-fold rise in Aβ40 and a 10- to 15-fold increase in Aβ42/43.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These mice develop senile plaques linked to cellular inflammatory responses because their brains have approximately five times as much transgenic mutant human APP than indigenous mouse APP. The mice exhibit main characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD), such as increased generation of <a href="/wiki/Amyloid_fibrils" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloid fibrils">amyloid fibrils</a> with aging, plaque formation, and impaired <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> learning and memory. Tg2576 mice are a good model for early-stage AD because they show amyloidogenesis and working memory impairments linked to age but do not show neuronal degeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The absence of cell death suggests that changes in typical cellular signaling cascades involved in learning and synaptic plasticity are probably linked to the memory phenotype. Associative learning impairments are exacerbated when Tg2576 mice are crossed with PS1 transgenic animals that possess the A246E FAD mutation. This crosses promotes the build-up of amyloid and plaque development in the CNS.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This lends credence to the theory that AD <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a> is influenced by the interplay between APP and PS-1 gene products. Although Tg2576 mice do not perfectly replicate late-stage AD with cell death, they do offer a platform for researching the physiology and biochemistry of the illness.With the help of transgenic mouse models, researchers can make progress in AD research by understanding the intricate relationships between gene products that are involved in the production of Aβ peptide.e physiology and biochemistry of the illness.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Husbandry">Husbandry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Husbandry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg/220px-Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg/330px-Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg/440px-Lab_mouse_mg_3308.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4167" data-file-height="2784" /></a><figcaption>Laboratory mouse (note the <a href="/wiki/Overview_of_discretionary_invasive_procedures_on_animals" title="Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals">ear tag)</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handling">Handling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Handling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, laboratory mice have been picked up by the base of the tail. However, recent research has shown that this type of handling increases anxiety and aversive behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, handling mice using a tunnel or cupped hands is advocated. In behavioural tests, tail-handled mice show less willingness to explore and to investigate test stimuli, as opposed to tunnel-handled mice which readily explore and show robust responses to test stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In nature, mice are usually <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, consuming a wide range of fruit or grain.<sup id="cite_ref-ecodome_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecodome-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in laboratory studies it is usually necessary to avoid biological variation and to achieve this, laboratory mice are almost always fed only commercial pelleted mouse feed. Food intake is approximately 15 g (0.53 oz) per 100 g (3.5 oz) of body weight per day; water intake is approximately 15 ml (0.53 imp fl oz; 0.51 US fl oz) per 100 g of body weight per day.<sup id="cite_ref-lvma_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lvma-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Injection_procedures">Injection procedures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Injection procedures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Routes_of_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Routes of administration">Routes of administration</a> of injections in laboratory mice are mainly <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_administration" title="Subcutaneous administration">subcutaneous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intraperitoneal_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraperitoneal administration">intraperitoneal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous administration">intravenous</a>. <a href="/wiki/Intramuscular_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intramuscular administration">Intramuscular administration</a> is not recommended due to small muscle mass.<sup id="cite_ref-duke_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Intracerebral_administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intracerebral administration (page does not exist)">Intracerebral administration</a> is also possible. Each route has a recommended injection site, approximate <a href="/wiki/Needle_gauge_comparison_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle gauge comparison chart">needle gauge</a> and recommended maximum injected volume at a single time at one site, as given in the table below: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Routes_of_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Routes of administration">Route</a></th> <th>Recommended site<sup id="cite_ref-duke_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Needle_gauge_comparison_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle gauge comparison chart">Needle gauge</a><sup id="cite_ref-duke_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Maximal volume<sup id="cite_ref-drexel_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drexel-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_administration" title="Subcutaneous administration">subcutaneous</a></td> <td>dorsum, between <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapula</a></td> <td>25-26 <a href="/wiki/Needle_gauge_comparison_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle gauge comparison chart">ga</a></td> <td>2-3 <a href="/wiki/Millilitre" class="mw-redirect" title="Millilitre">ml</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Intraperitoneal_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraperitoneal administration">intraperitoneal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Left_lower_quadrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Left lower quadrant">left lower quadrant</a></td> <td>25-27 ga</td> <td>2-3 ml </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous administration">intravenous</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lateral_tail_vein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lateral tail vein (page does not exist)">lateral tail vein</a></td> <td>27-28 ga</td> <td>0.2 ml </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Intramuscular_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Intramuscular administration">intramuscular</a></td> <td>hindlimb, caudal thigh</td> <td>26-27 ga</td> <td>0.05 ml </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intracerebral_administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intracerebral administration (page does not exist)">intracerebral</a></td> <td>cranium</td> <td>27 ga </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>To facilitate intravenous injection into the tail, laboratory mice can be carefully warmed under heat lamps to <a href="/wiki/Vasodilate" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilate">vasodilate</a> the vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-duke_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anaesthesia">Anaesthesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anaesthesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A common regimen for <a href="/wiki/General_anesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthesia">general anesthesia</a> for the house mouse is <a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a> (in the dose of 100 mg per kg body weight) plus <a href="/wiki/Xylazine" title="Xylazine">xylazine</a> (in the dose of 5–10 mg per kg), injected by the intraperitoneal route.<sup id="cite_ref-duke-anesthesia_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-anesthesia-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a duration of effect of about 30 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-duke-anesthesia_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duke-anesthesia-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Euthanasia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Approved procedures for <a href="/wiki/Animal_euthanasia" title="Animal euthanasia">euthanasia</a> of laboratory mice include compressed CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> gas, injectable <a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturate</a> <a href="/wiki/Anesthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthetics">anesthetics</a>, inhalable anesthetics, such as Halothane, and physical methods, such as cervical dislocation and decapitation.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/American_Veterinary_Medical_Association" title="American Veterinary Medical Association">American Veterinary Medical Association</a> issued new guidelines for CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> induction, stating that a flow rate of 10% to 30% volume/min is optimal for euthanasing laboratory mice.<sup id="cite_ref-2013_AVMA_Guidelines_for_the_Euthanasia_of_Animals:_2013_Edition_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2013_AVMA_Guidelines_for_the_Euthanasia_of_Animals:_2013_Edition-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogen_susceptibility">Pathogen susceptibility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pathogen susceptibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recent study detected a murine <a href="/wiki/Astrovirus" title="Astrovirus">astrovirus</a> in laboratory mice held at more than half of the US and Japanese institutes investigated.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Murine astrovirus was found in nine mice strains, including <a href="/wiki/NSG_mouse" title="NSG mouse">NSG</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=NOD-SCID&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NOD-SCID (page does not exist)">NOD-SCID</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=NSG-3GS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NSG-3GS (page does not exist)">NSG-3GS</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=C57BL6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C57BL6 (page does not exist)">C57BL6</a>-<i>Timp-3<sup>−/−</sup></i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=UPA-NOG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UPA-NOG (page does not exist)">uPA-NOG</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=B6J&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B6J (page does not exist)">B6J</a>, ICR, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bash2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bash2 (page does not exist)">Bash2</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=BALB/C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BALB/C (page does not exist)">BALB/C</a>, with various degrees of prevalence. The pathogenicity of the murine astrovirus was not known. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislation_in_research">Legislation in research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legislation in research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the U.K., as with all other vertebrates and some invertebrates, any scientific procedure which is likely to cause "pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm" is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Home_Office" title="Home Office">Home Office</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Animals_(Scientific_Procedures)_Act_1986" title="Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986">Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986</a>. U.K. regulations are considered amongst the most comprehensive and rigorous in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed data on the use of laboratory mice (and other species) in research in the U.K. are published each year.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the U.K. in 2013, there were a total of 3,077,115 regulated procedures undertaken on mice in scientific procedure establishments, licensed under the Act.<sup id="cite_ref-ASPA_statistics_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASPA_statistics-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the U.S., laboratory mice are not regulated under the <a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Act_of_1966" title="Animal Welfare Act of 1966">Animal Welfare Act</a> administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a> <a href="/wiki/APHIS" class="mw-redirect" title="APHIS">APHIS</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Service_Act" title="Public Health Service Act">Public Health Service Act</a> (PHS) as administered by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> does offer a standard for their care and use. Compliance with the PHS is required for a research project to receive federal funding. PHS policy is administered by the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare. Many academic research institutes seek accreditation voluntarily, often through the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Assessment_and_Accreditation_of_Laboratory_Animal_Care" class="mw-redirect" title="Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care">Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care</a>, which maintains the standards of care found within <i>The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals</i> and the PHS policy. This accreditation is, however, not a prerequisite for federal funding, unlike the actual compliance.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While mice are by far the most widely used animals in biomedical research, recent studies have highlighted their limitations.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes.com_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the utility of rodents in testing for <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas.org_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas.org-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burns</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pnas.org_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas.org-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pnas.org_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas.org-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">ALS</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nature.com_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature.com-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other illnesses has been called into question by a number of researchers. Regarding experiments on mice, some researchers have complained that "years and billions of dollars have been wasted following false leads" as a result of a preoccupation with the use of these animals in studies.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes.com_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some <a href="/wiki/Toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxins">toxins</a> than humans; have a lower total <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> fraction in the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, a lower <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic">enzymatic</a> capacity, lower activity of the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>, and a different set of <a href="/wiki/Pentraxins" title="Pentraxins">pentraxins</a> involved in the <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammatory process">inflammatory process</a>; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_8" title="Interleukin 8">IL-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/IL-37" class="mw-redirect" title="IL-37">IL-37</a>, <a href="/wiki/TLR10" class="mw-redirect" title="TLR10">TLR10</a>, <a href="/wiki/ICAM3" title="ICAM3">ICAM-3</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laboratory mice reared in <a href="/wiki/Specific-pathogen-free" title="Specific-pathogen-free">specific-pathogen-free</a> (SPF) conditions usually have a rather immature immune system with a deficit of <a href="/wiki/Memory_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory T cells">memory T cells</a>. These mice may have limited diversity of the <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a>, which directly affects the immune system and the development of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, <a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">herpesviruses</a>) are activated in humans, but not in <a href="/wiki/Specific-pathogen-free" title="Specific-pathogen-free">SPF</a> mice with <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">septic</a> complications and may change the resistance to bacterial <a href="/wiki/Coinfections" class="mw-redirect" title="Coinfections">coinfections</a>. "Dirty" mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human pathologies. In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">human population</a> is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, <a href="/wiki/Outbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbred">outbred</a>, and nonlinear mice.<sup id="cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An article in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientist_(magazine)" title="The Scientist (magazine)">The Scientist</a></i> notes, "The difficulties associated with using animal models for human disease result from the metabolic, anatomic, and cellular differences between humans and other creatures, but the problems go even deeper than that" including issues with the design and execution of the tests themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the caging of laboratory animals may render them irrelevant models of human health because these animals lack day-to-day variations in experiences, agency, and challenges that they can overcome.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impoverished environments inside small mouse cages can have deleterious influences on biomedical results, especially with respect to studies of mental health and of systems that depend upon healthy psychological states.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, researchers have found that many mice in laboratories are obese from excess food and minimal exercise, which alters their physiology and drug metabolism.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many laboratory animals, including mice, are chronically stressed, which can also negatively affect research outcomes and the ability to accurately extrapolate findings to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have also noted that many studies involving mice are poorly designed, leading to questionable findings.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Trouble_With_Animal_Models-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nature.com_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature.com-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done are omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from <a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-economist.com_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study in 2016 suggested that gut <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiomes</a> in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Market_size">Market size</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Market size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The worldwide market for gene-altered mice is predicted to grow to $1.59 billion by 2022, growing at a rate of 7.5 percent per year.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_rat" title="Laboratory rat">Laboratory rat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_rodents" title="Animal testing on rodents">Animal testing on rodents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal model">Animal model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_identification" title="Animal identification">Animal identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey</a>, five laboratory mice who orbited the Moon 75 times on <a href="/wiki/Apollo_17" title="Apollo 17">Apollo 17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouse_models_of_colorectal_and_intestinal_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer">Mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pinky_and_the_Brain" title="Pinky and the Brain">Pinky and the Brain</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_cosmetics_on_animals" title="Testing cosmetics on animals">Testing cosmetics on animals</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_laboratory_mouse" title="Monument to the laboratory mouse">Monument to the laboratory mouse</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TetTag" title="TetTag">TetTag</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+News&rft.atitle=China%27s+Selling+Genetically-Modified+Mice+for+%2417%2C000+a+Pair&rft.date=2019-04-01&rft.aulast=Einhorn&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2019-04-01%2Fchina-s-demand-for-17-000-gene-altered-lab-mice-is-skyrocketing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaboratory+mouse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusserCarleton2005" class="citation book cs1">Musser GG, Carleton MD (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3">"Superfamily Muroidea"</a>. In Wilson, D.E., Reeder, D.M. (eds.). <i>Mammal Species of the World: a taxonomic and geographic reference</i> (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 894–1531. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8221-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8221-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-8221-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Superfamily+Muroidea&rft.btitle=Mammal+Species+of+the+World%3A+a+taxonomic+and+geographic+reference&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=894-1531&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8221-0&rft.aulast=Musser&rft.aufirst=GG&rft.au=Carleton%2C+MD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bucknell.edu%2Fmsw3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaboratory+mouse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNyby2001" class="citation book cs1">Nyby J (2001). "Ch. 1 Auditory communication in adults". In Willott, James F. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookmouseaud00will"><i>Handbook of Mouse Auditory Research: From Behavior to Molecular Biology</i></a></span>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookmouseaud00will/page/n17">3</a>–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780849323287" title="Special:BookSources/9780849323287"><bdi>9780849323287</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1+Auditory+communication+in+adults&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Mouse+Auditory+Research%3A+From+Behavior+to+Molecular+Biology&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pages=3-18&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780849323287&rft.aulast=Nyby&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookmouseaud00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaboratory+mouse" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laboratory_mouse&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lab_mice" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lab mice">Lab mice</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Mus musculus">Mus musculus</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Taxonomy</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findmice.org/">FindMice.org</a></li></ul> <p><b>Genetics</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Mus_musculus/">Ensembl Mus musculus genome browser</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a> Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vega.sanger.ac.uk/Mus_musculus">Vega Mus musculus genome browser</a>, includes NOD mouse sequence and annotation</li></ul> <p><b>Media</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Mus_musculus/">Pictures, movies and applets showing the anatomy of <i>Mus musculus</i></a>, from www.digimorph.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mednews.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/6040.html">Michael Purdy: "Researchers add mice to list of creatures that sing in the presence of mates"</a>-Study of male mouse "song" with mouse song recording (MP3), by Washington University Medical School</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statnews.com/2019/04/15/in-mice-twitter-account-hype-science-reporting/">"It's just in mice! This scientist is calling out hype in science reporting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stat_(website)" title="Stat (website)">STAT</a></i>. 2019-04-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=STAT&rft.atitle=It%27s+just+in+mice%21+This+scientist+is+calling+out+hype+in+science+reporting&rft.date=2019-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statnews.com%2F2019%2F04%2F15%2Fin-mice-twitter-account-hype-science-reporting%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaboratory+mouse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509105126/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/mammals/Mus_musculus/">Arkive</a> Photographs.Short text.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190621124504/http://brainmaps.org/">High-Resolution Brain Maps and Brain Atlases of <i>Mus musculus</i></a></li></ul> <p><b>Further reading</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120803201438/http://www.lvma.org/mouse.html">Biology of the Mouse</a>, from the Louisiana Veterinary Medical Association</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/mousegenome/">Nature Mouse Special 2002</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050313011817/http://www.ahsc.arizona.edu/uac/notes/classes/rodentbio/rodentbio.html">Biology of Laboratory Rodents</a> by David G. 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Model_organisms" title="Template:Model organisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Model_organisms" title="Template talk:Model organisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Model_organisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Model organisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_model_organisms_in_genetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda phage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_in_molecular_biology" title="Escherichia coli in molecular biology">E. coli</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tetrahymena" title="Tetrahymena">Tetrahymena</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Budding yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Fission yeast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">C. elegans</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/African_clawed_frog" title="African clawed frog">Xenopus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_rat" title="Laboratory rat">Rat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_species_of_subfamily_Murinae_(Melasmothrix–Mus)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Melasmothrix%E2%80%93Mus)" title="Template:Murinae (Melasmothrix–Mus)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Murinae_(Melasmothrix%E2%80%93Mus)" title="Template talk:Murinae (Melasmothrix–Mus)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Murinae_(Melasmothrix%E2%80%93Mus)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Murinae (Melasmothrix–Mus)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_species_of_subfamily_Murinae_(Melasmothrix–Mus)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant species of subfamily <a href="/wiki/Murinae" title="Murinae">Murinae</a> (<i>Melasmothrix</i>–<i>Mus</i>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li>Phylum: <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li>Class: <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a></li> <li>Superorder: <a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a></li> <li>Order: <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a></li> <li>Family: <a href="/wiki/Muridae" title="Muridae">Muridae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Melasmothrix</i><br />division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Melasmothrix</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulawesian_shrew_rat" title="Sulawesian shrew rat">Sulawesian shrew rat (<i>M. naso</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Tateomys" title="Tateomys">Tateomys</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Greater Sulawesian<br />shrew rats)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-tailed_shrew_rat" title="Long-tailed shrew rat">Long-tailed shrew rat (<i>T. macrocercus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tate%27s_shrew_rat" title="Tate's shrew rat">Tate's shrew rat (<i>T. rhinogradoides</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Micromys</i><br />division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Pencil-tailed tree mouse">Chiropodomys</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Pencil-tailed<br />tree mice)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palawan_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse">Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. calamianensis</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Indomalayan pencil-tailed tree mouse">Indomalayan pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. gliroides</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koopman%27s_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Koopman's pencil-tailed tree mouse">Koopman's pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. karlkoopmani</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Large pencil-tailed tree mouse">Large pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. major</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray-bellied_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Gray-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse">Gray-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. muroides</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_pencil-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Small pencil-tailed tree mouse">Small pencil-tailed tree mouse (<i>C. pusillus</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Haeromys" title="Haeromys">Haeromys</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Pygmy tree mice)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranee_mouse" title="Ranee mouse">Ranee mouse (<i>H. margarettae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minahassa_ranee_mouse" title="Minahassa ranee mouse">Minahassa ranee mouse (<i>H. minahassae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_ranee_mouse" title="Lesser ranee mouse">Lesser ranee mouse (<i>H. pusillus</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Hapalomys" title="Hapalomys">Hapalomys</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Marmoset rats)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delacour%27s_marmoset_rat" title="Delacour's marmoset rat">Delacour's marmoset rat (<i>H. delacouri</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmoset_rat" title="Marmoset rat">Marmoset rat (<i>H. longicaudatus</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Micromys" title="Micromys">Micromys</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indochinese_harvest_mouse" title="Indochinese harvest mouse">Indochinese harvest mouse (<i>M. erythrotis</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_harvest_mouse" title="Eurasian harvest mouse">Eurasian harvest mouse (<i>M. minutus</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Vandeleuria" title="Vandeleuria">Vandeleuria</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Long-tailed<br />climbing mice)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_long-tailed_tree_mouse" title="Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse">Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse (<i>V. nilagirica</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nolthenius%27s_long-tailed_climbing_mouse" title="Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse">Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse (<i>V. nolthenii</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_long-tailed_climbing_mouse" title="Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse">Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse (<i>V. oleracea</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Vernaya" title="Vernaya">Vernaya</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_climbing_mouse" title="Red climbing mouse">Red climbing mouse (<i>V. fulva</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Millardia</i><br />division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Cremnomys" title="Cremnomys">Cremnomys</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cutch_rat" title="Cutch rat">Cutch rat (<i>C. cutchicus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvira_rat" title="Elvira rat">Elvira rat (<i>C. elvira</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Diomys</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crump%27s_mouse" title="Crump's mouse">Crump's mouse (<i>D. crumpi</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Madromys</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanford%27s_rat" title="Blanford's rat">Blanford's rat (<i>M. blanfordi</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Millardia" title="Millardia">Millardia</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Asian<br />soft-furred rats)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand-colored_soft-furred_rat" title="Sand-colored soft-furred rat">Sand-colored soft-furred rat (<i>M. gleadowi</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miss_Ryley%27s_soft-furred_rat" title="Miss Ryley's soft-furred rat">Miss Ryley's soft-furred rat (<i>M. kathleenae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kondana_soft-furred_rat" title="Kondana soft-furred rat">Kondana soft-furred rat (<i>M. kondana</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft-furred_rat" title="Soft-furred rat">Soft-furred rat (<i>M. meltada</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Mus</i> division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_striped_mouse" title="Ethiopian striped mouse">Muriculus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_striped_mouse" title="Ethiopian striped mouse">Ethiopian striped mouse (<i>M. imberbis</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Mus_(genus)" title="Mus (genus)">Mus</a></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(Typical mice)</span></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><u>Subgenus <i><a href="/wiki/Coelomys" title="Coelomys">Coelomys</a></i></u>: <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_shrewlike_mouse" title="Sumatran shrewlike mouse">Sumatran shrewlike mouse (<i>M. crociduroides</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%27s_mouse" title="Mayor's mouse">Mayor's mouse (<i>M. mayori</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gairdner%27s_shrewmouse" title="Gairdner's shrewmouse">Gairdner's shrewmouse (<i>M. pahari</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_mouse" title="Volcano mouse">Volcano mouse (<i>M. vulcani</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><u><i>M. lepidoides</i> group</u>: <i><a href="/wiki/Mus_lepidoides" title="Mus lepidoides">M. lepidoides</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><u>Subgenus <i><a href="/wiki/Mus_(Mus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus (Mus)">Mus</a></i></u>: <a href="/wiki/Little_Indian_field_mouse" title="Little Indian field mouse">Little Indian field mouse (<i>M. booduga</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_mouse" title="Ryukyu mouse">Ryukyu mouse (<i>M. caroli</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fawn-colored_mouse" title="Fawn-colored mouse">Fawn-colored mouse (<i>M. cervicolor</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook%27s_mouse" title="Cook's mouse">Cook's mouse (<i>M. cookii</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_mouse" title="Cypriot mouse">Cypriot mouse (<i>M. cypriacus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servant_mouse" title="Servant mouse">Servant mouse (<i>M. famulus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheath-tailed_mouse" title="Sheath-tailed mouse">Sheath-tailed mouse (<i>M. fragilicauda</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_mouse" title="Macedonian mouse">Macedonian mouse (<i>M. macedonicus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">House mouse (<i>M. musculus</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mus_nitidulus" title="Mus nitidulus">Mus nitidulus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_mouse" title="Steppe mouse">Steppe mouse (<i>M. spicilegus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_mouse" title="Algerian mouse">Algerian mouse (<i>M. spretus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth-colored_mouse" title="Earth-colored mouse">Earth-colored mouse (<i>M. terricolor</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><u>Subgenus <i><a href="/wiki/Nannomys" title="Nannomys">Nannomys</a></i></u>: <a href="/wiki/Baoule%27s_mouse" title="Baoule's mouse">Baoule's mouse (<i>M. baoulei</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toad_mouse" title="Toad mouse">Toad mouse (<i>M. bufo</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callewaert%27s_mouse" title="Callewaert's mouse">Callewaert's mouse (<i>M. callewaerti</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gounda_mouse" title="Gounda mouse">Gounda mouse (<i>M. goundae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_mouse" title="Hausa mouse">Hausa mouse (<i>M. haussa</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_pygmy_mouse" title="Desert pygmy mouse">Desert pygmy mouse (<i>M. indutus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahomet_mouse" title="Mahomet mouse">Mahomet mouse (<i>M. mahomet</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthey%27s_mouse" title="Matthey's mouse">Matthey's mouse (<i>M. mattheyi</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_pygmy_mouse" title="African pygmy mouse">African pygmy mouse (<i>M. minutoides</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temminck%27s_mouse" title="Temminck's mouse">Temminck's mouse (<i>M. musculoides</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neave%27s_mouse" title="Neave's mouse">Neave's mouse (<i>M. neavei</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_pygmy_mouse" title="Free State pygmy mouse">Free State pygmy mouse (<i>M. orangiae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oubangui_mouse" title="Oubangui mouse">Oubangui mouse (<i>M. oubanguii</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peters%27s_mouse" title="Peters's mouse">Peters's mouse (<i>M. setulosus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setzer%27s_pygmy_mouse" title="Setzer's pygmy mouse">Setzer's pygmy mouse (<i>M. setzeri</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas%27s_pygmy_mouse" title="Thomas's pygmy mouse">Thomas's pygmy mouse (<i>M. sorella</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delicate_mouse" title="Delicate mouse">Delicate mouse (<i>M. tenellus</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray-bellied_pygmy_mouse" title="Gray-bellied pygmy mouse">Gray-bellied pygmy mouse (<i>M. triton</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><u>Subgenus <i><a href="/wiki/Pyromys" title="Pyromys">Pyromys</a></i></u>: <a href="/wiki/Ceylon_spiny_mouse" title="Ceylon spiny mouse">Ceylon spiny mouse (<i>M. fernandoni</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips%27s_mouse" title="Phillips's mouse">Phillips's mouse (<i>M. phillipsi</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat-haired_mouse" title="Flat-haired mouse">Flat-haired mouse (<i>M. platythrix</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-loving_mouse" title="Rock-loving mouse">Rock-loving mouse (<i>M. saxicola</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortridge%27s_mouse" title="Shortridge's mouse">Shortridge's mouse (<i>M. shortridgei</i>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Aethomys%E2%80%93Chrotomys)" title="Template:Murinae (Aethomys–Chrotomys)"><i>Aethomys</i>–<i>Chrotomys</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Colomys%E2%80%93Golunda)" title="Template:Murinae (Colomys–Golunda)"><i>Colomys</i>–<i>Golunda</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Hadromys%E2%80%93Maxomys)" title="Template:Murinae (Hadromys–Maxomys)"><i>Hadromys</i>–<i>Maxomys</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Oenomys%E2%80%93Pithecheir)" title="Template:Murinae (Oenomys–Pithecheir)"><i>Oenomys</i>–<i>Pithecheir</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Pogonomys%E2%80%93Pseudomys)" title="Template:Murinae (Pogonomys–Pseudomys)"><i>Pogonomys</i>–<i>Pseudomys</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Rattus)" title="Template:Murinae (Rattus)"><i>Rattus</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Stenocephalomys%E2%80%93Xeromys)" title="Template:Murinae (Stenocephalomys–Xeromys)"><i>Stenocephalomys</i>–<i>Xeromys</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Otomys)" title="Template:Murinae (Otomys)"><i>Otomys</i></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Murinae_(Others)" title="Template:Murinae (Others)">Others</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2842787#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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