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<span>Topics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology,_economics,_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology,_economics,_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sociology, economics, and law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology,_economics,_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theories_of_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Theories of government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enlightened_absolutism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enlightened_absolutism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Enlightened absolutism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enlightened_absolutism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolution_and_French_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolution_and_French_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>American Revolution and French Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolution_and_French_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Separation_of_church_and_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_church_and_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Separation of church and state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_church_and_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>National variations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-National_variations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle National variations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-National_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglo-American_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-American_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Anglo-American colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-American_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>German states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habsburg_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habsburg_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Habsburg monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habsburg_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bourbon_Spain_and_Spanish_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bourbon_Spain_and_Spanish_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Bourbon Spain and Spanish America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bourbon_Spain_and_Spanish_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Haiti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal_and_Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal_and_Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Portugal and Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal_and_Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland_and_Lithuania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland_and_Lithuania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Poland and Lithuania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland_and_Lithuania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_span" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_span"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Time span</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_span-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Modern study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Implications_in_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications_in_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Implications in the arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications_in_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissemination_of_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dissemination of ideas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dissemination of ideas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dissemination_of_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Republic of Letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Book industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Natural history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_and_literary_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_and_literary_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Scientific and literary journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_and_literary_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Encyclopedias and dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularization_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularization_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Popularization of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popularization_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_and_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_and_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Schools and universities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_and_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learned_academies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learned_academies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Learned academies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learned_academies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Salons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coffeehouses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coffeehouses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Coffeehouses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coffeehouses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debating_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debating_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.11</span> <span>Debating societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debating_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masonic_lodges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masonic_lodges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.12</span> <span>Masonic lodges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masonic_lodges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.13</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_and_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_and_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Reference and surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_and_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialty_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialty_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Specialty studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialty_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Age of Enlightenment</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">134 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verligting" title="Verligting – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verligting" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%C3%A4rung" title="Aufklärung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Aufklärung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%88%83%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5_%E1%8A%AD%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%88_%E1%8B%98%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95" title="የብርሃናት ክፍለ ዘመን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የብርሃናት ክፍለ ዘመን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="عصر التنوير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر التنوير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%C3%B3n" title="Ilustración – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%C3%B3n" title="Ilustración – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Mba%27ekua%C3%A1va" title="Ára Mba'ekuaáva – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Mba'ekuaáva" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarif%C3%A7ilik_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Maarifçilik dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maarifçilik dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7_%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="آیدینلانما چاغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آیدینلانما چاغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="আলোকিত যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আলোকিত যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%A9-b%C3%B4ng_S%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Khé-bông Sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khé-bông Sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Мәғрифәтселек дәүере – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәғрифәтселек дәүере" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Асветніцтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Асветніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Эпоха Асьветніцтва – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эпоха Асьветніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Просвещение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Просвещение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%C3%A4rung_(neuzeitlich)" title="Aufklärung (neuzeitlich) – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Aufklärung (neuzeitlich)" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="རིགས་སད་དུས་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རིགས་སད་དུས་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantved_ar_Skl%C3%AArijenn" title="Kantved ar Sklêrijenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kantved ar Sklêrijenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%C2%B7lustraci%C3%B3" title="Il·lustració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Il·lustració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Çутлăх самани – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çутлăх самани" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osv%C3%ADcenstv%C3%AD" title="Osvícenství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Osvícenství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Oleuedigaeth" title="Yr Oleuedigaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Oleuedigaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oplysningstiden" title="Oplysningstiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="عصر تنوير – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="عصر تنوير" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%C3%A4rung" title="Aufklärung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aufklärung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgustusajastu" title="Valgustusajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valgustusajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%86%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Διαφωτισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαφωτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%C3%B3n" title="Ilustración – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klerismo" title="Klerismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klerismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%C3%B3n" title="Ilustración – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argien_Garaia" title="Argien Garaia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Argien Garaia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="عصر روشنگری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر روشنگری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Age of Enlightenment" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppl%C3%BDsingart%C3%AD%C3%B0in" title="Upplýsingartíðin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Upplýsingartíðin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Siècle des Lumières – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Siècle des Lumières" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferljochting_(streaming)" title="Ferljochting (streaming) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ferljochting (streaming)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Eagna%C3%ADocht" title="An Eagnaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Eagnaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soillseachadh" title="Soillseachadh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Soillseachadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%C3%B3n" title="Ilustración – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A4%D8%B4%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%CB%87_%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%AA" title="رؤشنگریˇ زمت – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="رؤشنگریˇ زمت" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EB%AA%BD%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="계몽시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계몽시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamanin_Haskakawa" title="Zamanin Haskakawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Zamanin Haskakawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Լուսավորության դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լուսավորության դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AF" title="यूरोपीय ज्ञानोदय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यूरोपीय ज्ञानोदय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racion-epoko" title="Racion-epoko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Racion-epoko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panawen_ti_Pannakapalpalawag" title="Panawen ti Pannakapalpalawag – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Panawen ti Pannakapalpalawag" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pencerahan" title="Abad Pencerahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pencerahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismo" title="Illuminismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Illuminismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppl%C3%BDsingin" title="Upplýsingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Upplýsingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismo" title="Illuminismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Illuminismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="עידן הנאורות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עידן הנאורות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%CA%8And%CA%8As%CA%8A%CA%8A_kpa%C9%A3%C9%96%CA%8A_(Si%C3%A8cle_des_lumi%C3%A8res)" title="Mʊndʊsʊʊ kpaɣɖʊ (Siècle des lumières) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Mʊndʊsʊʊ kpaɣɖʊ (Siècle des lumières)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="განმანათლებლობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="განმანათლებლობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%83%D1%96%D1%80%D1%96" title="Ағартушылық дәуірі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ағартушылық дәуірі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oos_an_Golowyans" title="Oos an Golowyans – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Oos an Golowyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zama_za_Mwangaza" title="Zama za Mwangaza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Zama za Mwangaza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminism" title="Iluminism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Iluminism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustrasion" title="Ilustrasion – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Ilustrasion" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%81%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%87" title="ຍຸກແສງສະຫວ່າງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຍຸກແສງສະຫວ່າງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismus" title="Illuminismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Illuminismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apgaism%C4%ABbas_laikmets" title="Apgaismības laikmets – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Apgaismības laikmets" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A4italter_vun_de_Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Zäitalter vun de Lumières – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Zäitalter vun de Lumières" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0vie%C4%8Diamasis_am%C5%BEius" title="Šviečiamasis amžius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šviečiamasis amžius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96pkl%C3%A4reng" title="Öpkläreng – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Öpkläreng" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumina" title="Lumina – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lumina" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inluminism" title="Inluminism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Inluminism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felvil%C3%A1gosod%C3%A1s" title="Felvilágosodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Felvilágosodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Просветителство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Просветителство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taonjaton%27_ny_Fahazavana" title="Taonjaton' ny Fahazavana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Taonjaton' ny Fahazavana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%82" title="ജ്ഞാനോദയകാലം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജ്ഞാനോദയകാലം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გონათუარობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გონათუარობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="عصر التنوير – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصر التنوير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Pencerahan" title="Zaman Pencerahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Pencerahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaik_Pancarahan" title="Abaik Pancarahan – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abaik Pancarahan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C4%93-m%C3%B9ng_S%C3%AC-d%C3%A2i" title="Kiē-mùng Sì-dâi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kiē-mùng Sì-dâi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiluminismo" title="Eiluminismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiluminismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Тонафтомань эпохась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Тонафтомань эпохась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Гэгээрлийн үе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гэгээрлийн үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%89%E1%80%AC%E1%80%8F%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ဉာဏ်အလင်းပွင့်ခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဉာဏ်အလင်းပွင့်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlichting_(stroming)" title="Verlichting (stroming) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verlichting (stroming)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlechting" title="Verlechting – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Verlechting" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="आत्मज्ञानया युग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आत्मज्ञानया युग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%95%93%E8%92%99%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="啓蒙時代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="啓蒙時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%80" title="Серлонан мур – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Серлонан мур" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apklaarang" title="Apklaarang – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Apklaarang" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opplysningstiden" title="Opplysningstiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Opplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opplysingstida" title="Opplysingstida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Opplysingstida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8gle_de_las_Luses" title="Sègle de las Luses – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sègle de las Luses" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%CA%BCrifatchilik" title="Maʼrifatchilik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Maʼrifatchilik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%97" title="ਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਯੁਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਯੁਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DD%A8_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7" title="چانݨ ویلا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چانݨ ویلا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86%DA%AB%D8%B1%DB%8D_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د روشنګرۍ دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روشنګرۍ دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iej_a_Inlaitnment" title="Iej a Inlaitnment – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Iej a Inlaitnment" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opkl%C3%A4rung" title="Opklärung – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Opklärung" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C5%9Bwiecenie_(epoka)" title="Oświecenie (epoka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oświecenie (epoka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminismo" title="Iluminismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Iluminismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarif_devri" title="Maarif devri – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Maarif devri" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminism" title="Iluminism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iluminism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminissem" title="Illuminissem – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Illuminissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Просвітительство – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Просвітительство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпоха Просвещения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпоха Просвещения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismu" title="Illuminismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Illuminismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_o_Enlichtenment" title="Age o Enlichtenment – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Age o Enlichtenment" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_e_Iluminizmit" title="Epoka e Iluminizmit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epoka e Iluminizmit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismu" title="Illuminismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Illuminismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Age of Enlightenment" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osvietenstvo" title="Osvietenstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Osvietenstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razsvetljenstvo" title="Razsvetljenstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Razsvetljenstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiliga_aqoondirsadka_Reer_Galbeed" title="Xiliga aqoondirsadka Reer Galbeed – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Xiliga aqoondirsadka Reer Galbeed" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%D8%B4%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="سەردەمی ڕۆشنگەری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەردەمی ڕۆشنگەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%99%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Просветитељство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Просветитељство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valistus" title="Valistus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valistus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upplysningstiden" title="Upplysningstiden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Upplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_ng_Kaliwanagan" title="Panahon ng Kaliwanagan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panahon ng Kaliwanagan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவொளிக் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவொளிக் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D0%B3%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%87%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Мәгърифәтчелек чоры – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мәгърифәтчелек чоры" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ยุคเรืองปัญญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคเรืองปัญญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1nlanma_%C3%87a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Aydınlanma Çağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aydınlanma Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C5%88-bilim_e%C3%BD%C3%BDamy" title="Aň-bilim eýýamy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Aň-bilim eýýamy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Просвітництво – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Просвітництво" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%DB%81%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86_%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="عہد روشن خیالی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عہد روشن خیالی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C5%82uminismo" title="Iłuminismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Iłuminismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%9Di_k%E1%BB%B3_Khai_S%C3%A1ng" title="Thời kỳ Khai Sáng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thời kỳ Khai Sáng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgustusaig" title="Valgustusaig – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Valgustusaig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99" title="啟蒙 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="啟蒙" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_han_Panlalamrag" title="Panahon han Panlalamrag – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Panahon han Panlalamrag" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="启蒙时代 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="启蒙时代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="אויפקלערונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אויפקלערונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="啟蒙時期 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="啟蒙時期" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Capitalism" title="Category:Capitalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Businessperson" title="Businessperson">Businessperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_market" title="Capital market">Capital markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competitive markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Economic surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_capital" title="Fictitious capital">Fictitious capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">Financial market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free price system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor" title="Investor">Investor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_hand_(economics)" title="Visible hand (economics)">Visible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">Liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent_seeking" class="mw-redirect" title="Rent seeking">Rent seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_value" title="Surplus value">Surplus value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon capitalism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Economic theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Monetary Theory">MMT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_commodity_production" title="Simple commodity production">Simple commodity production</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_capitalism" title="Community capitalism">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crony_capitalism" title="Crony capitalism">Crony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_capitalism" title="Finance capitalism">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Global capitalism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Illiberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">Merchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_capitalism" title="Progressive capitalism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rentier_capitalism" title="Rentier capitalism">Rentier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">State monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Coase</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_state" title="Capitalist state">Capitalist state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Culture of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evergreening" title="Evergreening">Evergreening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodizations_of_capitalism" title="Periodizations of capitalism">Periodizations of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectives on capitalism">Perspectives on capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculation" title="Speculation">Speculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_capitalism" title="Inclusive capitalism">Inclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal capitalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian capitalism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatism" title="Privatism">Privatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitalismlogo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/16px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/24px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Capitalismlogo.svg/32px-Capitalismlogo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="912" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Capitalism" title="Portal:Capitalism">Capitalism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #C5C12B; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a 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class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Age of Enlightenment</b> (also the <b>Age of Reason</b> and <b>the Enlightenment</b>) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe in the 17th and the 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and political ideals such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">toleration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fraternity_(philosophy)" title="Fraternity (philosophy)">fraternity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional government">constitutional government</a>, and the formal <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Enlightenment was preceded by and overlaps the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and the work of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, among others, as well as the rationalist philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to the publication of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></i> in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason for accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum, <i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i> ("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of Isaac Newton's <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> in 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, historical periods do not have clearly defined start or end dates. </p><p>Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">scientific academies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">Masonic lodges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">literary salons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">coffeehouses</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">printed books</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlets</a>. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassicism</a>, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world,<sup id="cite_ref-Eddy2022_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eddy2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by an emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>, along with increased questioning of religious dogma — an attitude captured by Kant's essay <i><a href="/wiki/Answering_the_Question:_What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?">Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>,</i> where the phrase <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">sapere aude</a></i></span> ('dare to know') can be found.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">individual liberty</a>, representative government, the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious freedom">religious freedom</a>, in contrast to an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Single_party_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Single party state">single party state</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> of faiths other than those formally <a href="/wiki/Established_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Established church">established</a> and often <a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">controlled outright</a> by the State. By contrast, other intellectual currents included arguments in favour of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christianity">anti-Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a>, accompanied by demands for <a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">secular states</a>, bans on religious education, <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of Monasteries">suppression of Monasteries</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Jesuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of the Jesuits">suppression of the Jesuits</a>, and the expulsion of <a href="/wiki/Religious_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious orders">religious orders</a>. Contemporary criticism, particularly of these anti-religious concepts, has since been dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaiah_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaiah Berlin">Sir Isaiah Berlin</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influential_intellectuals">Influential intellectuals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Influential intellectuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_intellectuals_of_the_Enlightenment" title="List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment">List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment</a>.</div> <p>The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of figures of the Enlightenment included <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Monboddo" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Monboddo">Lord Monboddo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Black_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One influential Enlightenment publication was the <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i></span></i> (<i>Encyclopedia</i>). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a>, and a team of 150 others. The <i>Encyclopédie</i> helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other publications of the Enlightenment included Berkeley's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> (1710), Voltaire's <i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a></i> (1733) and <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical Dictionary">Philosophical Dictionary</a></i> (1764); Hume's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></i> (1740); Montesquieu's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of the Laws</a></i> (1748); Rousseau's <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> (1754) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> (1762); Cesare Beccaria's <i><a href="/wiki/On_Crimes_and_Punishments" title="On Crimes and Punishments">On Crimes and Punishments</a></i> (1764); Adam Smith's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> (1759) and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i> (1776); and Kant's <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1781).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics">Topics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/170px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/255px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/340px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a> and science</figcaption></figure> <p>Bacon's <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and Descartes' <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Descartes' attempt to construct the sciences on a secure <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> foundation was not as successful as his <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">method of doubt</a> applied in philosophic areas leading to a <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualistic doctrine</a> of mind and matter. His <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> was refined by Locke's <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i> (1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus"><i>Tractatus</i></a> (1670) and <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> (1677).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Jonathan Israel</a>, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael200615_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael200615-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii,_19_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii,_19-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The moderate variety tended to be <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deistic</a> whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> which sought a return to faith.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201011_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201011-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-18th century, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. After the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, the relationship between church and the absolutist government was very strong. The early enlightenment emerged in protest to these circumstances, gaining ground under the support of <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour" title="Madame de Pompadour">Madame de Pompadour</a>, the mistress of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200833_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200833-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Called the <i>Siècle des Lumières,</i> the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment had already started by the early 18th century, when <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a> launched the popular and scholarly Enlightenment critique of religion. As a <a href="/wiki/Skeptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic">skeptic</a> Bayle only partially accepted the philosophy and principles of rationality. He did draw a strict boundary between morality and religion. The rigor of his <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_Historique_et_Critique" title="Dictionnaire Historique et Critique">Dictionnaire Historique et Critique</a></i> influenced many of the Enlightenment <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a>.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200834_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200834-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-18th century the French Enlightenment had found a focus in the project of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200833_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaakonssen200833-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>. While the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a></i> of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Old Regime</a> and shaping the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetitfils200599–105_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetitfils200599–105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a>, a moral philosopher and founding figure of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>, described the <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialist</a> principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Much of what is incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by Hutcheson's protégés in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>: David Hume and Adam Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-Denby_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denby-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hume became a major figure in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skeptical philosophical</a> and empiricist traditions of philosophy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/255px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/340px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a><figcaption>German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, one of the most influential figures of Enlightenment and modern philosophy</figcaption></figure> <p>Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individual freedom</a> and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> was one of England's earliest <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a></i> (1792).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science in the Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <p>Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were immediate practical results. The experiments of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the <a href="/wiki/Montgolfier_brothers" title="Montgolfier brothers">Montgolfier brothers</a> enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</a> in 1783.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, was divided into <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and a conglomerate grouping of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, which included <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, geology, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academies</a>, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the university.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide technical expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th century, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over 70 official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Bernard de Fontenelle</a> coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important development was the <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popularization</a> of science among an increasingly literate population. <i>Philosophes</i> introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the <i>Encyclopédie</i> and the popularization of <a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a> by Voltaire and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a>. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>; a new understanding of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Blackmore" title="Richard Blackmore">Richard Blackmore</a> committed the Newtonian system to verse in <i>Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books</i> (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns,_2003,_entry:_158_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns,_2003,_entry:_158-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology,_economics,_and_law"><span id="Sociology.2C_economics.2C_and_law"></span>Sociology, economics, and law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sociology, economics, and law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/170px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/255px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/340px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, father of classical criminal theory</figcaption></figure> <p>Hume and other <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a> thinkers developed a "<a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">science of man</a>," <sup id="cite_ref-Magnusson_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magnusson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was expressed historically in works by authors including <a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">James Burnett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Adam Ferguson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Millar_(philosopher)" title="John Millar (philosopher)">John Millar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Robertson_(historian)" title="William Robertson (historian)">William Robertson</a>, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by <a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Dugald Stewart</a> was the basis of <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1776, Adam Smith published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>,</i> often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Fry_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fry-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was immediately preceded and influenced by <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a>'s drafts of <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Formation_and_Distribution_of_Wealth" title="Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth">Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth</a></i> (1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece <i>Dei delitti e delle pene</i> (Of Crimes and Punishments, 1764). His treatise, translated into 22 languages,<sup id="cite_ref-history-world.org_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-world.org-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">classical school of criminology</a> by promoting <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a>. <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Francesco Mario Pagano</a> wrote important studies such as <i>Saggi politici</i> (Political Essays, 1783); and <i>Considerazioni sul processo criminale</i> (Considerations on the Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Enlightenment brought <a href="/wiki/Political_modernization" title="Political modernization">political modernization</a> to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Darnton" title="Robert Darnton">Robert Darnton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a>, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II of Austria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II of Prussia</a> tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Black_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theories_of_government">Theories of government</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theories of government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/180px-John_Locke.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/270px-John_Locke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/360px-John_Locke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> argued that the authority of government stems from a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a>. According to Locke, the authority of government <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">was limited</a> and required the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based his governance philosophy in <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> ushered in this new debate with his work <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "<a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative</a>" and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a>,</i> respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">right to life</a>, liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> is established.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the <a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury</a>, wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a>. </p><p>Some <i>philosophes</i> argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the <a href="/wiki/Market_mechanism" title="Market mechanism">market mechanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, the scientific method, religious <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a>, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the <i>philosophes</i> in particular to apply <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> to every problem is considered the essential change.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay <i>Of the Original Contract</i> argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_History_of_Civil_Society" title="An Essay on the History of Civil Society">An Essay on the History of Civil Society</a>,</i> Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunting and gathering</a> society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract. </p><p>Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a>, which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from Locke's <i>Second Treatise,</i> when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. </p><p>Locke argues against <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute, and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">lawful captive in time of war</a> would not go against one's natural rights. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enlightened_absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Enlightened absolutism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png/180px-Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png/270px-Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png/360px-Sebasti%C3%A3oJoseph.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Marquis of Pombal</a>, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms.</figcaption></figure> <p>The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice—in other words, be a "<a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">philosopher-king</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a> and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senior ministers <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Pombal in Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Struensee" title="Johann Friedrich Struensee">Johann Friedrich Struensee</a> in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">constitution of 1791</a> expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before <a href="/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland" title="Second Partition of Poland">the nation was partitioned</a> among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg/180px-Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg/270px-Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg/360px-Struensee_-_miniature_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="477" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption>Denmark's minister <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Struensee" title="Johann Friedrich Struensee">Johann Struensee</a>, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 for usurping royal authority.</figcaption></figure> <p>Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_Revolution_and_French_Revolution">American Revolution and French Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American Revolution and French Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> of 1776<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789—both had some intellectual influence from Thomas Jefferson.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "<a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>" philosophy as delineated by Locke in <i>Two Treatises of Government</i> (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> known as the "<a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a>." In this view, the revolutions were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. A governance philosophy where the king was never wrong would be in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote centered" style="width:75%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God? </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Voltaire (1763)<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire-lisant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Voltaire-lisant.jpg/220px-Voltaire-lisant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Voltaire-lisant.jpg/330px-Voltaire-lisant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Voltaire-lisant.jpg/440px-Voltaire-lisant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> argued for <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the <a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">Word of God alone</a>. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Anthony Collins</a>, one of the English <a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">freethinkers</a>, published his "Essay concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Bible" title="Jefferson Bible">Jefferson Bible</a>,</i> Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection of Jesus</a> after <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">his death</a>, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religion</a> and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Judaic law</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a> advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They believed a good religion based in instinctive <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morals</a> and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a> and talk of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>, deism is the simple belief in <a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">God the Creator</a> with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creed</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodox</a> belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some followed <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a> and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion]," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Separation_of_church_and_state">Separation of church and state</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Separation of church and state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state in the United States</a></div> <p>The "Radical Enlightenment"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201111_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201111-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201019_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201019-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> promoted the concept of separating church and state,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an idea that is often credited to Locke.<sup id="cite_ref-AFP_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFP-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority. </p><p>These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonies</a> and the drafting of the United States Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> in Virginia<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and authored the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_variations">National variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: National variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe,_1700%E2%80%941714.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/330px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/495px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png/660px-Europe%2C_1700%E2%80%941714.png 2x" data-file-width="1590" data-file-height="1086" /></a><figcaption>Europe at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, 1700</figcaption></figure> <p>The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the <i>philosophes</i> fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office. </p><p>A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellion</a> by emancipated slaves against <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial rule</a> in the colony of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>, broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to "[give support] to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Great Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England">England</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era#English_Enlightenment" title="Georgian era">Georgian era § English Enlightenment</a></div> <p>The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, John Locke, Isaac Newton, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Joshua Reynolds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Freethought#United_Kingdom" title="Freethought">Freethinking</a>, a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Anthony Collins</a> wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a> argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Derek_Hirst" title="Derek Hirst">Derek Hirst</a>, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established <a href="/wiki/English_coffeehouses_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries" title="English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries">coffee houses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdamSmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/170px-AdamSmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/255px-AdamSmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/340px-AdamSmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2173" /></a><figcaption>One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, the father of modern economic science.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>, the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-Eddy2022_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eddy2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a>, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment."<sup id="cite_ref-HermanTwo_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HermanTwo-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of <a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">William Cullen</a>, physician and chemist; <a href="/wiki/James_Anderson_of_Hermiston" title="James Anderson of Hermiston">James Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agronomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Agronomist">agronomist</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a>, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.<sup id="cite_ref-Denby_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denby-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Repcheck_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Repcheck-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anglo-American_colonies">Anglo-American colonies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anglo-American colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Trumbull)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)">Declaration of Independence</a></i> imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.</figcaption></figure> <p>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As deists, they were influenced by ideas of <a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">John Toland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Matthew Tindal</a>. There was a great emphasis upon <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">religious tolerance</a>. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason" title="The Age of Reason">The Age of Reason</a></i> and Thomas Jefferson in his short <i>Jefferson Bible,</i> from which he removed all supernatural aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_states">German states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: German states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Enlightenment" title="History of Germany">History of Germany § Enlightenment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe#Rationalism" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe § Rationalism</a></div> <p>Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/220px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/330px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/440px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><i>Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses</i> by <a href="/wiki/Theobald_von_Oer" title="Theobald von Oer">Theobald von Oer</a>, a tribute to The Enlightenment and the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a> depicting German poets <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the <i>Aufklärung</i> (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a> broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a> movement of proto-Romanticism. <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a> (<i>Weimarer Klassik</i>) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>, a poet and historian. The theatre principal <a href="/wiki/Abel_Seyler" title="Abel Seyler">Abel Seyler</a> greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious <a href="/wiki/German_opera" class="mw-redirect" title="German opera">German opera</a>, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In remote <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habsburg_monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Habsburg monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarch</a> to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a>'s brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of <a href="/wiki/Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a> facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system, monasteries and the legal system. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a>, who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France. Similarly, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II</a>'s rule was primarily marked by relations with France. </p><p>The ideas of the Enlightenment also appeared in literature and theater works. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Sonnenfels" title="Joseph von Sonnenfels">Joseph von Sonnenfels</a> was an important representative. In music, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrian</a> musicians such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a> were associated with the Enlightenment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italian Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeo_Marchesi_(1783.1858)_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria,_1837,_Milano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg/180px-Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg/270px-Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg/360px-Pompeo_Marchesi_%281783.1858%29_Monumento_a_Cesare_Beccaria%2C_1837%2C_Milano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4368" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment</figcaption></figure> <p>In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Antonio Genovesi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Ferdinando Galiani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Filangieri" title="Gaetano Filangieri">Gaetano Filangieri</a> were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always in the theoretical field.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the <a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopean Republic</a>. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Il_Caff%C3%A8" title="Il Caffè">Il Caffè</a></i> (1762–1766), founded by brothers <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Pietro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Verri" title="Alessandro Verri">Alessandro Verri</a> (famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni), who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor centers were <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, Veneto, and <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, where among others, Pompeo Neri worked. </p><p>From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook <i>Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto</i> (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Science flourished as <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been <a href="/wiki/Franco_Venturi" title="Franco Venturi">Franco Venturi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Beccaria, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Francesco Mario Pagano</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bourbon_Spain_and_Spanish_America">Bourbon Spain and Spanish America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bourbon Spain and Spanish America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Enlightenment in Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish American Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png/220px-Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png/330px-Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png/440px-Constitucion_Cadiz_1812.png 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="988" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a>, the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>, initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">Spanish missions in California</a> and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under <a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a>, the crown began to implement <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">serious structural changes</a>. The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was promoted under <i>comercio libre</i> in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV</a> gave Prussian scientist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners, and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of his scientific expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a> abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a> on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the <a href="/wiki/Bayonne_Statute" title="Bayonne Statute">Bayonne Constitution</a> was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project. <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">A war of national resistance</a> erupted. The <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes de Cádiz</a> (parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Constitution of 1812</a>, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established <a href="/wiki/Universal_manhood_suffrage" title="Universal manhood suffrage">universal manhood suffrage</a>; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haiti">Haiti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Haiti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Guillaume Thomas François Raynal</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_des_deux_Indes" title="Histoire des deux Indes">Histoire des deux Indes</a></i> and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a>.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">voodoo</a> for the formation of revolutionary communities."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal_and_Brazil">Portugal and Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Portugal and Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1640%E2%80%931777)" title="History of Portugal (1640–1777)">History of Portugal (1640–1777)</a></div> <p>The Enlightenment in Portugal (<i>Iluminismo</i>) was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Marquis of Pombal</a> under King <a href="/wiki/Joseph_I_of_Portugal" title="Joseph I of Portugal">Joseph I</a> from 1756 to 1777. Following the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a> which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal). His reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>'s riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the <a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Baixa" title="Lisbon Baixa">Lisbon Baixa</a>), methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">earthquake engineering</a>, became collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Pombaline_style" title="Pombaline style">Pombaline style</a>, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1vora_affair" title="Távora affair">Távora affair</a>. </p><p>In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Vieira" title="António Vieira">António Vieira</a><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who spent a considerable amount of his life in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">colonial Brazil</a> denouncing discriminations against <a href="/wiki/New_Christian" title="New Christian">New Christians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">indigenous peoples in Brazil</a>. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arc%C3%A1dia_Lusitana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arcádia Lusitana (page does not exist)">Arcádia Lusitana</a> (lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nova_Arc%C3%A1dia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nova Arcádia (page does not exist)">Nova Arcádia</a> in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Coimbra" title="University of Coimbra">University of Coimbra</a>. A distinct member of this group was the poet <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Maria_Barbosa_du_Bocage" title="Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage">Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage</a>. The physician <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Nunes_Ribeiro_Sanches" title="António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches">António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches</a> was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the <i>Encyclopédie</i> and being part of the <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Russian court</a>. The ideas of the Enlightenment influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaquim_da_Cunha_Azeredo_Coutinho" class="mw-redirect" title="José Joaquim da Cunha Azeredo Coutinho">José de Azeredo Coutinho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_da_Silva_Lisboa,_Viscount_of_Cairu" title="José da Silva Lisboa, Viscount of Cairu">José da Silva Lisboa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Manuel_da_Costa" title="Cláudio Manuel da Costa">Cláudio Manoel da Costa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Ant%C3%B3nio_Gonzaga" title="Tomás António Gonzaga">Tomás Antônio Gonzaga</a>. </p><p>The Napoleonic <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Portugal_(1807)" title="Invasion of Portugal (1807)">invasion of Portugal</a> had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_the_Portuguese_court_to_Brazil" title="Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil">evacuated to Brazil</a>, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820" title="Liberal Revolution of 1820">Liberal Revolution of 1820</a> forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_(priv.coll.).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg/330px-Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg/440px-Elizabeth_of_Russia_visiting_Lomonosov%27s_mosaic_workshop_by_A.V.Makovskiy_%28priv.coll.%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Empress Elizabeth</a> visits Russian scientist <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas" title="Peter Simon Pallas">Peter Simon Pallas</a>. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfdom in Russia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a> centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2011609–32_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2011609–32-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A powerful element was <i>prosveshchenie</i> which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland_and_Lithuania">Poland and Lithuania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Poland and Lithuania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Enlightenment" title="Polish Enlightenment">Polish Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/220px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/330px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/440px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 1791</a>, Europe's first modern constitution</figcaption></figure> <p>Enlightenment ideas (<i>oświecenie</i>) emerged late in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a>, as the Polish middle class was weaker and <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a> (nobility) culture (<a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a>) together with the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> political system (<a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> (second half of the 18th century). </p><p>Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanislaw II August</a> and reformers Piotr Switkowski, <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Pop%C5%82awski" title="Antoni Popławski">Antoni Poplawski</a>, Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, <a href="/wiki/Gracjan_Piotrkowski" title="Gracjan Piotrkowski">Gracjan Piotrowski</a>, Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement went into decline with the <a href="/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland" title="Third Partition of Poland">Third Partition of Poland</a> (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Romanticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JS_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JS-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg/220px-Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg/330px-Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg/440px-Matteo_Ricci_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Italian <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> priest <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> worked with several Chinese elites, such as <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a>, in translating <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Euclid's Elements</a></i> into Chinese.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China remarkably."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> emperors <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong</a>; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a> society—and <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalized</a> for criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutist</a> rule in Europe."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1641 to 1853, the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a> of Japan enforced a policy called <i><a href="/wiki/Sakoku" title="Sakoku">kaikin</a>.</i> The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Robert Bellah</a> found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> thinking, a 'functional analogue to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant Ethic</a>' that <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer <a href="/wiki/Tsuda_Mamichi" title="Tsuda Mamichi">Tsuda Mamichi</a> in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global</a> interaction."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Japan in particular, the term <i>ri,</i> which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> and the rationality of <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> exchange."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korea">Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "<a href="/wiki/Hermit_kingdom" title="Hermit kingdom">hermit kingdom</a>" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Club" title="Independence Club">Independence Club</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual <a href="/wiki/Yu_Kil-chun" title="Yu Kil-chun">Yu Kilchun</a> who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 18th-century India, <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a> was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French) <a href="/wiki/Jacobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin">Jacobin</a> Club in <a href="/wiki/Srirangapatna" title="Srirangapatna">Seringapatam</a>, had planted a <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Tree" title="Liberty Tree">liberty tree</a>, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen,<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" which means Citizen Tipu.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In parts of India, an important movement called the "<a href="/wiki/Bengali_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a>" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ram_Mohan_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Mohan Roy">Ram Mohan Roy</a> was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg/220px-Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg/330px-Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg/440px-Leon_Cogniet_-_Jean-Francois_Champollion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion" title="Jean-François Champollion">Jean-François Champollion</a>, considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">Napoleon's expedition into Egypt</a> further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major intellectual influence on <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernism</a> and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_at-Tahtawi" title="Rifa'a at-Tahtawi">Rifa al-Tahtawi</a> "oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Enlightenment began to influence the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the 1830s and continued into the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> was a period of reform in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> that began with the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_G%C3%BClhane" title="Edict of Gülhane">Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif</a> in 1839 and ended with the <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era</a> in 1876. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Namik Kemal</a>, a political activist and member of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a>, drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1893, Kemal responded to <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a>, who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The idea of the Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to <a href="/wiki/Keith_Thomas_(historian)" title="Keith Thomas (historian)">Keith Thomas</a>, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future."<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. </p><p>Romantic philosophers argued that the Enlightenment's excessive dependence on reason was a mistake that it perpetuated, disregarding the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas,_2014_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_2014-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ritchie_Robertson" title="Ritchie Robertson">Ritchie Robertson</a> portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a "science" of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton. "Social science" was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It would expose truth and expand human happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term <i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i> (used first by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dubos" title="Jean-Baptiste Dubos">Jean-Baptiste Dubos</a> in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: <a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" title="What Is Enlightenment?">What is Enlightenment?</a>"), the German term became <i>Aufklärun</i>g (<i>aufklären</i>=to illuminate; <i>sich aufklären</i>=to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like <i>les Lumières</i> (French), <i>illuminism</i>o (Italian), <i>ilustración</i> (Spanish) and <i>Aufklärung</i> (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late 19th century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas,_2014_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_2014-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/170px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/255px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/340px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1973" /></a><figcaption>If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.<div style="text-align:right;">— An engraving from the 1772 edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a>, in the top center, is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, Philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a>'s <i>Preliminary Discourse</i> of <i>l'Encyclopédie</i> provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge—of which the <i>Encyclopédie</i> forms the pinnacle.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1783, Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage," tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another."<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance."<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German scholar <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a> called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness."<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a>, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">schism</a> that began with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxian</a> historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201049–50_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201049–50-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2006v–viii_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2006v–viii-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition, and authority." <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20013_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20013-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_span">Time span</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Time span"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of <i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i> ("I think, therefore I am"), which shifted the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> basis from external authority to internal certainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Heidegger1938emancipated_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heidegger1938emancipated-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ingraffia95p126_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingraffia95p126-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, many cited the publication of Newton's <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687),<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French historians usually place the <i>Siècle des Lumières</i> ("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> until the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution or the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (1804) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, scholars have expanded the time span and global perspective of the Enlightenment by examining: (1) how European intellectuals did not work alone and other people helped spread and adapt Enlightenment ideas, (2) how Enlightenment ideas were "a response to cross-border interaction and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global integration</a>," and (3) how the Enlightenment "continued throughout the nineteenth century and beyond."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Enlightenment "was not merely a history of <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a>" and "was the work of historical actors around the world... who invoked the term... for their own specific purposes."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_study">Modern study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Modern study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In the 1947 book <i><a href="/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> philosophers <a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a> argue: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian <a href="/wiki/Jason_Josephson_Storm" title="Jason Josephson Storm">Jason Josephson Storm</a> argues that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> constitutes a myth. Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the Scientific Revolution was actually applied after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in <a href="/wiki/Disenchantment" title="Disenchantment">disenchantment</a> or the dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanistic worldview</a>; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Darnton" title="Robert Darnton">Robert Darnton</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Josef_II_medal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/220px-Josef_II_medal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/330px-Josef_II_medal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/440px-Josef_II_medal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption>A medal minted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment. </p><p>One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical</a>), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/170px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/255px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg/340px-Alexandre_humboldt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>German explorer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a>, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century."<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas."<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a> contrasted "opinion" with populace, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Marmontel" title="Jean-François Marmontel">Marmontel</a> "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a> the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude."<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implications_in_the_arts">Implications in the arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Implications in the arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg/170px-George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg/255px-George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg/340px-George_Frideric_Handel_by_Balthasar_Denner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2901" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">Handel</a>, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a> and Mozart, with their <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Viennese Classical</a> styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's <i>Dictionnaire de musique</i> (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was <a href="/wiki/Charles_Burney" title="Charles Burney">Charles Burney</a>'s <i>A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period</i> (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, <a href="/wiki/Rose_Rosengard_Subotnik" title="Rose Rosengard Subotnik">Rose Rosengard Subotnik</a>'s <i>Deconstructive Variations</i> (subtitled <i>Music and Reason in Western Society</i>) compares Mozart's <i>Die Zauberflöte</i> (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissemination_of_ideas">Dissemination of ideas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Dissemination of ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>philosophes</i> spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg/170px-Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg/255px-Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg/340px-Pierre_Bayle_by_Louis_Ferdinand_Elle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic_of_Letters">Republic of Letters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Republic of Letters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The term "<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal <i>Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres.</i> Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of <i>Histoire de la République des Lettres en France,</i> a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Outram,_21-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power.<sup id="cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Outram,_21-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation."<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's <i>Encyclopédie</i> arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG/220px-Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG/330px-Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG/440px-Gentleman%27s_Magazine_1731.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2043" data-file-height="3020" /></a><figcaption>Front page of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine" title="The Gentleman's Magazine">The Gentleman's Magazine</a>,</i> January 1731</figcaption></figure> <p>Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as <i>salonnières</i> in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male <i>philosophes.</i> The salon was the principal social institution of the republic<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In France, the established men of letters (<i>gens de lettres</i>) had fused with the elites (<i>les grands</i>) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, <a href="/wiki/Grub_Street" title="Grub Street">Grub Street</a>, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors."<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the <i><a href="/wiki/Libelle_(literary_genre)" title="Libelle (literary genre)">libelle</a>.</i> Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the <i>libelles</i> "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Le Gazetier cuirassé</i> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Th%C3%A9veneau_de_Morande" title="Charles Théveneau de Morande">Charles Théveneau de Morande</a> was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the <i>philosophes</i> and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_industry">Book industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Book industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade,_statistics.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png/220px-1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png/330px-1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png/440px-1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1059" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/English_Short_Title_Catalogue" title="English Short Title Catalogue">ESTC</a> data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation</figcaption></figure> <p>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_bleue" title="Bibliothèque bleue">bibliothèque bleue</a>. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetitfils200599–105_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetitfils200599–105-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a <i>reading revolution.</i> Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the <i>bibliothèque bleue,</i> a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the <i>bibliothèque bleue</i> represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. <i><a href="/wiki/Tatler_(1709_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatler (1709 journal)">Tatler</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spectator" title="The Spectator">The Spectator</a>,</i> two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Denis_Diderot_111.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/170px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/255px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/340px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1652" data-file-height="2052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> is best known as the editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the <i>Encyclopédie</i> narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by <a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Malesherbes</a>, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the <i>Encyclopédie</i>, condemned by both the King and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XII" title="Pope Clement XII">Clement XII</a>, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.<sup id="cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Outram,_21-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_history">Natural history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Natural history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/170px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/255px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/340px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges Buffon</a> is best remembered for his <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire naturelle</i></span>, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.</figcaption></figure> <p>A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a>'s <i>Histoire naturelle des insectes</i> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fabien_Gautier_d%27Agoty" title="Jacques Fabien Gautier d'Agoty">Jacques Gautier d'Agoty</a>'s <i>La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain</i> (1746). Outside <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Eddy2008_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eddy2008-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social."<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of taste (<i>le goût</i>) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_and_literary_journals">Scientific and literary journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Scientific and literary journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg/170px-1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg/255px-1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg/340px-1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="1827" /></a><figcaption><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des sçavans">Journal des sçavans</a></i></span> was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des sçavans">Journal des sçavans</a></i></span>, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001143–44_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001143–44-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001142_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001142-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001150–51_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001150–51-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries">Encyclopedias and dictionaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Encyclopedias and dictionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg/170px-Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg/255px-Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg/340px-Encyclopedie_de_D%27Alembert_et_Diderot_-_Premiere_Page_-_ENC_1-NA5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3133" data-file-height="5120" /></a><figcaption>First page of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>,</i> published between 1751 and 1766</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_dictionary" title="Encyclopedic dictionary">encyclopedic dictionaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick_2000_144_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick_2000_144-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. </p><p>Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick_2000_172_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick_2000_172-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commenting on alphabetization, the historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Porset" title="Charles Porset">Charles Porset</a> has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">hierarchical</a> systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick_2000_144_219-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick_2000_144-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick_2000_172_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick_2000_172-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first technical dictionary was drafted by <a href="/wiki/John_Harris_(writer)" title="John Harris (writer)">John Harris</a> and entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum" title="Lexicon Technicum">Lexicon Technicum</a>: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences.</i> Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the <i>Lexicon Technicum</i> was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> along with the physical sciences and <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Chambers" title="Ephraim Chambers">Ephraim Chambers</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclop%C3%A6dia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</a></i> (1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The <a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">folio</a> edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The <i>Cyclopaedia</i> emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a>, brewing, and <a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">dyeing</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg/170px-ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg/255px-ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg/340px-ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2046" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Figurative_system_of_human_knowledge" title="Figurative system of human knowledge">Figurative system of human knowledge</a>," the structure that the <i>Encyclopédie</i> organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.</figcaption></figure><p> In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The <i>Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon</i> (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. <i>Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon</i> (1721) was better known than the <i>Handlungs-Lexicon</i> and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were <a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_encyclopedia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universal encyclopedia (page does not exist)">universal encyclopedias</a> rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's <i>Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.</i> The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's <i>Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot,</i> the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <i>Encyclopédie</i> gained popularity, it was published in <a href="/wiki/Book_binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Book binding">quarto</a> and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the <i>Encyclopédie</i> more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the <i>Encyclopédie</i> in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popularization_of_science">Popularization of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Popularization of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people."<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated <i>Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</i> was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fontenelle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fontenelle.jpg/220px-Fontenelle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fontenelle.jpg/330px-Fontenelle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fontenelle.jpg/440px-Fontenelle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Fontenelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Fontenelle">Bernard de Fontenelle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Bernard de Fontenelle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Conversations_on_the_Plurality_of_Worlds" title="Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds">Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds</a></i> (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's <i>Astronomy</i> (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] Rules and Astronomical Tables."<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the <i>Principia</i> was <i>Eléments de la philosophie de Newton,</i> published by Voltaire in 1738.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a>'s translation of the <i>Principia,</i> published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing for a growing female audience, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti" title="Francesco Algarotti">Francesco Algarotti</a> published <i>Il Newtonianism per le dame,</i> which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Carter" title="Elizabeth Carter">Elizabeth Carter</a>. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Pemberton" title="Henry Pemberton">Henry Pemberton</a>. His <i>A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy</i> was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works. <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Trimmer" title="Sarah Trimmer">Sarah Trimmer</a> wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled <i>The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature</i> (1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_and_universities">Schools and universities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Schools and universities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Education in the Age of Enlightenment">Education in the Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <p>Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution. </p><p>The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was <a href="/wiki/Associationism" title="Associationism">associationism</a>: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology.<sup id="cite_ref-Eddy2008_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eddy2008-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learned_academies">Learned academies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Learned academies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I,_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences,_1671.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg/170px-S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg/255px-S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg/340px-S%C3%A9bastien_Leclerc_I%2C_Louis_XIV_Visiting_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences%2C_1671.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2794" data-file-height="3773" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> visiting the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">Académie des sciences</a></i></span> in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/220px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/330px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/440px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">Academy of Science</a>, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%).<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of <a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">mesmerism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the <i>concours académiques</i> (roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of contests dated back to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The society played a large role in spreading <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">experimental philosophy</a> around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salons">Salons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Salons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Historiography of the salon</a></div> <p>Salons were places where <i>philosophes</i> were reunited and discussed old, actual, or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coffeehouses">Coffeehouses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Coffeehouses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_coffeehouses_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries" title="English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries">English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Coffeehouses</a> were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a>, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Steele" title="Richard Steele">Richard Steele</a> recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spectator_(1711)" title="The Spectator (1711)">The Spectator (1711)</a>,</i> a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters. </p><p>The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the <i>virtuosi,</i> who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Procope" title="Café Procope">Café Procope</a> was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the <i>Encyclopédie.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for <i>bruits publics,</i> public noise or rumour. These <i>bruits</i> were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debating_societies">Debating societies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Debating societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/London_Debating_Societies" title="London Debating Societies">London Debating Societies</a></div> <p>The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their origins include: </p> <ul><li>Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.</li> <li>Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.</li> <li>Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henley_(preacher)" title="John Henley (preacher)">John Henley</a>'s Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?"<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a>, Reformed (Calvinist) or <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a> issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity." <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014_261-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the <i>status quo.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masonic_lodges">Masonic lodges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Masonic lodges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg/220px-Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg/330px-Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg/440px-Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Masonic initiation ceremony</figcaption></figure> <p>Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> was a main factor in the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a>, Pope,<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and George Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality."<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the <a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a>, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illuminato#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:illuminato">enlightened</a>," chosen to reflect their <a href="/wiki/Illuminati#Origins" title="Illuminati">original intent</a> to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English <a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobite</a> exiles.<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges."<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right."<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds.<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in France, Masons did not act as a group.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.<sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Classical_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical art">Classical art</a> of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neo-classical art</a>. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration" title="European and American voyages of scientific exploration">European and American voyages of scientific exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>, Jewish Enlightenment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Modern Greek Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a>, Arab Enlightenment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Witch trials in the early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminism" title="Illuminism">Illuminism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Back row, left to right: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Louis_Gresset" title="Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset">Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Marivaux" title="Pierre de Marivaux">Pierre de Marivaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Marmontel" title="Jean-François Marmontel">Jean-François Marmontel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Marie_Vien" title="Joseph-Marie Vien">Joseph-Marie Vien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_L%C3%A9onard_Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Léonard Thomas">Antoine Léonard Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine" title="Charles Marie de La Condamine">Charles Marie de La Condamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Guillaume Thomas François Raynal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau" title="Jean-Philippe Rameau">Jean-Philippe Rameau</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Clairon" title="La Clairon">La Clairon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles-Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_H%C3%A9nault" title="Charles-Jean-François Hénault">Charles-Jean-François Hénault</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fran%C3%A7ois" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne François">Étienne François</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duc_de_Choiseul" class="mw-redirect" title="Duc de Choiseul">duc de Choiseul</a>, a bust of <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Ferriol_d%27Argental" title="Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental">Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Saint-Lambert" title="Jean François de Saint-Lambert">Jean François de Saint-Lambert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edm%C3%A9_Bouchardon" title="Edmé Bouchardon">Edmé Bouchardon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Germain_Soufflot" title="Jacques-Germain Soufflot">Jacques-Germain Soufflot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville" title="Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville">Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Claude_de_Caylus" title="Anne Claude de Caylus">Anne Claude de Caylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortunato_Felice" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortunato Felice">Fortunato Felice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot,_Baron_de_Laune" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune">Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien_Guillaume_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armand_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand de Vignerot du Plessis">Armand de Vignerot du Plessis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dortous_de_Mairan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan">Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27Aguesseau" title="Henri François d'Aguesseau">Henri François d'Aguesseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Clairaut" title="Alexis Clairaut">Alexis Clairaut</a>.<br /> Front row, right to left: <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophie_d%27Houdetot" title="Sophie d'Houdetot">Sophie d'Houdetot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Joseph_Vernet" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Joseph Vernet">Claude Joseph Vernet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bouyer_de_Fontenelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle">Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Rodet_Geoffrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin">Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois,_Prince_of_Conti" title="Louis François, Prince of Conti">Louis François, Prince of Conti</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marie_Louise_Nicole_%C3%89lisabeth_de_La_Rochefoucauld,_Duchesse_d%27Anville&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marie Louise Nicole Élisabeth de La Rochefoucauld, Duchesse d'Anville (page does not exist)">Marie Louise Nicole Élisabeth de La Rochefoucauld, Duchesse d'Anville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Jules_Fran%C3%A7ois_Mancini" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe Jules François Mancini">Philippe Jules François Mancini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joachim_de_Pierre_de_Bernis" title="François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis">François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Prosper_Jolyot_de_Cr%C3%A9billon" title="Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon">Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Piron" title="Alexis Piron">Alexis Piron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinot_Duclos" title="Charles Pinot Duclos">Charles Pinot Duclos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius">Claude-Adrien Helvétius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles-Andr%C3%A9_van_Loo" title="Charles-André van Loo">Charles-André van Loo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lekain" title="Lekain">Lekain</a> at the desk reading aloud, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Julie_%C3%89l%C3%A9onore_de_Lespinasse" title="Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse">Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne-Marie_du_Boccage" title="Anne-Marie du Boccage">Anne-Marie du Boccage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_de_Graffigny" title="Françoise de Graffigny">Françoise de Graffigny</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Étienne Bonnot de Condillac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Jussieu" title="Bernard de Jussieu">Bernard de Jussieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis-Jean-Marie_Daubenton" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton">Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc" class="mw-redirect" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc">Georges-Louis Leclerc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comte_de_Buffon" class="mw-redirect" title="Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian Cowan, Donna T. Andrew.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170303123359/http://publishinghau5.com/The-Age-of-Enlightenment--A-History-From-Beginning-to-End-page-3.php">"The Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End: Chapter 3"</a>. <i>publishinghau5.com</i>. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=publishinghau5.com&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+Enlightenment%3A+A+History+From+Beginning+to+End%3A+Chapter+3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublishinghau5.com%2FThe-Age-of-Enlightenment--A-History-From-Beginning-to-End-page-3.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2012" class="citation journal cs1">Conrad, Sebastian (1 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/117/4/999/33183">"Enlightenment in Global History: A Historiographical Critique"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>117</b> (4): 999–1027. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F117.4.999">10.1093/ahr/117.4.999</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Enlightenment+in+Global+History%3A+A+Historiographical+Critique&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=999-1027&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F117.4.999&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fahr%2Farticle%2F117%2F4%2F999%2F33183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOutram2006" class="citation cs2">Outram, Dorinda (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A84nA7Ae3t0C&q=%22Panorama%20of%20the%20Enlightenment%22&pg=PA29"><i>Panorama of the Enlightenment</i></a>, Getty Publications, p. 29, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0892368617" title="Special:BookSources/978-0892368617"><bdi>978-0892368617</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Panorama+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0892368617&rft.aulast=Outram&rft.aufirst=Dorinda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA84nA7Ae3t0C%26q%3D%2522Panorama%2520of%2520the%2520Enlightenment%2522%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZafirovski2010" class="citation cs2">Zafirovski, Milan (2010), <i>The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society</i>, p. 144</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment+and+Its+Effects+on+Modern+Society&rft.pages=144&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Zafirovski&rft.aufirst=Milan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob, Margaret C. <i>The Secular Enlightenment.</i> Princeton: Princeton University Press 2019 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy/The-Enlightenment">"The Enlightenment"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FWestern-philosophy%2FThe-Enlightenment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristow2017" class="citation book cs1">Bristow, William (29 August 2017). "Enlightenment". In Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enlightenment&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017-08-29&rft.aulast=Bristow&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fenlightenment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasini1988" class="citation journal cs1">Casini, Paolo (January 1988). 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Media+and+the+Mind%3A+Art%2C+Science+and+Notebooks+as+Paper+Machines%2C+1700%E2%80%931830&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3769533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGay,_Peter1996" class="citation cs2">Gay, Peter (1996), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enlightenmentint02gayp"><i>The Enlightenment: An Interpretation</i></a></span>, W.W. Norton & Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00870-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00870-3"><bdi>0-393-00870-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment%3A+An+Interpretation&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-393-00870-3&rft.au=Gay%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenlightenmentint02gayp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment." <i>Eighteenth-Century Life</i> 7.2 (1982): 41–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, Jonathan I. <i>Democratic Enlightenment.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011,9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sootin, Harry. <i>Isaac Newton.</i> New York: Messner (1955)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Black_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe," <i>European History Quarterly</i> 22.2 (1992): 247–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Darnton, <i>The Business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800</i> (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iCyZCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT4"><i>The Dream of Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Philosophy</i></a>. W. W. Norton & Company. 30 August 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781631492082" title="Special:BookSources/9781631492082"><bdi>9781631492082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dream+of+Enlightenment%3A+The+Rise+of+Modern+Philosophy&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2016-08-30&rft.isbn=9781631492082&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiCyZCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman2023" class="citation book cs1">Rahman, Shoaib (20 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hoDkEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Roots of Enlightenment: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AGE OF REASON IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EUROPE</i></a> (Hardcover ed.). 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climate change and energy</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scottish+enlightenment+and+the+challenges+for+Europe+in+the+21st+century%3B+climate+change+and+energy&rft.date=2006-11-28&rft.aulast=Barroso&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fcommission%2Fpresscorner%2Fdetail%2Fen%2FSPEECH_06_756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200217062357/http://web.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/web%20publishing/KantOnElightenment.htm">"Kant's essay What is Enlightenment?"</a>. <i>mnstate.edu</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mnstate.edu&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+essay+What+is+Enlightenment%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mnstate.edu%2Fgracyk%2Fcourses%2Fweb%2520publishing%2FKantOnElightenment.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manfred Kuehn, <i>Kant: A Biography</i> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreis2012" class="citation web cs1">Kreis, Steven (13 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140111055540/http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/wollstonecraft.html">"Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759–1797"</a>. Historyguide.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/wollstonecraft.html">the original</a> on 11 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mary+Wollstonecraft%2C+1759%E2%80%931797&rft.pub=Historyguide.org&rft.date=2012-04-13&rft.aulast=Kreis&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fintellect%2Fwollstonecraft.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Wollstonecraft, <i>A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</i> (Renascence Editions, 2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/785/vindication.pdf?sequence=1">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce P. Lenman, <i>Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832</i> (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0748603859">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarmant, Thierry, <i>Histoire de Paris,</i> p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter (2003), 79–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burns (2003), entry: 7,103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gillispie, (1980), p. xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James E. McClellan III, "Learned Societies," in <i>Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment,</i> ed. Alan Charles Kors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330082517/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Modern/?view=usa&ci=9780195104301">"Oxford University Press: Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment: Alan Charles Kors"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Modern/?view=usa&ci=9780195104301">the original</a> on 30 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oxford+University+Press%3A+Encyclopedia+of+the+Enlightenment%3A+Alan+Charles+Kors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oup.com%2Fus%2Fcatalog%2Fgeneral%2Fsubject%2FHistoryWorld%2FModern%2F%3Fview%3Dusa%26ci%3D9780195104301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span> (accessed on 8 June 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, (2003), p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Gillispie, (1980), "Conclusion."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, (2003), p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burns,_2003,_entry:_158-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burns,_2003,_entry:_158_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burns, (2003), entry: 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomson, (1786), p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magnusson-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Magnusson_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Magnusson2003" class="citation cs2">M. 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Nelson Cengage. pp. 34–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Nelson+Cengage&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=von+Guttner&rft.aufirst=Darius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9869783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Ferguson, <i>The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820</i> (1994).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/influence.html">"John Locke > The Influence of John Locke's Works (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Locke+%3E+The+Influence+of+John+Locke%27s+Works+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flocke%2Finfluence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Manent, <i>An Intellectual History of Liberalism</i> (1994) pp. 20–38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lessnoff, Michael H. <i>Social Contract Theory.</i> New York: NYU, 1990. 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Landry, <i>Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory</i> (2000) p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Of the Original Contract</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Williams1994" class="citation book cs1">David Williams, ed. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LV7GZhQEULEC&pg=PR14"><i>Voltaire: Political Writings</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. xiv–xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43727-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43727-1"><bdi>978-0-521-43727-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voltaire%3A+Political+Writings&rft.pages=xiv-xv&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43727-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLV7GZhQEULEC%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen J. 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Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-19083-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-19083-5"><bdi>978-0-299-19083-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%27s+Modernity%3A+Mendelssohn%2C+Lessing%2C+and+Heine&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-299-19083-5&rft.aulast=Goetschel&rft.aufirst=Willi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCYcOfkrduWYC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Paine, <i>Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion,</i> 1804, Internet History Sourcebook</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllen_Judy_WilsonPeter_Hanns_Reill2004" class="citation book cs1">Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1pQ4YG-TDIC&pg=PA148"><i>Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1021-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1021-9"><bdi>978-1-4381-1021-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Of+The+Enlightenment&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1021-9&rft.au=Ellen+Judy+Wilson&rft.au=Peter+Hanns+Reill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1pQ4YG-TDIC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson_and_Reill2004" class="citation book cs1">Wilson and Reill (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1pQ4YG-TDIC&pg=PA26"><i>Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1021-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1021-9"><bdi>978-1-4381-1021-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Of+The+Enlightenment&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1021-9&rft.au=Wilson+and+Reill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1pQ4YG-TDIC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden2013" class="citation book cs1">Pagden, Anthony (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GnURng7tsWIC&pg=PA100"><i>The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters</i></a>. 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Taylor & Francis. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30877-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30877-9"><bdi>978-0-415-30877-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Philosophy+and+the+Age+of+Enlightenment%3A+Routledge+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30877-9&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEoIafbj8pFgC%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayle1741" class="citation book cs1">Bayle, Pierre (1741). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qmNZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA778"><i>A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reflections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system</i></a>. p. 778.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+general+dictionary%3A+historical+and+critical%3A+in+which+a+new+and+accurate+translation+of+that+of+the+celebrated+Mr.+Bayle%2C+with+the+corrections+and+observations+printed+in+the+late+edition+at+Paris%2C+is+included%3B+and+interspersed+with+several+thousand+lives+never+before+published.+The+whole+containing+the+history+of+the+most+illustrious+persons+of+all+ages+and+nations+particularly+those+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+distinguished+by+their+rank%2C+actions%2C+learning+and+other+accomplishments.+With+reflections+on+such+passages+of+Bayle%2C+as+seem+to+favor+scepticism+and+the+Manichee+system&rft.pages=778&rft.date=1741&rft.aulast=Bayle&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqmNZAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA778&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFENR_//_AgencyND_//_University_of_Notre_Dame2003" class="citation journal cs1">ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame (4 May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23410-god-locke-and-equality-christian-foundations-of-locke-s-political-thought/">"God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke's Political Thought"</a>. <i>Nd.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nd.edu&rft.atitle=God%2C+Locke+and+Equality%3A+Christian+Foundations+of+Locke%27s+Political+Thought&rft.date=2003-05-04&rft.au=ENR+%2F%2F+AgencyND+%2F%2F+University+of+Notre+Dame&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fndpr.nd.edu%2Fnews%2F23410-god-locke-and-equality-christian-foundations-of-locke-s-political-thought%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201111-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201111_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2011">Israel 2011</a>, pp. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201019-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201019_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2010">Israel 2010</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2010vii–viii_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2010">Israel 2010</a>, pp. vii–viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AFP-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AFP_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feldman, Noah (2005). <i>Divided by God.</i> Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feldman, Noah (2005). <i>Divided by God.</i> Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ferling2000">Ferling, 2000</a>, p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mayer">Mayer, 1994</a> p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Kayes">Hayes, 2008</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cogliano">Cogliano, 2003</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, <i>Geography and Enlightenment</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceD-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present,</i> Second Edition, by <a href="/wiki/Teresa_A._Meade" class="mw-redirect" title="Teresa A. Meade">Teresa A. 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(15 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jjs/5/4/article-p692_692.xml">"Six Sermons, written by António Vieira"</a>. <i>Journal of Jesuit Studies</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 692–695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22141332-00504010-11">10.1163/22141332-00504010-11</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2214-1324">2214-1324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jesuit+Studies&rft.atitle=Six+Sermons%2C+written+by+Ant%C3%B3nio+Vieira&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=692-695&rft.date=2018-11-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22141332-00504010-11&rft.issn=2214-1324&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjjs%2F5%2F4%2Farticle-p692_692.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia," <i>Modern Russian History & Historiography,</i> 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2011609–32-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2011609–32_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2011">Israel 2011</a>, pp. 609–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited." <i>Russian History</i> 37.4 (2010): 360–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831." <i>Acta Poloniae Historica</i> 100 (2009): 57–77. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0001-6829">0001-6829</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31577077/Butterwick_What_is_Enlightenment_CE_05.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1505874099&Signature=UBisNjAzY5RdyAEsKG%2BbHWrJHJw%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DWhat_is_Enlightenment_Oswiecenie_Some_Po.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JS-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JS_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerzy Snopek, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://f.poland.pl/files/86/0/234/Literature_of_Enlightenment.pdf">"The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111005232247/http://f.poland.pl/files/86/0/234/Literature_of_Enlightenment.pdf">Archived</a> 5 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF 122 KB) <i>Poland.pl.</i> <span class="nowrap">Retrieved 7 October 2011.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald P. Toby, <i>State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,</i> Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment," <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/apr/03/great-fight-over-enlightenment/"><i>The New York Review</i> April 3, 2014</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas,_2014-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas,_2014_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas,_2014_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Ritchie Robertson, "The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790." (2020) ch. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford English Dictionary,</i> 3rd Edn (revised)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLough1985" class="citation journal cs1">Lough, John (1985). "Reflections on Enlightenment and Lumieres". <i>Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies</i>. <b>8#1</b> (1): 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x">10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+Eighteenth-Century+Studies&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Enlightenment+and+Lumieres&rft.volume=8%231&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x&rft.aulast=Lough&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean le Rond d'Alembert, <i>Discours préliminaire de l'Encyclopédie</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. D'Alembert's introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, along with Immanuel Kant's essay response (the "independent thinkers"), both support the later model.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Immanuel Kant, "What is Enlightenment?", 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPorter2001">Porter 2001</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Cassirer, <i>The Philosophy of the Enlightenment,</i> (1951), p. vi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPorter2001">Porter 2001</a>, p. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell,_Bertrand_p492-494_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand. <i>A History of Western Philosophy.</i> pp. 492–494</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael201049–50-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael201049–50_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2010">Israel 2010</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2006v–viii-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2006v–viii_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2006">Israel 2006</a>, pp. v–viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20013-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20013_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, pp. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heidegger1938emancipated-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heidegger1938emancipated_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Heidegger [1938] (2002) <i>The Age of the World Picture</i> quotation:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For up to Descartes ... a particular <i>sub-iectum</i> ... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a <i>sub-iectum</i> ... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingraffia95p126-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ingraffia95p126_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LHjZYbOLG8cC&pg=PA126"><i>Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow</i></a> p. 126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman K. Swazo (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=INP_cy6Mu7EC&pg=PA97"><i>Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections</i></a> pp. 97–99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shank, J. B. <i>The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment</i> (2008), "Introduction"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-200/lecture-3">"PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses"</a>. <i>oyc.yale.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oyc.yale.edu&rft.atitle=PHYS+200+%E2%80%93+Lecture+3+%E2%80%93+Newton%27s+Laws+of+Motion+%E2%80%93+Open+Yale+Courses&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foyc.yale.edu%2Fphysics%2Fphys-200%2Flecture-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Smith_Anderson" title="Matthew Smith Anderson">Anderson, M. S.</a> <i>Historians and eighteenth-century Europe, 1715–1789</i> (Oxford UP, 1979); Jean de Viguerie, <i>Histoire et dictionnaire du temps des Lumières (1715–1789)</i> (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost,_Martin2008" class="citation cs2">Frost, Martin (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071010041056/http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/enlightenment_age.html"><i>The age of Enlightenment</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/enlightenment_age.html">the original</a> on 10 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2008</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+age+of+Enlightenment&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Frost%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.martinfrost.ws%2Fhtmlfiles%2Fenlightenment_age.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheodor_W._AdornoHorkheimer1947" class="citation book cs1">Theodor W. Adorno; Horkheimer, Max (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lwVjsKcHW7cC&pg=PA3">"The Concept of Enlightenment"</a>. In G.S. Noerr (ed.). <i>Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments</i>. Translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-154-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-154-9"><bdi>978-1-85984-154-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Enlightenment&rft.btitle=Dialectic+of+Enlightenment%3A+Philosophical+Fragments&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-1-85984-154-9&rft.au=Theodor+W.+Adorno&rft.au=Horkheimer%2C+Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlwVjsKcHW7cC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson-Storm2017" class="citation book cs1">Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ"><i>The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40336-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40336-6"><bdi>978-0-226-40336-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Disenchantment%3A+Magic%2C+Modernity%2C+and+the+Birth+of+the+Human+Sciences&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=58-61&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-226-40336-6&rft.aulast=Josephson-Storm&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxZ5yDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson-Storm2017" class="citation book cs1">Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ"><i>The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40336-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40336-6"><bdi>978-0-226-40336-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Disenchantment%3A+Magic%2C+Modernity%2C+and+the+Birth+of+the+Human+Sciences&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-226-40336-6&rft.aulast=Josephson-Storm&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxZ5yDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), <i>The Ibero-American Enlightenment</i> (1971)., Franco Venturi, <i>The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First Crisis.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Van Horn Melton, <i>The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe</i> (2001), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jürgen Habermas, <i>The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,</i> (1989), pp. 36, 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melton, 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_fXXRzidVKMC">Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography</a>.</i>" University of Chicago Press. p. 138 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73149-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-73149-9">0-226-73149-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Brewer2014" class="citation book cs1">Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mry1BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91"><i>The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment</i></a>. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-19432-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-19432-4"><bdi>978-1-316-19432-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+French+Enlightenment&rft.pages=91ff&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-316-19432-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmry1BAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, Dorinda. <i>The Enlightenment</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram 2005, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chartier, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mona Ozouf, <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, <i>Musicology, The Key Concepts</i> (New York: Routledge, 2005), 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca, <i>A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition,</i> (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beard and Gloag, <i>Musicology,</i> 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beard and Gloag, <i>Musicology,</i> 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_187-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca, <i>A History of Western Music,</i> 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Outram,_21-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Outram,_21_188-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chartier, 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, "What is Enlightenment?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodman, 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dena Goodman, <i>The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment</i> (1994), 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carla Hesse, <i>The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern</i> (2001), 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 19, 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 21, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 35–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 17, 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, "Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre," Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart, 1974).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/28681/Developments-in-the-18th-century">"history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th century"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 5 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=history+of+publishing+%3A%3A+Developments+in+the+18th+century&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F482597%2Fhistory-of-publishing%2F28681%2FDevelopments-in-the-18th-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outram, 27–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erin Mackie, <i>The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator</i> (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Mackie, Darnton, <i>An Early Information Society</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In particular, see Chapter 6, "Reading, Writing and Publishing"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground,</i> 135–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, <i>The Business of Enlightenment,</i> 12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton, <i>The Literary Underground</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eddy2008-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eddy2008_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eddy2008_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddy2008" class="citation book cs1">Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1112014"><i>The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800</i></a>. Aldershot: Ashgate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+Mineralogy%3A+John+Walker%2C+Chemistry+and+the+Edinburgh+Medical+School%2C+1750%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1112014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in <i>The Sciences in Enlightened Europe,</i> William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spary, 289–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Thomas Laqueur, <i>Making sex: body and gender from the Greeks to Freud</i> (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001143–44-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001143–44_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, pp. 143–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001142-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001142_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, pp. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001150–51-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001150–51_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, pp. 150–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Headrick_2000_144-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Headrick_2000_144_219-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Headrick_2000_144_219-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Headrick_2000_172-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Headrick_2000_172_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Headrick_2000_172_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, (2003), pp. 249–250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">d'Alembert, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, (1979), p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, (1979), p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnton, (1979), p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, (2000), p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, (1991), p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, (2003), p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, (2003), p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, (1991), p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, (1991), p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddy2013" class="citation journal cs1">Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1817033">"The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy"</a>. <i>Science in Context</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 215–245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0269889713000045">10.1017/s0269889713000045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147123263">147123263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+in+Context&rft.atitle=The+Shape+of+Knowledge%3A+Children+and+the+Visual+Culture+of+Literacy+and+Numeracy&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-245&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0269889713000045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147123263%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1817033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hotson, Howard (2007). <i>Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commonplace+Learning%3A+Ramism+and+Its+German+Ramifications+1543%E2%80%931630&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Hotson&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Williams, <i>A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier</i> (2003) p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Barrett (2004), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxViwX6KuMC&pg=PA14">Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding</a>,</i> p. 14, <a href="/wiki/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group" title="Continuum International Publishing Group">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-567-08969-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-567-08969-X">0-567-08969-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Roche,<i> France in the Enlightenment,</i> (1998), 420.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roche, 515–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caradonna JL. <i>Annales,</i> "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle," <i>Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales,</i> vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caradonna, 634–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caradonna, 653–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/about-us/history/royal-charters/">"Royal Charters"</a>. <i>royalsociety.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=royalsociety.org&rft.atitle=Royal+Charters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fabout-us%2Fhistory%2Froyal-charters%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Shapin, <i>A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England,</i> Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, <i>Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pp. 59–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shapin and Schaffer, 58, 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1996" class="citation journal cs1">Klein, Lawrence E. (1 January 1996). "Coffeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England". <i>Huntington Library Quarterly</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 31–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3817904">10.2307/3817904</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3817904">3817904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huntington+Library+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Coffeehouse+Civility%2C+1660%E2%80%931714%3A+An+Aspect+of+Post-Courtly+Culture+in+England&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-51&rft.date=1996-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3817904&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3817904%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Klein, 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cowan, 90, 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin Jones, <i>Paris: Biography of a City</i> (New York: Viking, 2004), 188, 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarnton2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Darnton, Robert (2000). "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. 105#1 (1): 1–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2652433">10.2307/2652433</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2652433">2652433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=An+Early+Information+Society%3A+News+and+the+Media+in+Eighteenth-Century+Paris&rft.volume=105%231&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-35&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2652433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2652433%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Darnton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780," <i>This Historical Journal,</i> Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as "William Henley," which must be a lapse of writing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew, 408.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew, 406–08, 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014_261-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael20014_261-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew, 412–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew, 422.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowJacob2014" class="citation book cs1">Crow, Matthew; <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Jacob" title="Margaret Jacob">Jacob, Margaret</a> (2014). "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment". In Bodgan, Henrik; Snoek, Jan A. M. (eds.). <i>Handbook of Freemasonry</i>. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 8. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 100–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004273122_008">10.1163/9789004273122_008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21833-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21833-8"><bdi>978-90-04-21833-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-6691">1874-6691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freemasonry+and+the+Enlightenment&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Freemasonry&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Brill+Handbooks+on+Contemporary+Religion&rft.pages=100-116&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1874-6691&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004273122_008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21833-8&rft.aulast=Crow&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maynard Mack, <i>Alexander Pope: A Life,</i> Yale University Press, 1985 p. 437–440. Pope, a Catholic, was a Freemason in 1730, eight years before membership was prohibited by the Catholic Church (1738). Pope's name is on the membership list of the Goat Tavern Lodge (p. 439). Pope's name appears on a 1723 list and a 1730 list.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.A._Leo_Lemay2013" class="citation book cs1">J.A. Leo Lemay (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KOhKqgMD10cC&pg=PA83"><i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0929-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0929-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-0929-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Volume+2%3A+Printer+and+Publisher%2C+1730%E2%80%931747&rft.pages=83-92&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0929-7&rft.au=J.A.+Leo+Lemay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKOhKqgMD10cC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullock1996" class="citation journal cs1">Bullock, Steven C. (1996). "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry". <i>Eighteenth-Century Life</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eighteenth-Century+Life&rft.atitle=Initiating+the+Enlightenment%3F%3A+Recent+Scholarship+on+European+Freemasonry&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=Steven+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Davies, <i>Europe: A History</i> (1996) pp. 634–635</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, <i>Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe</i> (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. <i>The Enlightenment World</i> (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roche, 436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. <i>The Enlightenment World</i> p. 281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob, pp. 20, 73, 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob, 145–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reinhart Koselleck, <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_and_Crisis" title="Critique and Crisis">Critique and Crisis</a>,</i> p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiderot1769" class="citation web cs1">Diderot, Denis (1769). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129024943/https://www.stmarys-ca.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/files/Dalemberts_Dream.pdf">"D'Alembert's Dream"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stmarys-ca.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/files/Dalemberts_Dream.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=D%27Alembert%27s+Dream&rft.date=1769&rft.aulast=Diderot&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stmarys-ca.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2Ffiles%2FDalemberts_Dream.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret C. Jacob, <i>Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe</i> (Oxford University Press, 1991.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roche, 437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites," <i>History of European Ideas</i> 10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, <i>Europe: A History</i> (1996) pp. 634–635</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Weisberger et al., eds., <i>Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico</i> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert R. Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The Struggle</i> (1970) p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution," <i>The Historian</i> Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansonJanson2003" class="citation book cs1">Janson, H. W.; Janson, Anthony (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basichistoryofar0006jans"><i>A Basic History of Art</i></a></span>. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basichistoryofar0006jans/page/458">458–474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Basic+History+of+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=458-474&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft.au=Janson%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasichistoryofar0006jans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780." <i>The Historical Journal</i>, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2640187">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Burns, William. <i>Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia</i> (2003)</li> <li>Cowan, Brian, <i>The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Darnton" title="Robert Darnton">Darnton, Robert</a>. <i>The Literary Underground of the Old Regime</i>. (1982).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaakonssen2008" class="citation book cs1">Haakonssen, Knud (2008). <i>The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Eighteenth-Century+Philosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Haakonssen&rft.aufirst=Knud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2001" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan I. (2001). <i>Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Enlightenment%3B+Philosophy+and+the+Making+of+Modernity+1650%E2%80%931750&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2006" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). <i>Enlightenment Contested</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+Contested&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2010" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). <i>A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy</i>. Princeton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Revolution+of+the+Mind%3A+Radical+Enlightenment+and+the+Intellectual+Origins+of+Modern+Democracy&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2011" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan I. (2011). <i>Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democratic+Enlightenment%3A+Philosophy%2C+Revolution%2C+and+Human+Rights+1750%E2%80%931790&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Melton, James Van Horn. <i>The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe</i>. (2001).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetitfils2005" class="citation book cs1">Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2005). <i>Louis XVI</i>. Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7441-9130-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7441-9130-5"><bdi>978-2-7441-9130-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louis+XVI&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-2-7441-9130-5&rft.aulast=Petitfils&rft.aufirst=Jean-Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritchie_Robertson" title="Ritchie Robertson">Robertson, Ritchie</a>. <i>The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790</i>. London: Allen Lane, 2020; New York: HarperCollins, 2021</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2001" class="citation cs2">Porter, Roy (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z6C9zlVo7cAC"><i>The Enlightenment</i></a> (2nd ed.), Macmillan Education UK, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-94505-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-94505-6"><bdi>978-0-333-94505-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education+UK&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-333-94505-6&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz6C9zlVo7cAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Roche" title="Daniel Roche">Roche, Daniel</a>. <i>France in the Enlightenment</i>. (1998).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_and_surveys">Reference and surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Reference and surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Becker" title="Carl L. Becker">Becker, Carl L.</a> <i>The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers.</i> (1932), a famous short classic</li> <li>Chisick, Harvey. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment</i> (2005)</li> <li>Delon, Michel. <i>Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment</i> (2001) 1480 pp.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dupr%C3%A9_(philosopher)" title="Louis Dupré (philosopher)">Dupré, Louis</a>. <i>The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture</i> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a>. <i>The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism</i> (1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 592 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393313026">excerpt and text search vol 1</a>.</li> <li>Gay, Peter. <i>The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom</i> (1969, 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393313662">excerpt and text search vol 2</a>;</li> <li>Greensides F., Hyland P., Gomez O. (ed.). <i>The Enlightenment</i> (2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrone2017" class="citation book cs1">Ferrone, Vincenzo (2017). <i>The Enlightenment: History of an Idea</i>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment%3A+History+of+an+Idea&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Ferrone&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. <i>The Enlightenment World</i> (2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars</li> <li>Hampson, Norman. <i>The Enlightenment</i> (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enlightenment00hamp">online</a></li> <li>Hazard, Paul. <i>European Thought in the 18th Century: From Montesquieu to Lessing</i> (1965)</li> <li>Hesmyr, Atle. <i>From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe</i> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Himmelfarb, Gertrude</a>. <i>The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments</i> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Roads-Modernity-British-American-Enlightenments/dp/1400077222/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Jacob, Margaret. <i>Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents</i> 2000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Charles_Kors" title="Alan Charles Kors">Kors, Alan Charles</a>. <i>Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment</i> (4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195104307">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_L._Lehner" title="Ulrich L. Lehner">Lehner, Ulrich L.</a> <i>The Catholic Enlightenment</i> (2016)</li> <li>Lehner, Ulrich L. <i>Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment</i> (2017)</li> <li>Munck, Thomas. <i>Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794</i> (1994)</li> <li>Outram, Dorinda. <i>The Enlightenment</i> (1995) 157 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521425344">excerpt and text search</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enlightenment00outr">online</a></li> <li>Outram, Dorinda. <i>Panorama of the Enlightenment</i> (2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker2018" class="citation book cs1">Pinker, Steven (2018). <i>Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress</i>. Penguin Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+Now%3A+The+Case+for+Reason%2C+Science%2C+Humanism%2C+and+Progress&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Pinker&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. <i>Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment.</i> (2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp.</li> <li>Robertson, Ritchie. <i>The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790.</i> (2021).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarmant2012" class="citation book cs1">Sarmant, Thierry (2012). <i>Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation</i>. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7558-0330-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7558-0330-3"><bdi>978-2-7558-0330-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+Paris%3A+Politique%2C+urbanisme%2C+civilisation&rft.pub=Editions+Jean-Paul+Gisserot&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-7558-0330-3&rft.aulast=Sarmant&rft.aufirst=Thierry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman2023" class="citation book cs1">Statman, Alexander (2023). <i>A Global Enlightenment: Western Progress and Chinese Science</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226825762" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226825762"><bdi>978-0226825762</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+Enlightenment%3A+Western+Progress+and+Chinese+Science&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0226825762&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Warman, Caroline; et al. (2016), Warman, Caroline (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/418/tolerance--the-beacon-of-the-enlightenment"><i>Tolerance: The Beacon of the Enlightenment</i></a>, Open Book Publishers, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11647%2FOBP.0088">10.11647/OBP.0088</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-203-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-203-5"><bdi>978-1-78374-203-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tolerance%3A+The+Beacon+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.pub=Open+Book+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11647%2FOBP.0088&rft.isbn=978-1-78374-203-5&rft.aulast=Warman&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openbookpublishers.com%2Fproduct%2F418%2Ftolerance--the-beacon-of-the-enlightenment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Yolton, John W. et al. <i>The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment.</i> (1992). 581 pp.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialty_studies">Specialty studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Specialty studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). <i>The Ibero-American Enlightenment</i> (1971).</li> <li>Artz, Frederick B. <i>The Enlightenment in France</i> (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_0873380320">online</a></li> <li>Brewer, Daniel. <i>The Enlightenment Past: Reconstructing 18th-Century French Thought</i> (2008)</li> <li>Broadie, Alexander. <i>The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation</i> (2007)</li> <li>Broadie, Alexander. <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521003237">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronner1995" class="citation journal cs1">Bronner, Stephen (1995). "The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics". <i>New Politics</i>. <b>5</b>: 65–86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Great+Divide%3A+The+Enlightenment+and+its+Critics&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=65-86&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Bronner&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown, Stuart, ed. <i>British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment</i> (2002)</li> <li>Buchan, James. <i>Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind</i> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/006055889X">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Burrows, Simon. (2013) "In Search of Enlightenment: From Mapping Books to Cultural History." <i>Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies</i> 13, no. 4: 3–28.</li> <li>Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) <i>The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment</i>, Edinburgh, 1982</li> <li>Cassirer, Ernst. <i>The Philosophy of the Enlightenment.</i> 1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0691019630">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Chartier" title="Roger Chartier">Chartier, Roger</a>. <i>The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution</i>. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/59328/rec/1"><i>Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-451-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-451-7"><bdi>978-0-87099-451-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+in+the+age+of+enlightenment+and+revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-451-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F59328%2Frec%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Edelstein, Dan. <i>The Enlightenment: A Genealogy</i> (University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolinski2011" class="citation journal cs1">Golinski, Jan (2011). "Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited". <i>History of Science</i>. <b>49</b> (2): 217–231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011HisSc..49..217G">2011HisSc..49..217G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007327531104900204">10.1177/007327531104900204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142886527">142886527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Science+in+the+Enlightenment%2C+Revisited&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-231&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142886527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F007327531104900204&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011HisSc..49..217G&rft.aulast=Golinski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Goodman, Dena. <i>The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment</i>. (1994).</li> <li>Hesse, Carla. <i>The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.</li> <li>Hankins, Thomas L. <i>Science and the Enlightenment</i> (1985).</li> <li>May, Henry F. <i>The Enlightenment in America.</i> 1976. 419 pp.</li> <li>Porter, Roy. <i>The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment.</i> 2000. 608 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393322688">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Redkop, Benjamin. <i>The Enlightenment and Community</i>, 1999</li> <li>Reid-Maroney, Nina. <i>Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason.</i> 2001. 199 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2003" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, James (2003). "Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>64</b> (3): 421–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3654234">10.2307/3654234</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3654234">3654234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Inventing+the+Enlightenment%3A+Anti-Jacobins%2C+British+Hegelians%2C+and+the+%27Oxford+English+Dictionary%27&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=421-443&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3654234&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3654234%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sorkin, David. <i>The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna</i> (2008)</li> <li>Staloff, Darren. <i>Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding.</i> 2005. 419 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/080905356X">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Suitner, Riccarda. <i>The Dialogues of the Dead of the Early German Enlightenment</i> (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2022)</li> <li>Till, Nicholas. <i>Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas.</i> 1993. 384 pp.</li> <li>Tunstall, Kate E. <i>Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind</i> (Continuum, 2011)</li> <li>Venturi, Franco. <i>Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment</i>. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971)</li> <li>Venturi, Franco. <i>Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century</i> (1972) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italyenlightenme00vent">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Wills, Garry</a>. <i>Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment</i> (1984) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cincinnatusgeorg00will">online</a></li> <li>Winterer, Caroline. <i>American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason</i> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016)</li> <li>Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794–1715). Editorial DENES. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-16473-45-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-16473-45-8">978-84-16473-45-8</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li>Broadie, Alexander, ed. <i>The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0862417384">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Diderot, Denis. <i>Rameau's Nephew and other Works</i> (2008) excerpt and text search.</li> <li>Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E. <i>Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind</i> (Continuum, 2011)</li> <li>Diderot, Denis. <i>The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles</i> (1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGay1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a>, ed. (1973). <i>The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology</i>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671217070" title="Special:BookSources/0671217070"><bdi>0671217070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment%3A+A+Comprehensive+Anthology&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0671217070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. <i>The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415204496">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Kramnick, Issac, ed. <i>The Portable Enlightenment Reader</i> (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140245669">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_E._Manuel" title="Frank E. Manuel">Manuel, Frank Edward</a>, ed. <i>The Enlightenment</i> (1965) online, excerpts</li> <li>Schmidt, James, ed. <i>What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0520202260">excerpt and text search</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Enlightenment&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Enlightenment" class="extiw" title="wikt:Enlightenment">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/">"Enlightenment"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enlightenment&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fenlightenment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Enlightenment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/s/Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/5368">Age of Enlightenment</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23625">Collection: Art of the Enlightenment Era</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_modern_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template talk:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_modern_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Technological:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing#Impact_of_German_movable_type_printing_press" title="Printing">Printing Revolution</a></li> <li>Intellectual:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_of_Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism of Early Modern Europe">Journalism of Early Modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">Free imperial city</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li>England <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_wars" title="Cabinet wars">Cabinet wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Treaties of Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Philosophy:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)</a></i></li> <li><u> Authors</u>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Palmieri" title="Matteo Palmieri">Matteo Palmieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance art</a></li> <li>Painting: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">End of period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historiography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historiography" title="Template:Historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historiography" title="Template talk:Historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Historiography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Historiography">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template talk:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a><br />(30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a><br />(180–451)<br /><a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman<br />state church</a><br />(380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the<br /><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" 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