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id="toc-Microanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Microanatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood_and_nerve_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_and_nerve_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Blood and nerve supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_and_nerve_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Involution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Involution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-T_cell_maturation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#T_cell_maturation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>T cell maturation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-T_cell_maturation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positive_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Positive selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Negative selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunodeficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunodeficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Immunodeficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunodeficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autoimmune_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autoimmune_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Autoimmune disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autoimmune_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thymoma-associated_multiorgan_autoimmunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thymoma-associated_multiorgan_autoimmunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thymoma-associated_multiorgan_autoimmunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myasthenia_gravis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myasthenia_gravis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Myasthenia gravis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myasthenia_gravis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thymomas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thymomas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Thymomas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thymomas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lymphomas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lymphomas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Lymphomas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lymphomas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thymic_cysts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thymic_cysts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Thymic cysts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thymic_cysts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgical_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgical_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Surgical removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgical_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Thymus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%B2%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="غدة زعترية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غدة زعترية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C9%99ng%C9%99l%C9%99b%C9%99nz%C9%99r_v%C9%99zi" title="Çəngələbənzər vəzi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çəngələbənzər vəzi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="থাইমাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="থাইমাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Вілаватая залоза – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вілаватая залоза" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Тимус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тимус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim" title="Tim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brzl%C3%ADk" title="Brzlík – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Brzlík" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymws" title="Thymws – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Thymws" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brissel" title="Brissel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Brissel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thymus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BC%C3%BCmus" title="Tüümus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tüümus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Θύμος αδένας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θύμος αδένας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo" title="Timo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Timo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timuso" title="Timuso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Timuso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo" title="Timo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Timo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="تیموس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تیموس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus_(anatomie)" title="Thymus (anatomie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Thymus (anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faireog_th%C3%ADmis" title="Faireog thímis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Faireog thímis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo" title="Timo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Timo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%8A%B4%EC%83%98" title="가슴샘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가슴샘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D6%80%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%B1" title="Ուրցագեղձ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուրցագեղձ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF" title="थाइमस ग्रंथि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="थाइमस ग्रंथि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timuso" title="Timuso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Timuso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus_(anatomi)" title="Timus (anatomi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Timus (anatomi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymo" title="Thymo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Thymo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3starkirtill" title="Hóstarkirtill – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hóstarkirtill" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo_(anatomia)" title="Timo (anatomia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Timo (anatomia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1" title="תימוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תימוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Айырша без – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Айырша без" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AEmus" title="Tîmus – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tîmus" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Богок бези – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Богок бези" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus_(glandula)" title="Thymus (glandula) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Thymus (glandula)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aizkr%C5%ABtes_dziedzeris" title="Aizkrūtes dziedzeris – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aizkrūtes dziedzeris" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C5%BEkr%C5%AB%C4%8Dio_liauka" title="Užkrūčio liauka – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Užkrūčio liauka" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo" title="Timo – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Timo" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_(orghen)" title="Tim (orghen) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Tim (orghen)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csecsem%C5%91mirigy" title="Csecsemőmirigy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csecsemőmirigy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Градна жлезда – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Градна жлезда" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF" title="തൈമസ് ഗ്രന്ഥി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തൈമസ് ഗ്രന്ഥി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus_(orgaan)" title="Thymus (orgaan) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thymus (orgaan)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B8%E8%85%BA" title="胸腺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="胸腺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brissel" title="Brissel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Brissel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bris_i_anatomi" title="Bris i anatomi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bris i anatomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9F" title="ក្រពេញទីមុស – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ក្រពេញទីមុស" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasica" title="Grasica – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Grasica" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timo" title="Timo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Timo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Тимус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тимус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Thymus" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Thymus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detsk%C3%A1_%C5%BE%C4%BEaza" title="Detská žľaza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Detská žľaza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pri%C5%BEeljc" title="Priželjc – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Priželjc" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3" title="تایمۆس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تایمۆس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Грудна жлезда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Грудна жлезда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus" title="Timus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Timus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kateenkorva" title="Kateenkorva – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kateenkorva" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A4ss" title="Bräss – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bräss" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF" title="தைமஸ் சுரப்பி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தைமஸ் சுரப்பி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A5%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%BF" title="థైమస్ గ్రంథి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="థైమస్ గ్రంథి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA" title="ต่อมไทมัส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ต่อมไทมัส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%C3%BCs" title="Timüs – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Timüs" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Тимус – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тимус" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%81" title="توتہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="توتہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B4_%D8%A8%DB%90%D8%B2%D9%89" title="تۆش بېزى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="تۆش بېزى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuy%E1%BA%BFn_%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tuyến ức – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tuyến ức" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timusse_(organe)" title="Timusse (organe) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Timusse (organe)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timus_(anatomiya)" title="Timus (anatomiya) – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Timus (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B8%E8%85%BA" title="胸腺 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="胸腺" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B8%E8%85%BA" title="胸腺 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="胸腺" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Endocrine gland</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the organ of the immune system. For organ of the hormone system, see <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a>. For culinary use of animal thymus, see <a href="/wiki/Sweetbread" title="Sweetbread">Sweetbread</a>. For the plant genus <i>Thymus</i>, see <a href="/wiki/Thymus_(plant)" title="Thymus (plant)">Thymus (plant)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Thymus_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Thymus (disambiguation)">Thymus (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Thymus</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg/250px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg/375px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg/500px-Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_thymus_gland_CRUK_362.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="282" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Position of the human thymus</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Precursor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_pouch_(embryology)#Third_pouch" title="Pharyngeal pouch (embryology)">Third pharyngeal pouch</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tracheobronchial_lymph_nodes" title="Tracheobronchial lymph nodes">Tracheobronchial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasternal_lymph_nodes" title="Parasternal lymph nodes">parasternal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Function</th><td class="infobox-data">Support the development of functional <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>thymus</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>θύμος</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013950">D013950</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/13.1.02.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A13.1.02.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5152">5152</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma9607">9607</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163987" class="extiw" title="d:Q163987">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>thymus</b> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>: <b>thymuses</b> or <b>thymi</b>) is a specialized primary <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system#Structure" title="Lymphatic system">lymphoid organ</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. Within the thymus, <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">thymus cell</a> <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a></i> mature. T cells are critical to the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a>, where the body adapts to specific foreign invaders. The thymus is located in the upper front part of the chest, in the anterior <a href="/wiki/Mediastinum#Superior_mediastinum" title="Mediastinum">superior mediastinum</a>, behind the <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a>, and in front of the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>. It is made up of two lobes, each consisting of a central medulla and an outer cortex, surrounded by a capsule. </p><p>The thymus is made up of immature <a href="/wiki/T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T cells">T cells</a> called <a href="/wiki/Thymocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thymocytes">thymocytes</a>, as well as lining cells called <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial cells">epithelial cells</a> which help the thymocytes develop. T cells that successfully develop react appropriately with <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">MHC</a> immune receptors of the body (called <i>positive selection</i>) and not against proteins of the body (called <i>negative selection</i>). The thymus is the largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the <a href="/wiki/Thymic_involution" title="Thymic involution">thymus begins to decrease in size and activity</a> and the tissue of the thymus is gradually replaced by <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">fatty tissue</a>. Nevertheless, some T cell development continues throughout adult life. </p><p>Abnormalities of the thymus can result in a decreased number of T cells and autoimmune diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome_type_1" title="Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1">autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myasthenia_gravis" title="Myasthenia gravis">myasthenia gravis</a>. These are often associated with cancer of the tissue of the thymus, called <a href="/wiki/Thymoma" title="Thymoma">thymoma</a>, or tissues arising from immature lymphocytes such as T cells, called <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a>. Removal of the thymus is called <a href="/wiki/Thymectomy" title="Thymectomy">thymectomy</a>. Although the thymus has been identified as a part of the body since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a>, it is only since the 1960s that the function of the thymus in the immune system has become clearer. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thymus is an organ that sits behind the <a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">sternum</a> in the upper front part of the chest, stretching upwards towards the neck. In children, the thymus is pinkish-gray, soft, and lobulated on its surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At birth, it is about 4–6 cm long, 2.5–5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It increases in size until puberty, where it may have a size of about 40–50 g,<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> following which it decreases in size in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Involution_(medicine)" title="Involution (medicine)">involution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The thymus is located in the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_mediastinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior mediastinum">anterior mediastinum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is made up of two lobes that meet in the upper midline, and stretch from below the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> in the neck to as low as the cartilage of the fourth rib.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lobes are covered by a capsule.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thymus lies behind the sternum, rests on the <a href="/wiki/Pericardium" title="Pericardium">pericardium</a>, and is separated from the <a href="/wiki/Aortic_arch" title="Aortic arch">aortic arch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_vessels" title="Great vessels">great vessels</a> by a layer of <a href="/wiki/Fascia" title="Fascia">fascia</a>. The left <a href="/wiki/Brachiocephalic_vein" title="Brachiocephalic vein">brachiocephalic vein</a> may even be embedded within the thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the neck, it lies on the front and sides of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">trachea</a>, behind the <a href="/wiki/Sternohyoid_muscle" title="Sternohyoid muscle">sternohyoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sternothyroid_muscle" title="Sternothyroid muscle">sternothyroid muscles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microanatomy">Microanatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Microanatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thymus consists of two lobes, merged in the middle, surrounded by a capsule that extends with blood vessels into the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lobes consist of an outer <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cortex#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:cortex">cortex</a></i> rich with cells and an inner less dense <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/medulla#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:medulla">medulla</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lobes are divided into smaller lobules 0.5-2 mm diameter, between which extrude radiating insertions from the capsule along <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/septa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:septa">septa</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cortex is mainly made up of <a href="/wiki/Thymocyte" title="Thymocyte">thymocytes</a> and epithelial cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thymocytes, immature <a href="/wiki/T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T cells">T cells</a>, are supported by a network of the finely-branched <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_reticular_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial reticular cells">epithelial reticular cells</a>, which is continuous with a similar network in the medulla. This network forms an <a href="/wiki/Adventitia" title="Adventitia">adventitia</a> to the blood vessels, which enter the cortex via septa near the junction with the medulla.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other cells are also present in the thymus, including <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a>, and a small amount of <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil" title="Eosinophil">eosinophils</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the medulla, the network of epithelial cells is coarser than in the cortex, and the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concentric, nest-like bodies called <a href="/wiki/Hassall%27s_corpuscles" title="Hassall's corpuscles">Hassall's corpuscles</a> (also called <i>thymic corpuscles</i>) are formed by aggregations of the medullary epithelial cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are concentric, layered whorls of <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial cell">epithelial cells</a> that increase in number throughout life.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2008_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are the remains of the epithelial tubes, which grow out from the third <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_pouch_(embryology)" title="Pharyngeal pouch (embryology)">pharyngeal pouches</a> of the embryo to form the thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thymus.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Micrograph showing a lobule of the thymus. The cortex (deeper purple area) surrounds a less dense and lighter medulla."><img alt="Micrograph showing a lobule of the thymus. The cortex (deeper purple area) surrounds a less dense and lighter medulla." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thymus.JPG/120px-Thymus.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thymus.JPG/180px-Thymus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Thymus.JPG/240px-Thymus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Micrograph</a> showing a lobule of the thymus. The cortex (deeper purple area) surrounds a less dense and lighter medulla.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thymic_corpuscle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Micrograph showing a Hassall's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus."><img alt="Micrograph showing a Hassall's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Thymic_corpuscle.jpg/81px-Thymic_corpuscle.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Thymic_corpuscle.jpg/121px-Thymic_corpuscle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Thymic_corpuscle.jpg/162px-Thymic_corpuscle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="3715" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Micrograph showing a Hassall's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_and_nerve_supply">Blood and nerve supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Blood and nerve supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a> supplying the thymus are branches of the <a href="/wiki/Internal_thoracic_artery" title="Internal thoracic artery">internal thoracic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inferior_thyroid_artery" title="Inferior thyroid artery">inferior thyroid arteries</a>, with branches from the <a href="/wiki/Superior_thyroid_artery" title="Superior thyroid artery">superior thyroid artery</a> sometimes seen.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla, where they enter the thymus itself; or alternatively directly enter the capsule.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a> of the thymus, the <a href="/wiki/Thymic_veins" title="Thymic veins">thymic veins</a>, end in the <a href="/wiki/Left_brachiocephalic_vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Left brachiocephalic vein">left brachiocephalic vein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_thoracic_vein" title="Internal thoracic vein">internal thoracic vein</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Inferior_thyroid_vein" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior thyroid vein">inferior thyroid veins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the veins end directly in the superior vena cava.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessels</a> travel only away from the thymus, accompanying the arteries and veins. These drain into the brachiocephalic, tracheobronchial and parasternal <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a> supplying the thymus arise from the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a> and the cervical <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Sympathetic chain">sympathetic chain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Branches from the <a href="/wiki/Phrenic_nerve" title="Phrenic nerve">phrenic nerves</a> reach the capsule of the thymus, but do not enter into the thymus itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variation">Variation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two lobes differ slightly in size, with the left lobe usually higher than the right. Thymic tissue may be found scattered on or around the gland, and occasionally within the thyroid.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thymus in children stretches variably upwards, at times to as high as the thyroid gland.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray1175.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gray1175.png/220px-Gray1175.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gray1175.png 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Scheme showing development of branchial epithelial bodies from the thoracic cavity of the fetus. I, II, III, IV. Branchial pouches.</figcaption></figure> <p>The thymocytes and the epithelium of the thymus have different developmental origins.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epithelium of the thymus develops first, appearing as two outgrowths, one on either side, of the third <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_pouch_(embryology)" title="Pharyngeal pouch (embryology)">pharyngeal pouch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It sometimes also involves the fourth pharyngeal pouch.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These extend outward and backward into the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural_crest" title="Neural crest">neural crest</a>-derived <a href="/wiki/Mesenchyme" title="Mesenchyme">mesenchyme</a> in front of the ventral <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>. Here the thymocytes and epithelium meet and join with connective tissue. The <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharyngeal</a> opening of each diverticulum is soon obliterated, but the neck of the flask persists for some time as a cellular cord. By further proliferation of the cells lining the flask, buds of cells are formed, which become surrounded and isolated by the invading mesoderm.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The epithelium forms fine lobules, and develops into a sponge-like structure. During this stage, <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematopoietic">hematopoietic</a> bone-marrow precursors migrate into the thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normal development is dependent on the interaction between the epithelium and the hematopoietic <a href="/wiki/Thymocyte" title="Thymocyte">thymocytes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> is also necessary for thymus development and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Involution">Involution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Involution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thymic_involution" title="Thymic involution">Thymic involution</a></div> <p>The thymus continues to grow after birth reaching the relative maximum size by puberty.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is most active in <a href="/wiki/Fetal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal">fetal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neonatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonatal">neonatal</a> life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It increases to a mass of 20 to 50 grams by puberty.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It then begins to decrease in size and activity in a process called <a href="/wiki/Thymic_involution" title="Thymic involution">thymic involution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the first year of life the amount of T cells produced begins to fall.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fat and connective tissue fills a part of the thymic volume.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During involution, the thymus decreases in size and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fat cells are present at birth, but increase in size and number markedly after puberty, invading the gland from the walls between the lobules first, then into the cortex and medulla.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process continues into old age, where whether with a microscope or with the human eye, the thymus may be difficult to detect,<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although typically weighs 5–15 grams.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there is an increasing body of evidence showing that age-related thymic involution is found in most, if not all, vertebrate species with a thymus, suggesting that this is an evolutionary process that has been conserved.<sup><a href="//doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2009.05.001" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1016/j.it.2009.05.001">[40]</a></sup> </p><p>The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex hormones">sex hormones</a>, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Severe illness or <a href="/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human immunodeficiency virus">human immunodeficiency virus</a> infection may also result in involution.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG/220px-Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG/330px-Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG/440px-Intrathymic_T_Cell_Differentiation.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3117" data-file-height="4230" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="T_cell_maturation">T cell maturation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: T cell maturation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thymus facilitates the maturation of <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a>, an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> providing <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">cell-mediated immunity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GH2016_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GH2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> T cells begin as hematopoietic precursors from the bone-marrow, and migrate to the thymus, where they are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Thymocyte" title="Thymocyte">thymocytes</a>. In the thymus, they undergo a process of maturation, which involves ensuring the cells react against <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> ("positive selection"), but that they do not react against antigens found on body tissue ("negative selection").<sup id="cite_ref-GH2016_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GH2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once mature, T cells emigrate from the thymus to provide vital functions in the immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-GH2016_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GH2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each T cell has a distinct <a href="/wiki/T_cell_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="T cell receptor">T cell receptor</a>, suited to a specific substance, called an <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most T cell receptors bind to the <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">major histocompatibility complex</a> on cells of the body. The MHC presents an antigen to the T cell receptor, which becomes active if this matches the specific T cell receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to be properly functional, a mature T cell needs to be able to bind to the MHC molecule ("positive selection"), and not to react against antigens that are actually from the tissues of body ("negative selection").<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positive selection occurs in the cortex and negative selection occurs in the medulla of the thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this process T cells that have survived leave the thymus, regulated by <a href="/wiki/Sphingosine-1-phosphate" title="Sphingosine-1-phosphate">sphingosine-1-phosphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further maturation occurs in the peripheral circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of this is because of hormones and <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> secreted by cells within the thymus, including <a href="/wiki/Thymulin" title="Thymulin">thymulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thymopoietin" title="Thymopoietin">thymopoietin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thymosin" title="Thymosin">thymosins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_selection">Positive selection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Positive selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>T cells have distinct T cell receptors. These distinct receptors are formed by process of <a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">V(D)J recombination</a> gene rearrangement stimulated by <a href="/wiki/RAG1" title="RAG1">RAG1</a> and <a href="/wiki/RAG2" title="RAG2">RAG2</a> genes.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process is error-prone, and some thymocytes fail to make functional T-cell receptors, whereas other thymocytes make T-cell receptors that are autoreactive.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a functional T cell receptor is formed, the thymocyte will begin to express simultaneously the cell surface proteins <a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a> and <a href="/wiki/CD8" title="CD8">CD8</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The survival and nature of the T cell then depends on its interaction with surrounding thymic epithelial cells. Here, the T cell receptor interacts with the MHC molecules on the surface of epithelial cells.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A T cell with a receptor that doesn't react, or reacts weakly will die by <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>. A T cell that does react will survive and proliferate.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A mature T cell expresses only CD4 or CD8, but not both.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This depends on the strength of binding between the TCR and MHC class 1 or class 2.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A T cell receptor that binds mostly to MHC class I tends to produce a mature "cytotoxic" CD8 positive T cell; a T cell receptor that binds mostly to MHC class II tends to produce a CD4 positive T cell.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_selection">Negative selection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Negative selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>T cells that attack the body's own proteins are eliminated in the thymus, called "negative selection".<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epithelial cells in the medulla and dendritic cells in the thymus express major proteins from elsewhere in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gene that stimulates this is <a href="/wiki/AIRE" class="mw-redirect" title="AIRE">AIRE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thymocytes that react strongly to self antigens do not survive, and die by apoptosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MDB2019_13-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDB2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some CD4 positive T cells exposed to self antigens persist as <a href="/wiki/T_regulatory_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="T regulatory cell">T regulatory cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9thC6_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9thC6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Immunodeficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the thymus is where T cells develop, congenital problems with the development of the thymus can lead to <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a>, whether because of a problem with the development of the thymus gland, or a problem specific to thymocyte development. Immunodeficiency can be profound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation (as in <a href="/wiki/DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/CHARGE_syndrome" title="CHARGE syndrome">CHARGE syndrome</a>, or a very rare "nude" thymus causing absence of hair and the thymus<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection by viruses, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nude_mouse" title="Nude mouse">Nude mice</a> with the very rare "nude" deficiency as a result of <a href="/wiki/FOXN1" title="FOXN1">FOXN1</a> mutation are a strain of research mice as a model of T cell deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common congenital cause of thymus-related immune deficiency results from the deletion of the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome 22 (human)">22nd chromosome</a>, called <a href="/wiki/DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in a failure of development of the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches, resulting in failure of development of the thymus, and variable other associated problems, such as <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital heart disease">congenital heart disease</a>, and abnormalities of mouth (such as <a href="/wiki/Cleft_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft palate">cleft palate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip">cleft lip</a>), failure of development of the <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Parathyroid glands">parathyroid glands</a>, and the presence of a fistula between the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oesophagus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oesophagus">oesophagus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very low numbers of circulating T cells are seen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The condition is diagnosed by <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">fluorescent in situ hybridization</a> and treated with <a href="/wiki/Thymus_transplantation" title="Thymus transplantation">thymus transplantation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency" title="Severe combined immunodeficiency">Severe combined immunodeficiency</a> (SCID) are group of rare congenital genetic diseases that can result in combined T, B, and <a href="/wiki/NK_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="NK cell">NK cell</a> deficiencies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These syndromes are caused by mutations that affect the maturation of the <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_progenitor_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematopoietic progenitor cell">hematopoietic progenitor cells</a>, which are the precursors of both B and T cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of genetic defects can cause SCID, including <a href="/wiki/IL-2_receptor" title="IL-2 receptor">IL-2 receptor</a> gene loss of function, and mutation resulting in deficiency of the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Adenine_deaminase" title="Adenine deaminase">adenine deaminase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autoimmune_disease">Autoimmune disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Autoimmune disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome">Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_polyendocrine_syndrome_type_1" title="Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1">Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1</a>, is a rare genetic autoimmune syndrome that results from a genetic defect of the thymus tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, the disease results from defects in the <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_regulator" title="Autoimmune regulator">autoimmune regulator</a> (AIRE) gene, which stimulates expression of self antigens in the epithelial cells within the medulla of the thymus. Because of defects in this condition, self antigens are not expressed, resulting in T cells that are not conditioned to tolerate tissues of the body, and may treat them as foreign, stimulating an immune response and resulting in autoimmunity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple <a href="/wiki/Endocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrine">endocrine</a> tissues, with the commonly affected organs being <a href="/wiki/Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypothyroidism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid gland">thyroid gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Addison%27s_disease" title="Addison's disease">Addison's disease</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Candida_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida infection">candida infection</a> of body surfaces including the <a href="/wiki/Oral_mucosa" title="Oral mucosa">inner lining of the mouth</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">nails</a> due to dysfunction of <a href="/wiki/T_helper_17_cell" title="T helper 17 cell">TH17 cells</a>, and symptoms often beginning in childhood. Many other autoimmune diseases may also occur.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment is directed at the affected organs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152756–7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thymoma-associated_multiorgan_autoimmunity">Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thymoma-associated_multiorgan_autoimmunity" title="Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity">Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity</a> can occur in people with thymoma. In this condition, the T cells developed in the thymus are directed against the tissues of the body. This is because the malignant thymus is incapable of appropriately educating developing thymocytes to eliminate self-reactive T cells. The condition is virtually indistinguishable from <a href="/wiki/Graft_versus_host_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Graft versus host disease">graft versus host disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Myasthenia_gravis">Myasthenia gravis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Myasthenia gravis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Myasthenia_gravis" title="Myasthenia gravis">Myasthenia gravis</a> is an autoimmune disease most often due to antibodies that block <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetylcholine receptors">acetylcholine receptors</a>, involved in signalling <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">between nerves and muscles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often associated with thymic hyperplasia or thymoma,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with antibodies produced probably because of T cells that develop abnormally.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Myasthenia gravis most often develops between young and middle age, causing easy fatiguing of muscle movements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigations include demonstrating antibodies (such as against acetylcholine receptors or <a href="/wiki/MuSK_protein" title="MuSK protein">muscle-specific kinase</a>), and <a href="/wiki/CT_chest" class="mw-redirect" title="CT chest">CT scan</a> to detect thymoma or thymectomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With regard to the thymus, removal of the thymus, called <a href="/wiki/Thymectomy" title="Thymectomy">thymectomy</a> may be considered as a treatment, particularly if a thymoma is found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other treatments include increasing the duration of acetylcholine action at nerve synapses by decreasing the rate of breakdown. This is done by <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors">acetylcholinesterase inhibitors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pyridostigmine" title="Pyridostigmine">pyridostigmine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's20181141–43-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tumors_of_the_hematopoietic_and_lymphoid_tissues" title="Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues">Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thymomas">Thymomas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Thymomas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tumours originating from the thymic epithelial cells are called <a href="/wiki/Thymomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Thymomas">thymomas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They most often occur in adults older than 40.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tumours are generally detected when they cause symptoms, such as a <a href="/wiki/Neck_mass" title="Neck mass">neck mass</a> or affecting nearby structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Superior_vena_cava" title="Superior vena cava">superior vena cava</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> detected because of screening in patients with myasthenia gravis, which has a strong association with thymomas and hyperplasia;<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and detected as an <a href="/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings" title="Incidental medical findings">incidental finding</a> on imaging such as <a href="/wiki/Chest_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest X-ray">chest X-rays</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a> and tumours originating from the thymus are associated with other autoimmune diseases – such as <a href="/wiki/Hypogammaglobulinemia" title="Hypogammaglobulinemia">hypogammaglobulinemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graves_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Graves disease">Graves disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pure_red_cell_aplasia" title="Pure red cell aplasia">pure red cell aplasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pernicious_anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pernicious anaemia">pernicious anaemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dermatomyositis" title="Dermatomyositis">dermatomyositis</a>, likely because of defects in negative selection in proliferating T cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thymomas can be benign; benign but by virtue of expansion, invading beyond the capsule of the thymus ("invasive thymoma"), or malignant (a <a href="/wiki/Carcinoma" title="Carcinoma">carcinoma</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This classification is based on the appearance of the cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> classification also exists but is not used as part of standard clinical practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benign tumours confined to the thymus are most common; followed by locally invasive tumours, and then by carcinomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is variation in reporting, with some sources reporting malignant tumours as more common.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invasive tumours, although not technically malignant, can still spread (<i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/metastasise#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:metastasise">metastasise</a></i>) to other areas of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though thymomas occur of epithelial cells, they can also contain thymocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of thymomas often requires surgery to remove the entire thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may also result in temporary remission of any associated autoimmune conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152759-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lymphomas">Lymphomas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lymphomas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tumours originating from T cells of the thymus form a subset of <a href="/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia">acute lymphoblastic leukaemia</a> (ALL).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are similar in symptoms, investigation approach and management to other forms of ALL.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symptoms that develop, like other forms of ALL, relate to deficiency of <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>, resulting in bruising or bleeding; immunosuppression resulting in infections; or infiltration by cells into parts of the body, resulting in an <a href="/wiki/Hepatomegaly" title="Hepatomegaly">enlarged liver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Splenomegaly" title="Splenomegaly">spleen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lymphadenopathy" title="Lymphadenopathy">lymph nodes</a> or other sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood test might reveal a large amount of white blood cells or <a href="/wiki/Lymphoblast" title="Lymphoblast">lymphoblasts</a>, and deficiency in other cell lines – such as low platelets or <a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">anaemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immunophenotyping" title="Immunophenotyping">Immunophenotyping</a> will reveal cells that are <a href="/wiki/CD3_(immunology)" title="CD3 (immunology)">CD3</a>, a protein found on T cells, and help further distinguish the maturity of the T cells. Genetic analysis including <a href="/wiki/Karyotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyotyping">karyotyping</a> may reveal specific abnormalities that may influence prognosis or treatment, such as the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_translocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia translocation">Philadelphia translocation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Management can include multiple courses of <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cell transplant">stem cell transplant</a>, and management of associated problems, such as treatment of infections with <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood transfusions">blood transfusions</a>. Very high white cell counts may also require <a href="/wiki/Cytoreduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoreduction">cytoreduction</a> with <a href="/wiki/Apheresis" title="Apheresis">apheresis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter91_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter91-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tumours originating from the small population of B cells present in the thymus lead to <a href="/wiki/Primary_mediastinal_large_B_cell_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary mediastinal large B cell lymphoma">primary mediastinal large B cell lymphomas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PMLBCL2014_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMLBCL2014-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are a rare subtype of <a href="/wiki/Non-Hodgkins_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Hodgkins lymphoma">Non-Hodgkins lymphoma</a>, although by the activity of genes and occasionally microscopic shape, unusually they also have the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Hodgkins_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkins lymphoma">Hodgkins lymphomas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter98_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter98-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that occur most commonly in young and middle-aged, more prominent in females.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter98_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter98-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most often, when symptoms occur it is because of compression of structures near the thymus, such as the <a href="/wiki/Superior_vena_cava_syndrome" title="Superior vena cava syndrome">superior vena cava</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper respiratory tract">upper respiratory tract</a>; when lymph nodes are affected it is often in the mediastinum and <a href="/wiki/Cervical_lymph_nodes" title="Cervical lymph nodes">neck</a> groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter98_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter98-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such tumours are often detected with a <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a> that is subject to <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a>. This will show the presence of <a href="/wiki/Clusters_of_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Clusters of differentiation">clusters of differentiation</a>, cell surface proteins – namely <a href="/wiki/CD30" title="CD30">CD30</a>, with <a href="/wiki/CD19" title="CD19">CD19</a>, <a href="/wiki/CD20" title="CD20">CD20</a> and <a href="/wiki/CD22" title="CD22">CD22</a>, and with the absence of <a href="/wiki/CD15" class="mw-redirect" title="CD15">CD15</a>. Other markers may also be used to confirm the diagnosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter98_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter98-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment usually includes the typical regimens of <a href="/wiki/CHOP_(chemotherapy)" title="CHOP (chemotherapy)">CHOP</a> or <a href="/wiki/EPOCH_(chemotherapy)" title="EPOCH (chemotherapy)">EPOCH</a> or other regimens; regimens generally including <a href="/wiki/Cyclophosphamide" title="Cyclophosphamide">cyclophosphamide</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anthracycline" title="Anthracycline">anthracycline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prednisone" title="Prednisone">prednisone</a>, and other chemotherapeutics; and potentially also a <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cell transplant">stem cell transplant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams9eChapter98_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams9eChapter98-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thymic_cysts">Thymic cysts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Thymic cysts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cervical_thymic_cyst" title="Cervical thymic cyst">Cervical thymic cyst</a></div> <p>The thymus may contain cysts, usually less than 4 cm in diameter. Thymic cysts are usually detected incidentally and do not generally cause symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thymic cysts can occur along the neck or in the chest (<a href="/wiki/Mediastinum" title="Mediastinum">mediastinum</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein2015_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2015-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cysts usually just contain fluid and are lined by either <a href="/wiki/Stratified_squamous_epithelium" title="Stratified squamous epithelium">many layers of flat cells</a> or <a href="/wiki/Columnar_epithelium" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnar epithelium">column-shaped cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein2015_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2015-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, the presence of a cyst can cause problems similar to those of thymomas, by compressing nearby structures,<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some may contact internal walls (<i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/septa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:septa">septa</a></i>) and be difficult to distinguish from tumours.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein2015_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2015-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When cysts are found, investigation may include a workup for tumours, which may include <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">CT</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI scan</a> of the area the cyst is suspected to be in.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein2015_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2015-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surgical_removal">Surgical removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Surgical removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thymectomy" title="Thymectomy">Thymectomy</a> is the surgical removal of the thymus.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usual reason for removal is to gain access to the heart for surgery to correct <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital heart defects">congenital heart defects</a> in the neonatal period.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other indications for thymectomy include the removal of thymomas and the treatment of myasthenia gravis.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In neonates the relative size of the thymus obstructs surgical access to the heart and its surrounding vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Removal of the thymus in infancy results in often fatal immunodeficiency, because functional T cells have not developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In older children and adults, which have a functioning lymphatic system with mature T cells also situated in other lymphoid organs, the effect is reduced, but includes failure to mount immune responses against new antigens,<sup id="cite_ref-Grays2016_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an increase in cancers, and an increase in all-cause mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When used as food for humans, the thymus of animals is known as one of the kinds of <a href="/wiki/Sweetbread" title="Sweetbread">sweetbread</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thymus was known to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a>, and its name comes from the Greek word θυμός (<i>thumos</i>), meaning "anger", or in Ancient Greek, "heart, soul, desire, life", possibly because of its location in the chest, near where emotions are subjectively felt;<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or else the name comes from the herb <i>thyme</i> (also in Greek <i>θύμος</i> or <i>θυμάρι</i>), which became the name for a "warty excrescence", possibly due to its resemblance to a bunch of thyme.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> was the first to note that the size of the organ changed over the duration of a person's life.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, a condition was identified as <i>status thymicolymphaticus</i> defined by an increase in lymphoid tissue and an enlarged thymus. It was thought to be a cause of <a href="/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome">sudden infant death syndrome</a> but is now an obsolete term.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance of the thymus in the immune system was discovered in 1961 by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Miller" title="Jacques Miller">Jacques Miller</a>, by surgically removing the thymus from one-day-old mice, and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population, subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the discovery of its immunological role, the thymus had been dismissed as a "evolutionary accident", without functional importance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role the thymus played in ensuring mature T cells tolerated the tissues of the body was uncovered in 1962, with the finding that T cells of a transplanted thymus in mice demonstrated tolerance towards tissues of the donor mouse.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> B cells and T cells were identified as different types of lymphocytes in 1968, and the fact that T cells required maturation in the thymus was understood.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subtypes of T cells (CD8 and CD4) were identified by 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The way that these subclasses of T cells matured – positive selection of cells that functionally bound to MHC receptors – was known by the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The important role of the AIRE gene, and the role of negative selection in preventing autoreactive T cells from maturing, was understood by 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, advances in <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a> have allowed the function of the thymus in T-cell maturation to be more fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thymus is present in all <a href="/wiki/Gnathostomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomes">jawed vertebrates</a>, where it undergoes the same shrinkage with age and plays the same immunological function as in other vertebrates. Recently, in 2011, a discrete thymus-like lympho-epithelial structure, termed the <i>thymoid</i>, was discovered in the gills of larval <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">Hagfish</a> possess a protothymus associated with the pharyngeal velar muscles, which is responsible for a variety of <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a> responses.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The thymus is also present in most other vertebrates with similar structure and function as the human thymus. A second thymus in the neck has been reported sometimes to occur in the <a href="/wiki/Mouse" title="Mouse">mouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in humans, the <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pig</a>'s thymus naturally atrophies as the animal reaches adulthood,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the athymic <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig#In_scientific_research" title="Guinea pig">hairless guinea pig</a> (which arose from a spontaneous laboratory mutation) possesses no thymic tissue whatsoever, and the organ cavity is replaced with <a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">cystic</a> spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/120px--Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="143" data-mwtitle="Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm/Function_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFunction_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFunction_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFunction_of_the_thymus_-_Inside_the_Thymus.webm&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Explanation of the thymus's function</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Thymus of a fetus"><img alt="Thymus of a fetus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG/120px-Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG/180px-Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG/240px-Thoracic_cavity_of_foetus_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Thymus of a <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="On chest X-ray, the thymus appears as a radiodense (brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child's right (left in image) lung."><img alt="On chest X-ray, the thymus appears as a radiodense (brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child's right (left in image) lung." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg/120px-Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg/180px-Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg/240px-Radiology_1300566_Nevit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">On <a href="/wiki/Chest_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest X-ray">chest X-ray</a>, the thymus appears as a <a href="/wiki/Radiodensity" title="Radiodensity">radiodense</a> (brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child's right (left in image) lung.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray#page/1273/mode/2up">page 1273</a> of the 20th edition of</i> <a href="/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy" title="Gray's Anatomy">Gray's Anatomy</a> <i>(1918)</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Grays2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2008_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStandringBorley2008" class="citation book cs1">Standring S, et al., eds. (2008). <i>Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice</i> (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2371-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8089-2371-8"><bdi>978-0-8089-2371-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gray%27s+Anatomy%3A+The+Anatomical+Basis+of+Clinical+Practice&rft.place=London&rft.edition=40th&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8089-2371-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grays2016-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grays2016_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandringGray2016" class="citation book cs1">Standring S, Gray H, eds. (2016). <i>Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice</i> (41st ed.). Philadelphia. pp. <span class="nowrap">983–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780702052309" title="Special:BookSources/9780702052309"><bdi>9780702052309</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/920806541">920806541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gray%27s+Anatomy%3A+The+Anatomical+Basis+of+Clinical+Practice&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E983-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.edition=41st&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F920806541&rft.isbn=9780702052309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robbins9th-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robbins9th_3-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarAbbasFaustoAster2014" class="citation book cs1">Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Aster JC (2014-08-27). "Chapter 13. Diseases of White Blood Cells, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, and Thymus: Thymus.". <i>Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease</i> (9th (online) ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780323296397" title="Special:BookSources/9780323296397"><bdi>9780323296397</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13.+Diseases+of+White+Blood+Cells%2C+Lymph+Nodes%2C+Spleen%2C+and+Thymus%3A+Thymus.&rft.btitle=Robbins+and+Cotran+Pathologic+Basis+of+Disease&rft.edition=9th+%28online%29&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2014-08-27&rft.isbn=9780323296397&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Vinay&rft.au=Abbas%2C+Abul+K.&rft.au=Fausto%2C+Nelson&rft.au=Aster%2C+Jon+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheaters2013-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheaters2013_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungO'DowdWoodford2013" class="citation book cs1">Young B, O'Dowd G, Woodford P (2013). <i>Wheater's functional histology: a text and colour atlas</i> (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">204–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780702047473" title="Special:BookSources/9780702047473"><bdi>9780702047473</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wheater%27s+functional+histology%3A+a+text+and+colour+atlas.&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E204-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780702047473&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=O%27Dowd%2C+Geraldine&rft.au=Woodford%2C+Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasseriEftekhari2010" class="citation journal cs1">Nasseri, Farbod; Eftekhari, Farzin (March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/rg.302095131">"Clinical and Radiologic Review of the Normal and Abnormal Thymus: Pearls and Pitfalls"</a>. <i>RadioGraphics</i>. <b>30</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">413–</span>428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1148%2Frg.302095131">10.1148/rg.302095131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0271-5333">0271-5333</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20228326">20228326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RadioGraphics&rft.atitle=Clinical+and+Radiologic+Review+of+the+Normal+and+Abnormal+Thymus%3A+Pearls+and+Pitfalls&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E413-%3C%2Fspan%3E428&rft.date=2010-03&rft.issn=0271-5333&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20228326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1148%2Frg.302095131&rft.aulast=Nasseri&rft.aufirst=Farbod&rft.au=Eftekhari%2C+Farzin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.rsna.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1148%2Frg.302095131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsen2001" class="citation book cs1">Larsen W (2001). <i>Human Embryology</i> (3rd ed.). Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">366–</span>367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-06583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-06583-5"><bdi>978-0-443-06583-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Embryology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E366-%3C%2Fspan%3E367&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-443-06583-5&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Swiss embryology</a> (from <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lausanne" title="University of Lausanne">UL</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berne" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berne">UB</a>, and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Fribourg" title="University of Fribourg">UF</a>) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.embryology.ch/anglais/qblood/lymphat03.html">qblood/lymphat03</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenturiVenturi2009" class="citation journal cs1">Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity". <i>Nutrition</i>. <b>25</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">977–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nut.2009.06.002">10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19647627">19647627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrition&rft.atitle=Iodine%2C+thymus%2C+and+immunity&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E977-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nut.2009.06.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19647627&rft.aulast=Venturi&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Venturi%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201867_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson's2018">Davidson's 2018</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherlandGoldbergHammettUldrich2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sutherland JS, Goldberg GL, Hammett MV, Uldrich AP, Berzins SP, Heng TS, et al. (August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.175.4.2741">"Activation of thymic regeneration in mice and humans following androgen blockade"</a>. <i>Journal of Immunology</i>. <b>175</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">2741–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.175.4.2741">10.4049/jimmunol.175.4.2741</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16081852">16081852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Immunology&rft.atitle=Activation+of+thymic+regeneration+in+mice+and+humans+following+androgen+blockade&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2741-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4049%2Fjimmunol.175.4.2741&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16081852&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+GL&rft.au=Hammett%2C+MV&rft.au=Uldrich%2C+AP&rft.au=Berzins%2C+SP&rft.au=Heng%2C+TS&rft.au=Blazar%2C+BR&rft.au=Millar%2C+JL&rft.au=Malin%2C+MA&rft.au=Chidgey%2C+AP&rft.au=Boyd%2C+RL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4049%252Fjimmunol.175.4.2741&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GH2016-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GH2016_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GH2016_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GH2016_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2016" class="citation book cs1">Hall JE (2016). <i>Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology</i> (13th ed.). 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"Chapter 6. Diseases of the immune system. The normal immune system.". <i>Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease</i> (9th (online) ed.). 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Immunology</i>. <b>11</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">489–</span>95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnri2993">10.1038/nri2993</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21617694">21617694</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21191923">21191923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Immunology&rft.atitle=The+golden+anniversary+of+the+thymus&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E489-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21191923%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21617694&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnri2993&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison's20152493_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison's2015">Harrison's 2015</a>, pp. 2493.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson's201879–80_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson's2018">Davidson's 2018</a>, pp. 79–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2006" class="citation book cs1">Fox JG (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63K0IifQIrgC&pg=PA277"><i>The Mouse in Biomedical Research: Immunology</i></a>. 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"Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity: a graft-versus-host-like disease". <i>Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology</i>. <b>57</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">683–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaad.2007.02.027">10.1016/j.jaad.2007.02.027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17433850">17433850</a>.</cite><span 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New York: Henry Hold and Co./Owl Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">182–</span>185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805073690" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805073690"><bdi>978-0805073690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+zebras+don%27t+get+ulcers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E182-%3C%2Fspan%3E185&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Henry+Hold+and+Co.%2FOwl+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0805073690&rft.aulast=Sapolsky&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2002" class="citation journal cs1">Miller JF (July 2002). "The discovery of thymus function and of thymus-derived lymphocytes". <i>Immunological Reviews</i>. <b>185</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">7–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-065X.2002.18502.x">10.1034/j.1600-065X.2002.18502.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12190917">12190917</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12108587">12108587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Immunological+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+thymus+function+and+of+thymus-derived+lymphocytes&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=2002-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12108587%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12190917&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1034%2Fj.1600-065X.2002.18502.x&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2004" class="citation journal cs1">Miller JF (June 2004). "Events that led to the discovery of T-cell development and function--a personal recollection". <i>Tissue Antigens</i>. <b>63</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">509–</span>17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0001-2815.2004.00255.x">10.1111/j.0001-2815.2004.00255.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15140026">15140026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tissue+Antigens&rft.atitle=Events+that+led+to+the+discovery+of+T-cell+development+and+function--a+personal+recollection&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E509-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0001-2815.2004.00255.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15140026&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajoghliGuoAghaallaeiHirano2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bajoghli B, Guo P, Aghaallaei N, Hirano M, Strohmeier C, McCurley N, et al. (February 2011). "A thymus candidate in lampreys". <i>Nature</i>. <b>470</b> (7332): <span class="nowrap">90–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.470...90B">2011Natur.470...90B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09655">10.1038/nature09655</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21293377">21293377</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4417477">4417477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+thymus+candidate+in+lampreys&rft.volume=470&rft.issue=7332&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature09655&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4417477%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21293377&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.470...90B&rft.aulast=Bajoghli&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Guo%2C+P&rft.au=Aghaallaei%2C+N&rft.au=Hirano%2C+M&rft.au=Strohmeier%2C+C&rft.au=McCurley%2C+N&rft.au=Bockman%2C+DE&rft.au=Schorpp%2C+M&rft.au=Cooper%2C+MD&rft.au=Boehm%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiviereCooperReddyHildemann1975" class="citation journal cs1">Riviere HB, Cooper EL, Reddy AL, Hildemann WH (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/article-pdf/15/1/39/6051623/15-1-39.pdf">"In Search of the Hagfish Thymus"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Zoologist</i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">39–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F15.1.39">10.1093/icb/15.1.39</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3882269">3882269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+the+Hagfish+Thymus&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F15.1.39&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3882269%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Riviere&rft.aufirst=HB&rft.au=Cooper%2C+EL&rft.au=Reddy%2C+AL&rft.au=Hildemann%2C+WH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ficb%2Farticle-pdf%2F15%2F1%2F39%2F6051623%2F15-1-39.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerszowskiMüllerBleulBlum2006" class="citation journal cs1">Terszowski G, Müller SM, Bleul CC, Blum C, Schirmbeck R, Reimann J, et al. (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1123497">"Evidence for a functional second thymus in mice"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>312</b> (5771): <span class="nowrap">284–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...312..284T">2006Sci...312..284T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1123497">10.1126/science.1123497</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16513945">16513945</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24553384">24553384</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+a+functional+second+thymus+in+mice&rft.volume=312&rft.issue=5771&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E284-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1123497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24553384%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16513945&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...312..284T&rft.aulast=Terszowski&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+SM&rft.au=Bleul%2C+CC&rft.au=Blum%2C+C&rft.au=Schirmbeck%2C+R&rft.au=Reimann%2C+J&rft.au=Pasquier%2C+LD&rft.au=Amagai%2C+T&rft.au=Boehm%2C+T&rft.au=Rodewald%2C+HR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1123497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuckowStevensWilson2012" class="citation book cs1">Suckow, Mark A.; Stevens, Karla A.; Wilson, Ronald P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HhEs-xsYp6IC&q=guinea+pig+thymus&pg=PA583"><i>The Laboratory Rabbit, Guinea Pig, Hamster, and Other Rodents</i></a>. Academic Press. p. 583. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-380920-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-380920-9"><bdi>978-0-12-380920-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laboratory+Rabbit%2C+Guinea+Pig%2C+Hamster%2C+and+Other+Rodents&rft.pages=583&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-12-380920-9&rft.aulast=Suckow&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Karla+A.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Ronald+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHhEs-xsYp6IC%26q%3Dguinea%2Bpig%2Bthymus%26pg%3DPA583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGershwinMerchant2012" class="citation book cs1">Gershwin, M. Eric; Merchant, Bruce (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZS1BwAAQBAJ&q=hairless+guinea+pig+athymic&pg=PA291"><i>Immunologic Defects in Laboratory Animals 1</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-0325-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-0325-2"><bdi>978-1-4757-0325-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immunologic+Defects+in+Laboratory+Animals+1&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4757-0325-2&rft.aulast=Gershwin&rft.aufirst=M.+Eric&rft.au=Merchant%2C+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZS1BwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhairless%2Bguinea%2Bpig%2Bathymic%26pg%3DPA291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson's2018" class="citation book cs1">Ralston SH, Penman ID, Strachan MW, Hobson RP, eds. (2018). <i>Davidson's principles and practice of medicine</i> (23rd ed.). Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-7028-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-7028-0"><bdi>978-0-7020-7028-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Davidson%27s+principles+and+practice+of+medicine&rft.edition=23rd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-7028-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison's2015" class="citation book cs1">Kasper D, Fauci A, Hauser S, Longo D, Jameson J, Loscalzo J (2015). <i>Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine</i> (19th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780071802154" title="Special:BookSources/9780071802154"><bdi>9780071802154</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harrison%27s+Principles+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.edition=19th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780071802154&rft.aulast=Kasper&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft.au=Fauci%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Hauser%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Longo%2C+Dan&rft.au=Jameson%2C+J.&rft.au=Loscalzo%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThymus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thymus&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Thymus_(organ)" class="extiw" title="commons:Thymus (organ)"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Thymus (organ)</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9E_UxnC_L2o">T cell development in the thymus.</a> Video by Janice Yau, describing stromal signaling and tolerance. Department of Immunology and Biomedical Communications, University of Toronto. Master's Research Project, Master of Science in Biomedical Communications. 2011.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>peripheral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>primary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>secondary</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>CNS equivalent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>upper GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>lower GI</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organs_of_the_lymphatic_system122" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lymphoid_organs" title="Template:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lymphoid_organs" title="Template talk:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphoid_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organs_of_the_lymphatic_system122" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organs of the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_lymphoid_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary lymphoid organs">Primary organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">Hematopoietic stem cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thymus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hassall%27s_corpuscles" title="Hassall's corpuscles">Hassall's corpuscles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_lymphoid_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary lymphoid organs">Secondary organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Parts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Splenic_hilum" class="mw-redirect" title="Splenic hilum">Hilum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabeculae_of_spleen" title="Trabeculae of spleen">Trabeculae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_pulp" title="Red pulp">Red pulp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cords_of_Billroth" title="Cords of Billroth">Cords of Billroth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_zone" title="Marginal zone">Marginal zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_pulp" title="White pulp">White pulp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periarteriolar_lymphoid_sheaths" title="Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths">Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blood vessels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trabecular_arteries" title="Trabecular arteries">Trabecular arteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabecular_veins" title="Trabecular veins">Trabecular veins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tonsil" title="Tonsil">Tonsils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_tonsil" title="Palatine tonsil">Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_tonsils" title="Lingual tonsils">Lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_tonsil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngeal tonsil">Pharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_tonsil" title="Tubal tonsil">Tubal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonsillar_crypts" title="Tonsillar crypts">Tonsillar crypts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldeyer%27s_tonsillar_ring" title="Waldeyer's tonsillar ring">Waldeyer's tonsillar ring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph nodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_endothelial_venules" title="High endothelial venules">High endothelial venules</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_zone" title="Mantle zone">Mantle zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_zone" title="Marginal zone">Marginal zone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mucosa-associated_lymphoid_tissue" title="Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue">MALT</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gut-associated_lymphoid_tissue" title="Gut-associated lymphoid tissue">GALT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyer%27s_patch" title="Peyer's patch">Peyer's patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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.portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/12px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/18px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg/24px-Anatomy_posture_and_body_mechanics_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anatomy" title="Portal:Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163987#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4060010-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Thymus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85135147">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Thymus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12003734d">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Thymus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12003734d">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567278">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="brzlík"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph437937&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007536578205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/wikidata-externalid-url/?p=1323&url_prefix=https:%2F%2Fwww.unifr.ch%2Fifaa%2FPublic%2FEntryPage%2FTA98%20Tree%2FEntity%20TA98%20EN%2F&url_suffix=%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm&id=A13.1.02.001">Terminologia Anatomica</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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