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class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_railroad_terminus_to_Atlanta:_1836–1860"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>From railroad terminus to Atlanta: 1836–1860</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-From_railroad_terminus_to_Atlanta:_1836–1860-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle From railroad terminus to Atlanta: 1836–1860 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-From_railroad_terminus_to_Atlanta:_1836–1860-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_and_development_into_a_regional_rail_hub" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_development_into_a_regional_rail_hub"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Growth and development into a regional rail hub</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_development_into_a_regional_rail_hub-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing_and_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing_and_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Manufacturing and commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing_and_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_antebellum_Atlanta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_antebellum_Atlanta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Slavery in antebellum Atlanta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_antebellum_Atlanta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861–1871" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861–1871"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861–1871</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861–1871-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861–1871 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861–1871-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_War:_1861–1865" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War:_1861–1865"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Civil War: 1861–1865</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War:_1861–1865-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction:_1865–1871" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction:_1865–1871"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Reconstruction: 1865–1871</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction:_1865–1871-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Center_of_black_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Center_of_black_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Center of black education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Center_of_black_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gate_City_of_the_New_South:_1872-1905" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gate_City_of_the_New_South:_1872-1905"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gate City of the New South: 1872-1905</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gate_City_of_the_New_South:_1872-1905-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gate City of the New South: 1872-1905 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gate_City_of_the_New_South:_1872-1905-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_New_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_New_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The New South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_New_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_and_the_first_planned_suburbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_and_the_first_planned_suburbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Expansion and the first planned suburbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_and_the_first_planned_suburbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disenfranchisement_of_black_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disenfranchisement_of_black_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Disenfranchisement of black people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disenfranchisement_of_black_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coca-Cola" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coca-Cola"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Coca-Cola</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coca-Cola-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cotton_States_Expo_and_Booker_T._Washington_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cotton_States_Expo_and_Booker_T._Washington_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Cotton States Expo and Booker T. Washington speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cotton_States_Expo_and_Booker_T._Washington_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Streetcar suburbs and World War II: 1906–1945</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906–1945-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Streetcar suburbs and World War II: 1906–1945 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1906_race_riot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1906_race_riot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>1906 race riot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1906_race_riot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Sweet_Auburn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Sweet_Auburn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Rise of Sweet Auburn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Sweet_Auburn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jim_Crow_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jim_Crow_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Jim Crow laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jim_Crow_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Country_music_scene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Country_music_scene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Country music scene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Country_music_scene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Great Atlanta Fire of 1917</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gone_with_the_Wind_premiere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gone_with_the_Wind_premiere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span><i>Gone with the Wind</i> premiere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gone_with_the_Wind_premiere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Absence_of_film's_black_stars_at_event" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absence_of_film's_black_stars_at_event"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.1</span> <span>Absence of film's black stars at event</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absence_of_film's_black_stars_at_event-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversial_participation_of_Martin_Luther_King_Sr." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversial_participation_of_Martin_Luther_King_Sr."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.2</span> <span>Controversial participation of Martin Luther King Sr.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversial_participation_of_Martin_Luther_King_Sr.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_hub" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_hub"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Transportation hub</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_hub-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946–1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946–1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Suburbanization and Civil Rights: 1946–1989</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946–1989-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Suburbanization and Civil Rights: 1946–1989 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946–1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blockbusting_and_racial_transition_in_neighborhoods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blockbusting_and_racial_transition_in_neighborhoods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Blockbusting and racial transition in neighborhoods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blockbusting_and_racial_transition_in_neighborhoods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_Rights_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_Rights_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Civil Rights Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_Rights_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desegregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desegregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Desegregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desegregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1962_air_crash_and_influence_on_art_scene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1962_air_crash_and_influence_on_art_scene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>1962 air crash and influence on art scene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1962_air_crash_and_influence_on_art_scene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freeway_construction_and_revolts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freeway_construction_and_revolts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Freeway construction and revolts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freeway_construction_and_revolts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_renewal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_renewal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Urban renewal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shoppers_move_to_new_malls_as_Downtown_gains_new_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoppers_move_to_new_malls_as_Downtown_gains_new_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Shoppers move to new malls as Downtown gains new roles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoppers_move_to_new_malls_as_Downtown_gains_new_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_political_power_and_Mayor_Jackson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_political_power_and_Mayor_Jackson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Black political power and Mayor Jackson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_political_power_and_Mayor_Jackson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_of_MARTA_rail_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_of_MARTA_rail_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Construction of MARTA rail system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_of_MARTA_rail_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child_murders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_murders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Child murders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_murders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mayor_Andrew_Young" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mayor_Andrew_Young"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.11</span> <span>Mayor Andrew Young</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mayor_Andrew_Young-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campbell_mayorship_and_failure_of_Atlanta_Empowerment_Zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campbell_mayorship_and_failure_of_Atlanta_Empowerment_Zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.12</span> <span>Campbell mayorship and failure of Atlanta Empowerment Zone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campbell_mayorship_and_failure_of_Atlanta_Empowerment_Zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Olympic_and_World_City:_1990–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olympic_and_World_City:_1990–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Olympic and World City: 1990–present</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Olympic_and_World_City:_1990–present-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Olympic and World City: 1990–present subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Olympic_and_World_City:_1990–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1996_Summer_Olympics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1996_Summer_Olympics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>1996 Summer Olympics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1996_Summer_Olympics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shirley_Franklin_mayorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shirley_Franklin_mayorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Shirley Franklin mayorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shirley_Franklin_mayorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2008_tornado" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2008_tornado"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>2008 tornado</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2008_tornado-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BeltLine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BeltLine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>BeltLine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BeltLine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gentrification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gentrification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Gentrification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gentrification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Racial transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Recent events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_directories_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_directories_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>City directories online</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_directories_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_Atlanta" title="Special:EditPage/History of Atlanta">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+Atlanta%22">"History of Atlanta"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+Atlanta%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+Atlanta%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+Atlanta%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+Atlanta%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+Atlanta%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta History">Atlanta History</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Atlanta timeline</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Atlanta.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Seal of the City of Atlanta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/200px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/300px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/400px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="1226" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption">Seal of the City of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> History</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Before 1820</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <dl><dt>1762</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Standing_Peachtree" title="Standing Peachtree">Standing Peachtree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading post</a> first mentioned</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1820</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <dl><dt>1821</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Creek_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek Indians">Creek Indians</a> cede land that is now <a href="/wiki/Metro_Atlanta" title="Metro Atlanta">Metro Atlanta</a></dd> <dt>1823</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Decatur,_Georgia" title="Decatur, Georgia">Decatur</a> founded</dd> <dt>1826</dt> <dd>Land lottery to distribute lots in the area which is now Atlanta</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1830</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <dl><dt>1830</dt> <dd>Whitehall Tavern built at today's <a href="/wiki/West_End,_Atlanta" title="West End, Atlanta">West End</a></dd> <dt>1836</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Western & Atlantic Railroad">Western & Atlantic Railroad</a> approved</dd> <dt>1839</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Thrasher" title="John Thrasher">John Thrasher</a> builds settlement at terminus</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1850</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 2,572</div> <dl><dt>1850</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oakland_Cemetery_(Atlanta)" title="Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta)">Oakland Cemetery</a> founded</dd> <dt>1851</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Western & Atlantic Railroad">Western & Atlantic Railroad</a> connects Atlanta to <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">The Midwest</a></dd> <dt>1854</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_and_La_Grange_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta and La Grange Railroad">Atlanta and La Grange Railroad</a> connects Atlanta towards the southwest; Atlanta becomes rail hub for entire <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1860</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 9,554</div> <dl><dt>1861-1865</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></dd> <dt>1864</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Civil War</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Campaign">Atlanta Campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">burning of Atlanta</a></dd> <dt>1865</dt> <dd>Civil War ends; slaves freed;<br /><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a>, 1st Atlanta <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University_Center" title="Atlanta University Center">black college</a>, founded</dd> <dt>1868</dt> <dd>Atlanta made state capital</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1870</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 21,879</div> <dl><dt>1871</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">Horse-drawn streetcars</a> appear, enabling city expansion</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1880</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 37,409</div> <dl><dt>1880</dt> <dd>Atlanta surpasses <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a> as Georgia's largest city</dd> <dt>1881</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/International_Cotton_Exposition" title="International Cotton Exposition">International Cotton Exposition</a></dd> <dt>1885</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Tech" title="Georgia Tech">Georgia Tech</a> founded</dd> <dt>1886</dt> <dd>Atlanta <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">goes "dry"</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> first sold;<br /><a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Grady#Journalist" title="Henry W. Grady">Henry Grady</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/New_South" title="New South">New South</a>" speech in New York City</dd> <dt>1887</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_Exposition" title="Piedmont Exposition">Piedmont Exposition</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Inman_Park" title="Inman Park">Inman Park</a>, first garden suburb, founded;<br /><a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> invents the <a href="/wiki/Coupon" title="Coupon">coupon</a></dd> <dt>1889</dt> <dd>First <a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">electric streetcars</a> enable further expansion of city;<br /><a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Capitol" title="Georgia State Capitol">State Capitol</a> building opens</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1890</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 65,533</div> <dl><dt>1895</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States Expo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> gives <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">"Atlanta Compromise" Speech</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1900</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 89,872 - metro 419,375</div> <dl><dt>1906</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> kills 27;<br />Black businesses move to <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Auburn" title="Sweet Auburn">Sweet Auburn</a> and west side</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1910</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 154,839 - metro 522,442</div> <dl><dt>1910</dt> <dd>Restaurants segregated; other <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> follow</dd> <dt>1913</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> lynching;<br /><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Tech" title="Georgia Tech">Georgia Tech</a> starts "evening college", now <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State</a></dd> <dt>1914</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> president <a href="/wiki/Asa_Griggs_Candler" title="Asa Griggs Candler">Asa Griggs Candler</a> donates land for <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a> campus in <a href="/wiki/Druid_Hills,_Georgia" title="Druid Hills, Georgia">Druid Hills</a></dd> <dt>1917</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_fire_of_1917" title="Great Atlanta fire of 1917">Great Atlanta fire</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1920</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 200,616 - metro 622,283</div> <dl><dt>1923</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viaducts_of_Atlanta" title="Viaducts of Atlanta">Spring Street Viaduct</a> opens, downtown rises above train tracks</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1930</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 270,366 - metro 715,391</div> <dl><dt>1936</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_B._Hartsfield" title="William B. Hartsfield">William B. Hartsfield</a> elected mayor;<br /><a href="/wiki/Techwood_Homes" title="Techwood Homes">Techwood Homes</a> built, first public housing in US</dd> <dt>1939</dt> <dd><i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i> premiere draws 300,000 to streets</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1940</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"> <dl><dt>1946</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) founded</dd> <dt>1949</dt> <dd>Last <a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">streetcar</a> line converted to <a href="/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Atlanta" title="Trolleybuses in Atlanta">trolleybus</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1950</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 331,314 - metro 997,666</div> <dl><dt>1950</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_transit_strike_of_1950" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta transit strike of 1950">Transit strike</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Transit_Company" title="Atlanta Transit Company">Atlanta Transit Co.</a> takes over transit from <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Power" title="Georgia Power">Georgia Railway and Power</a></dd> <dt>1952</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Buckhead" title="Buckhead">Buckhead</a> annexed</dd> <dt>1958</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Benevolent_Congregation_Temple_bombing" title="Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple bombing">Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple bombing</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></dd> <dt>1959</dt> <dd>Trolleybuses, buses, public library desegregated;<br /><a href="/wiki/Lenox_Square" title="Lenox Square">Lenox Square</a> mall opens<br /><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta metropolitan area">Metro</a> population hits 1 million</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1960</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 487,455 - metro 1,312,474</div> <dl><dt>1960</dt> <dd>Sit-ins at <a href="/wiki/Rich%27s_(department_store)" title="Rich's (department store)">Rich's</a> lunch counters during the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></dd> <dt>1961</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Allen_Jr." title="Ivan Allen Jr.">Ivan Allen Jr.</a> becomes mayor;<br /><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools" title="Atlanta Public Schools">Public schools</a> begin token desegregation;<br /><a href="/wiki/Rich%27s_(department_store)" title="Rich's (department store)">Rich's</a> desegregates restaurant;<br /><a href="/wiki/John_C._Portman_Jr." title="John C. Portman Jr.">John Portman</a> opens <a href="/wiki/AmericasMart" title="AmericasMart">Merchandise Mart</a>, kicking off <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#transformation_of_downtown">transformation of downtown</a></dd> <dt>1962</dt> <dd>106 Atlanta art patrons die in <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_007#Impact_on_Atlanta,_Georgia" title="Air France Flight 007">Paris air crash</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Atlanta" title="Trolleybuses in Atlanta">Trolleybuses</a> converted en masse to buses</dd> <dd>1966</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">Major League Baseball</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves" title="Atlanta Braves">Braves</a> play first season in Atlanta after moving from <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/National_Football_League" title="National Football League">National Football League</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons" title="Atlanta Falcons">Falcons</a> play first season</dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> assassinated</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/National_Basketball_Association" title="National Basketball Association">National Basketball Association</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks" title="Atlanta Hawks">Hawks</a> play first season in Atlanta after moving from <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Interstate_285_(Georgia)" title="Interstate 285 (Georgia)">Perimeter</a> freeway opens</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1970</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 496,973 - metro 1,763,626</div> <dl><dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maynard_Jackson" title="Maynard Jackson">Maynard Jackson</a> becomes first black <a href="/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Atlanta" title="List of mayors of Atlanta">mayor</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Atlanta_Rapid_Transit_Authority" title="Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority">MARTA</a> opens first rail rapid transit line;<br /><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_murders_of_1979%E2%80%9381" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta murders of 1979–81">Child murders</a> begin</dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1980</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 425,022 - metro 2,233,324</div> <dl><dt>1980</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> launches, <a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System" title="Turner Broadcasting System">Turner</a> empire takes off</dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> becomes mayor</dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1988 Democratic National Convention">Democratic Convention</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">1990</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 394,017 - metro 2,959,950</div> <dl><dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_America_Plaza_(Atlanta)" title="Bank of America Plaza (Atlanta)">Bank of America Plaza</a> completed, tallest US building outside of NYC and Chicago</dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics" title="1996 Summer Olympics">Summer Olympics</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">2000</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 416,474 - metro 4,112,198</div> <dl><dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hartsfield%E2%80%93Jackson_Atlanta_International_Airport" title="Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport">Airport</a> becomes world's busiest;<br /><a href="/wiki/BeltLine" class="mw-redirect" title="BeltLine">BeltLine</a> plan adopted, adding 40% to city's green space</dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines" title="Delta Air Lines">Delta</a> becomes world's largest airline;<br /><a href="/wiki/2008_Atlanta_tornado_outbreak" title="2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak">Downtown tornadoes</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left:0.5em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">2010</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">pop. 420,003 - metro (CSA) 5,729,304</div> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd>Atlanta first US city to <a href="/wiki/Demolished_public_housing_projects_in_Atlanta" title="Demolished public housing projects in Atlanta">demolish all public housing projects</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools" title="Atlanta Public Schools">Atlanta Public Schools</a> supervisor <a href="/wiki/Beverly_Hall" title="Beverly Hall">Beverly Hall</a> convicted in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools_cheating_scandal" title="Atlanta Public Schools cheating scandal">cheating scandal</a></dd> <dt>2017</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Interstate_85_bridge_collapse" title="Interstate 85 bridge collapse">Interstate 85 bridge collapse</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Atlanta" title="Timeline of Atlanta">Timeline of Atlanta</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atlanta_timeline" title="Template:Atlanta timeline"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atlanta_timeline" title="Template talk:Atlanta timeline"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta timeline"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:State_square_and_depot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/State_square_and_depot.jpg/220px-State_square_and_depot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/State_square_and_depot.jpg/330px-State_square_and_depot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/State_square_and_depot.jpg/440px-State_square_and_depot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>Antebellum Atlanta: <a href="/wiki/State_Square" title="State Square">State Square</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Union_Station_(1853)" title="Atlanta Union Station (1853)">first Union Station</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of Atlanta</b> dates back to 1836, when <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> decided to build a railroad to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Midwest" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Midwest">U.S. Midwest</a> and a location was chosen to be the line's terminus. The stake marking the founding of "Terminus" was driven into the ground in 1837 (called the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Zero_Mile_Post" title="Atlanta Zero Mile Post">Zero Mile Post</a>). In 1839, homes and a store were built there and the settlement grew. Between 1845 and 1854, rail lines arrived from four different directions, and the rapidly growing town quickly became the rail hub for the entire <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, Atlanta, as a distribution hub, became the target of a <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Campaign">major Union campaign</a>, and in 1864, Union <a href="/wiki/William_Sherman" class="mw-redirect" title="William Sherman">William Sherman</a>'s troops set on fire and destroyed the city's assets and buildings, save churches and hospitals. After the war, the population grew rapidly, as did manufacturing, while the city retained its role as a rail hub. Coca-Cola was launched here in 1886 and grew into an Atlanta-based world empire. Electric streetcars arrived in 1889,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the city added new "<a href="/wiki/Streetcar_suburb" title="Streetcar suburb">streetcar suburbs</a>". </p><p>The city's elite black colleges were founded between 1865 and 1885, and despite disenfranchisement and the later imposition of <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> laws in the 1910s, a prosperous <a href="/wiki/Black_middle_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Black middle class">black middle class</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Black_Upper_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="American Black Upper Class">upper class</a> emerged. By the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Auburn" title="Sweet Auburn">"Sweet" Auburn Avenue</a> was called "the most prosperous Negro street in the nation". In the 1950s, black people started moving into city neighborhoods that had previously kept them out, while Atlanta's first freeways enabled large numbers of whites to move to, and commute from, new suburbs. Atlanta was home to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, and a major center for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>. Resulting desegregation occurred in stages over the 1960s. Slums were razed and the new <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Housing_Authority" title="Atlanta Housing Authority">Atlanta Housing Authority</a> built public-housing projects. </p><p>From the mid-1960s to mid-'1970s, nine suburban malls opened, and the downtown shopping district declined, but just north of it, gleaming office towers and hotels rose, and in 1976, the new <a href="/wiki/Georgia_World_Congress_Center" title="Georgia World Congress Center">Georgia World Congress Center</a> signaled Atlanta's rise as a major convention city. In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, <a href="/wiki/Maynard_Jackson" title="Maynard Jackson">Maynard Jackson</a>, and in ensuing decades, black political leaders worked successfully with the white business community to promote business growth, while still empowering black businesses. From the mid-1970s to mid-1980s most of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Atlanta_Rapid_Transit_Authority" title="Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority">MARTA</a> rapid transit system was built. While the suburbs grew rapidly, much of the city itself deteriorated and the city lost 21% of its population between 1970 and 1990. </p><p>In 1996, Atlanta hosted the <a href="/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics" title="1996 Summer Olympics">Summer Olympics</a>, for which new facilities and infrastructure were built. Hometown airline <a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines" title="Delta Air Lines">Delta</a> continued to grow, and by 1998-1999, <a href="/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_Atlanta_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport">Atlanta's airport</a> was the busiest in the world. Since the mid-1990s, <a href="/wiki/Gentrification_of_Atlanta" title="Gentrification of Atlanta">gentrification</a> has given new life to many of the city's <a href="/wiki/Intown_Atlanta" title="Intown Atlanta">intown neighborhoods</a>. The 2010 census showed affluent black people leaving the city for newer exurban properties and growing suburban towns, younger whites moving back to the city, and a much more diverse metropolitan area with heaviest growth in the exurbs at its outer edges. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_American_civilization:_before_1836">Native American civilization: before 1836</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Native American civilization: before 1836"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The region where Atlanta and its suburbs were built was originally <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Creek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> territory. In 1813, the Creeks, who had been recruited by the British to assist them in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, attacked and burned <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Mims">Fort Mims</a> in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>. The conflict broadened and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a>. In response, the United States built a string of forts along the <a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_River" title="Ocmulgee River">Ocmulgee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chattahoochee_River" title="Chattahoochee River">Chattahoochee</a> Rivers, including Fort Daniel on top of Hog Mountain near present-day <a href="/wiki/Dacula,_Georgia" title="Dacula, Georgia">Dacula, Georgia</a>, and Fort Gilmer.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia's_Forts_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgia's_Forts-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fort Gilmer was situated next to an important Indian site called <a href="/wiki/Standing_Peachtree" title="Standing Peachtree">Standing Peachtree</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Creek_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek Indian">Creek Indian</a> village. The site traditionally marked a Native American meeting place at the boundary between Creek and Cherokee lands, at the point where <a href="/wiki/Peachtree_Creek" title="Peachtree Creek">Peachtree Creek</a> flows into the Chattahoochee. The fort was soon renamed Fort Peachtree. A road was built linking Fort Peachtree and Fort Daniel following the route of existing trails.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia's_Forts_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgia's_Forts-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As part of the systematic removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Creek ceded the area that is now metro Atlanta in 1821. Four months later, the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Land_Lotteries" title="Georgia Land Lotteries">Georgia Land Lottery Act</a> created five new counties in the area that would later become Atlanta.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dekalb County was created in 1822, from portions of Henry, Fayette, and Gwinnett Counties, and <a href="/wiki/Decatur,_Georgia" title="Decatur, Georgia">Decatur</a> was created as its county seat the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of the land lottery, Archibald Holland received a grant for District 14, Land Lot 82: an area of 202.5 acres near the present-day Coca-Cola headquarters.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holland farmed the land and operated a blacksmith shop. However, the land was low-lying and wet, so his cattle often became mired in the mud. He left the area in 1833 to farm in Paulding County.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1830, an inn was established that became known as Whitehall due to the then-unusual fact that it had a coat of white paint, when most other buildings were of washed or natural wood. Later, Whitehall Street was built as the road from Atlanta to Whitehall. The Whitehall area was renamed <a href="/wiki/West_End_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="West End (Atlanta)">West End</a> in 1867 and is the oldest intact <a href="/wiki/Victorian_architecture" title="Victorian architecture">Victorian</a> neighborhood of Atlanta.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1835, some leaders of the Cherokee Nation ceded their territory to the United States without the consent of the majority of the Cherokee people in exchange for land out west under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>, an act that led to the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="From_railroad_terminus_to_Atlanta:_1836–1860"><span id="From_railroad_terminus_to_Atlanta:_1836.E2.80.931860"></span>From railroad terminus to Atlanta: 1836–1860</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: From railroad terminus to Atlanta: 1836–1860"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zero_Mile_Post.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Zero_Mile_Post.JPG/220px-Zero_Mile_Post.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Zero_Mile_Post.JPG/330px-Zero_Mile_Post.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Zero_Mile_Post.JPG/440px-Zero_Mile_Post.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4352" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Western & Atlantic Railroad">Western & Atlantic Railroad</a>'s Zero Mile Post</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1836, the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_General_Assembly" title="Georgia General Assembly">Georgia General Assembly</a> voted to build the <a href="/wiki/Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad" title="Western and Atlantic Railroad">Western and Atlantic Railroad</a> to provide a link between the <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">port</a> of <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W&ARR_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W&ARR-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial route of that state-sponsored project was to run from <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga, Tennessee</a>, to a spot east of the <a href="/wiki/Chattahoochee_River" title="Chattahoochee River">Chattahoochee River</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Fulton_County,_Georgia" title="Fulton County, Georgia">Fulton County</a>. The plan was to eventually link up with the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Railroad_and_Banking_Company" title="Georgia Railroad and Banking Company">Georgia Railroad</a> from <a href="/wiki/Augusta,_Georgia" title="Augusta, Georgia">Augusta</a>, and with the <a href="/wiki/Macon_and_Western_Railroad" title="Macon and Western Railroad">Macon and Western Railroad</a>, which ran between <a href="/wiki/Macon,_Georgia" title="Macon, Georgia">Macon</a> and Savannah. A <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army">U.S. Army</a> engineer, Colonel Stephen Harriman Long, was asked to recommend the location where the Western and Atlantic line would terminate. He surveyed various possible routes, then in the autumn of 1837, drove a stake into the ground between what are now Forsyth Street and Andrew Young International Boulevard, about three or four blocks northwest of today's <a href="/wiki/Five_Points_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Points (Atlanta)">Five Points</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-garrett_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garrett-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The zero milepost was later placed to mark that spot.<sup id="cite_ref-zeromile-gi_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeromile-gi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zeromile-lat34_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeromile-lat34-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1839, <a href="/wiki/John_Thrasher" title="John Thrasher">John Thrasher</a> built homes and a <a href="/wiki/General_store" title="General store">general store</a> in this vicinity, and the settlement was nicknamed Thrasherville. A marker identifies the location of Thrasherville at 104 <a href="/wiki/Marietta_Street" title="Marietta Street">Marietta Street</a>, NW, in front of the <a href="/wiki/State_Bar_of_Georgia_Building" title="State Bar of Georgia Building">State Bar of Georgia Building</a>, between Spring and Cone Streets.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Atlanta&params=33_45.409_N_84_23.542_W_dim:30_region:US-WI_type:event&title=Thrasherville+marker"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">33°45.409′N</span> <span class="longitude">84°23.542′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="vcard"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">33.756817°N 84.392367°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">33.756817; -84.392367</span></span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="fn org">Thrasherville marker</span>)</span></span></span></a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, Thrasher built the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantatimemachine.com/downtown/aerial_pc_425a.htm">Monroe Embankment</a>, an earthen embankment to carry the Monroe Railway to meet the W&A at the terminus. This is the oldest existing man-made structure in <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Atlanta" title="Downtown Atlanta">downtown Atlanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-garrett_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garrett-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1842, the planned terminus location was moved, four blocks southeast (two to three blocks southeast of Five Points), to what would become <a href="/wiki/State_Square" title="State Square">State Square</a>, on Wall Street between Central Avenue and Pryor Street. (<span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Atlanta&params=33_45.141_N_84_23.317_W_dim:30_region:US-WI_type:event&title=Zero+milepost+marker"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">33°45.141′N</span> <span class="longitude">84°23.317′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="vcard"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">33.752350°N 84.388617°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">33.752350; -84.388617</span></span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="fn org">Zero milepost marker</span>)</span></span></span></a></span></span>). At this location, the <a href="/wiki/Zero_mile_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero mile marker">zero milepost</a> can now be found, adjacent to the southern entrance of <a href="/wiki/Underground_Atlanta" title="Underground Atlanta">Underground Atlanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeromile-lat34_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeromile-lat34-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the settlement grew, it became known as Terminus, literally meaning "end of the line". By 1842, the settlement at Terminus had six buildings and 30 residents. </p><p>Meanwhile, settlement began at what became the <a href="/wiki/Buckhead" title="Buckhead">Buckhead</a> section of Atlanta, several miles north of today's downtown. In 1838, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Irby" title="Henry Irby">Henry Irby</a> started a tavern and grocery at what became the intersection of Paces Ferry and Roswell Roads. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_in_1847.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Atlanta_in_1847.png/300px-Atlanta_in_1847.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Atlanta_in_1847.png/450px-Atlanta_in_1847.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Atlanta_in_1847.png/600px-Atlanta_in_1847.png 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption>The city in 1847</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1842, when a two-story brick depot was built, the locals asked that the settlement of Terminus be called Lumpkin, after <a href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Lumpkin" title="Wilson Lumpkin">Wilson Lumpkin</a>. Gov. Lumpkin asked them to name it after his young daughter (Martha Atalanta Lumpkin) instead, and Terminus became <b>Marthasville</b>;<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was officially incorporated on December 23, 1843. In 1845, the chief engineer of the Georgia Railroad (<a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Edgar Thomson">J. Edgar Thomson</a>) suggested that Marthasville be renamed "Atlantica-Pacifica", which was quickly shortened to "Atlanta". Wilson Lumpkin seems to have supported the change, reporting that Martha's middle name was <i>Atalanta</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The residents approved the name change, apparently undaunted by the fact that not a single train had yet visited. Act 109 of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_General_Assembly" title="Georgia General Assembly">Georgia General Assembly</a> enacted the name change, which was approved December 26, 1845,<sup id="cite_ref-Reed1889_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed1889-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and signed into law 3 days afterward. In the same act, the election precinct known as the Whitehall precinct (in the home of Charner Humphries) was also changed to Atlanta. In 1847, the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_ward_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta ward system">city's charter</a> was approved, elections were held, and the first slate of <a href="/wiki/City_council" class="mw-redirect" title="City council">councilmen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayor of Atlanta">mayor</a> took office in January 1848. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>AN ACT to change the name of Marthasville, in <a href="/wiki/DeKalb_County,_Georgia" title="DeKalb County, Georgia">DeKalb County</a>, to that of Atlanta; also, to change the election precinct now held at the house of Charner Humphries, known as the Whitehall precinct, to Atlanta. </p><ul><li>SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Georgia, in General Assembly met, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same, That from and after the passage of this act, the name of Marthasville, in DeKalb county, shall be changed to that of Atlanta.</li> <li>SEC. 2. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the election precinct now established by law at the house of Charner Humphries, known as the Whitehall precinct, be and the same is hereby changed to Atlanta.</li> <li>SEC. 3. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That all laws and parts of laws militating against this act, be and the same are hereby repealed.</li> <li>Approved, December 26, 1845<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Georgia General Assembly<sup id="cite_ref-Garrett2011_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garrett2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></li></ul></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_and_development_into_a_regional_rail_hub">Growth and development into a regional rail hub</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Growth and development into a regional rail hub"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg/220px-AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg/330px-AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg/440px-AtlantaNegroSalesLOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4143" data-file-height="4881" /></a><figcaption>A slave auction house on Whitehall Street, 1864</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Georgia_-_Atlanta_-_NARA_-_23936975_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2596" /></a><figcaption>Railyards in Atlanta (1932)</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Railroad_and_Banking_Company" title="Georgia Railroad and Banking Company">Georgia Railroad</a> freight and passenger trains from <a href="/wiki/Augusta,_Georgia" title="Augusta, Georgia">Augusta</a> (to the east of Atlanta), arrived in September 1845 and in that year the first hotel, the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Hotel" title="Atlanta Hotel">Atlanta Hotel</a>, was opened.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The railroad was the chief stimulus to the town's growth, with several lines being added.<sup id="cite_ref-Felton1919_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Felton1919-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1846, a second railroad company, the <a href="/wiki/Macon_and_Western_Railroad" title="Macon and Western Railroad">Macon & Western</a> (orig. "Monroe Railroad"), completed tracks to Terminus/Atlanta, connecting the little settlement with <a href="/wiki/Macon,_Georgia" title="Macon, Georgia">Macon</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a> to the southeast. The town then began to boom. In late 1846, the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Hall_(hotel)" title="Washington Hall (hotel)">Washington Hall</a> hotel was opened. By 1847, the population had reached 2,500. In 1848, the town elected its first mayor and appointed its first town marshal, German M. Lester,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> coinciding with the first homicide and the first jail built. A new city council approved the building of wooden sidewalks and banned conducting business on Sundays. In 1849, Atlanta's third and largest antebellum hotel was built, the <a href="/wiki/Trout_House" title="Trout House">Trout House</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Daily_Intelligencer_(Atlanta)" title="Daily Intelligencer (Atlanta)">Daily Intelligencer</a></i> became the town's first successful daily newspaper. In 1850 <a href="/wiki/Oakland_Cemetery_(Atlanta,_Georgia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta, Georgia)">Oakland Cemetery</a> was founded southeast of town, where it remains today within the city limits. </p><p>In 1851, a third rail line, the <a href="/wiki/Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad" title="Western and Atlantic Railroad">Western and Atlantic Railroad</a> - for which the site of Atlanta had been identified as a terminus - finally arrived, connecting Atlanta to <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga">Chattanooga</a> in the northwest and opening up Georgia to trade with the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley" title="Tennessee Valley">Tennessee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> Valleys, and the American Midwest. The <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Union_Station_(1853)" title="Atlanta Union Station (1853)">union depot</a> was completed in 1853 on <a href="/wiki/State_Square" title="State Square">State Square</a>. That year, the depot's architect, <a href="/wiki/Edward_A._Vincent" title="Edward A. Vincent">Edward A. Vincent</a>, also delivered Atlanta's first official map to the city council. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fulton_County,_Georgia" title="Fulton County, Georgia">Fulton County</a> was established in 1853 from the western section of <a href="/wiki/DeKalb_County,_Georgia" title="DeKalb County, Georgia">DeKalb</a>, and in 1854, a combination Fulton County Court House and Atlanta City Hall was built– which would be razed 30 years later to make way for today's <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Capitol" title="Georgia State Capitol">State Capitol building</a>. (After the Civil War, the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_General_Assembly" title="Georgia General Assembly">Georgia General Assembly</a> decided to move the <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">state capital</a> from <a href="/wiki/Milledgeville,_Georgia" title="Milledgeville, Georgia">Milledgeville</a> to Atlanta.)<sup id="cite_ref-garrett_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garrett-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 370">: 370 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1854, a fourth rail line, the Atlanta and LaGrange Rail Road (later <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_%26_West_Point_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta & West Point Railroad">Atlanta & West Point Railroad</a>) arrived, connecting Atlanta with <a href="/wiki/LaGrange,_Georgia" title="LaGrange, Georgia">LaGrange, Georgia</a>, to the southwest, sealing Atlanta's role as a rail hub for the entire South, with lines to the northwest, east, southeast, and southwest. </p><p>By 1855, the town had grown to 6,025 residents<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 86">: 86 </span></sup> and had a bank, a daily newspaper, a factory to build freight cars, a new brick depot, property taxes, a gasworks, gas street lights, a theater, a medical college, and juvenile delinquency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manufacturing_and_commerce">Manufacturing and commerce</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manufacturing and commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG/250px-Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG/375px-Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG/500px-Atlanta-rolling-1871.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption>Atlanta (Confederate) Rolling Mill, 1858-1864</figcaption></figure> <p>The first true manufacturing establishment was opened in 1844, when <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Norcross" title="Jonathan Norcross">Jonathan Norcross</a>, who later became mayor of Atlanta, arrived in Marthasville and built a sawmill. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Peters_(Atlanta)" title="Richard Peters (Atlanta)">Richard Peters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lemuel_Grant" title="Lemuel Grant">Lemuel Grant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Mims" title="John Mims">John Mims</a> built a three-story flour mill, which was used as a pistol factory during the Civil War. In 1848, <a href="/wiki/Leyden_House" title="Leyden House">Austin Leyden</a> started the town's first foundry and machine shop, which was later the Atlanta Machine Works.<sup id="cite_ref-reed_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Rolling_Mill" title="Atlanta Rolling Mill">Atlanta Rolling Mill</a> (later the "Confederate" Rolling Mill) was built in 1858 near <a href="/wiki/Oakland_Cemetery_(Atlanta)" title="Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta)">Oakland Cemetery</a>. It soon became the South's second-most productive <a href="/wiki/Rolling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling mill">rolling mill</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> it rolled out cannon, iron rail, and 2-inch-thick (51 mm) sheets of iron to clad the <a href="/wiki/CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS <i>Virginia</i></a> for the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate navy">Confederate navy</a>. The mill was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> in 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-garrett_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garrett-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 427">: 427 </span></sup> </p><p>The city became a busy center for <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> distribution. As an example, in 1859, the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Railroad">Georgia Railroad</a> alone sent 3,000 empty rail cars to the city to be loaded with cotton.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 18">: 18 </span></sup> </p><p>By 1860, the city had four large machine shops, two planing mills, three tanneries, two shoe factories, a soap factory, and clothing factories employing 75 people.<sup id="cite_ref-reed_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_antebellum_Atlanta">Slavery in antebellum Atlanta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slavery in antebellum Atlanta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1850, out of 2,572 people, 493 were enslaved <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a>, and 18 were <a href="/wiki/Free_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Free negro">free blacks</a>, for a total black population of 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The black proportion of Atlanta's population became much higher after the Civil War, when freed slaves came to Atlanta in search of opportunity. </p><p>Several <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">slave auction houses</a> were in the town, which advertised in the newspapers and many of which also traded in manufactured goods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861–1871"><span id="Civil_War_and_Reconstruction:_1861.E2.80.931871"></span>Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861–1871</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861–1871"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg/220px-Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg/330px-Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg/440px-Sherman_railroad_destroy_noborder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption>Sherman's army destroying rail infrastructure in Atlanta, 1864</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War:_1861–1865"><span id="Civil_War:_1861.E2.80.931865"></span>Civil War: 1861–1865</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Civil War: 1861–1865"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta in the Civil War">Atlanta in the Civil War</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, Atlanta served as an important railroad and military supply hub. (See also: <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta in the Civil War">Atlanta in the Civil War</a>.) In 1864, the city became the target of a <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">major Union invasion</a> (the setting for the 1939 film <i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i>). The area now covered by Atlanta was the scene of several battles, including the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek" title="Battle of Peachtree Creek">Battle of Peachtree Creek</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Battle of Atlanta</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ezra_Church" title="Battle of Ezra Church">Battle of Ezra Church</a>. General Sherman cut the last supply line to Atlanta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesboro" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jonesboro">Battle of Jonesboro</a> fought on August 31 – September 1.<sup id="cite_ref-O.R._Series_1_p_80_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O.R._Series_1_p_80-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With all of his supply lines cut, <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate</a> General <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">John Bell Hood</a> was forced to abandon Atlanta. On the night of September 1, his troops marched out of the city to <a href="/wiki/Lovejoy,_Georgia" title="Lovejoy, Georgia">Lovejoy, Georgia</a>. General Hood ordered that the 81 rail cars filled with ammunition and other military supplies be destroyed. The resulting fire and explosions were heard for miles.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next day, Mayor <a href="/wiki/James_Calhoun_(politician,_born_1811)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Calhoun (politician, born 1811)">James Calhoun</a> surrendered the city,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on September 7 Sherman ordered the civilian population to evacuate.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then ordered Atlanta burned to the ground on November 11 in preparation for his punitive march south. </p><p>After a plea by the Bishops of the Episcopal and Catholic churches in Atlanta, Sherman did not burn the city's churches or hospitals. The remaining war resources were then destroyed in the aftermath in <a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March to the Sea</a>. The fall of Atlanta was a critical point in the Civil War. Its much publicized fall gave confidence to the Northerners. Together with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Battle of Mobile Bay</a>, the fall of Atlanta led to the re-election of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and the eventual surrender of the Confederacy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/220px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/330px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/440px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4086" data-file-height="2913" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Railway_roundhouse" title="Railway roundhouse">Roundhouse</a> following its destruction during the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Campaign">Atlanta Campaign</a>, 1866.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstruction:_1865–1871"><span id="Reconstruction:_1865.E2.80.931871"></span>Reconstruction: 1865–1871</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reconstruction: 1865–1871"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The city emerged from the ashes – hence the city's symbol, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a> – and was gradually rebuilt, as its population increased rapidly after the war. Atlanta received migrants from surrounding counties and states: from 1860 to 1870 Fulton County more than doubled in population, from 14,427 to 33,446. In a pattern seen across the South after the Civil War, many freedmen moved from plantations to towns or cities for work, including Atlanta; Fulton County went from 20.5% black in 1860 to 45.7% black in 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta,_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg/220px-Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg/330px-Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg/440px-Atlanta%2C_Georgia_--_the_Commercial_Centre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption><i>Atlanta, Georgia -- the Commercial Centre</i>, 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>Food supplies were erratic due to poor harvests, which were a result of the turmoil in the agricultural labor supply after emancipation of the slaves. Many refugees were destitute without even proper clothing or shoes; the <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">AMA</a> helped fill the gap with food, shelter, and clothing, and the federally sponsored <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> also offered much help, though erratically.<sup id="cite_ref-dorsey_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dorsey-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The destruction of the housing stock by the Union army, together with the massive influx of refugees, resulted in a severe housing shortage. Some <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span>-acre (510 m<sup>2</sup>) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>-acre (1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) lots with a small house rented for $5 per month, while those with a glass pane rented for $20. High rents rather than laws led to <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_Atlanta" title="Racial segregation in Atlanta"><i>de facto</i> segregation</a>, with most black people settling in <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_Atlanta#postbellum_shantytowns" title="Racial segregation in Atlanta">three shantytown areas at the city's edge</a>. There, housing was substandard; an <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">AMA</a> missionary remarked that many houses were "rickety shacks" rented at inflated rates. Two of the three shantytowns sat in low-lying areas, prone to flooding and sewage overflows, which resulted in outbreaks of disease in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-dorsey_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dorsey-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A shantytown named <a href="/wiki/Tight_Squeeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Tight Squeeze">Tight Squeeze</a> developed at Peachtree at what is now 10th Street in <a href="/wiki/Midtown_Atlanta" title="Midtown Atlanta">Midtown Atlanta</a>. It was infamous for vagrancy, desperation, and robberies of merchants transiting the settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A smallpox epidemic hit Atlanta in December 1865, with few doctors or hospital facilities to help. Another epidemic hit in fall, 1866; hundreds died.<sup id="cite_ref-dorsey_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dorsey-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction created many new jobs, and employment boomed. Atlanta soon became the industrial and commercial center of the South. From 1867 until 1888, U.S. Army soldiers occupied McPherson Barracks (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Fort_McPherson" title="Fort McPherson">Fort McPherson</a>) in southwest Atlanta to ensure <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era (United States)">Reconstruction-era</a> reforms. In 1868, Atlanta became the Georgia state capital, taking over from <a href="/wiki/Milledgeville,_Georgia" title="Milledgeville, Georgia">Milledgeville</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Center_of_black_education">Center of black education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Center of black education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atlanta quickly became a center of black education. <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University#Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a> was established in 1865, the forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse College</a> in 1867, <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University#Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark University</a> in 1869, <a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman College</a> in 1881, and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Brown_College" title="Morris Brown College">Morris Brown College</a> in 1881. This was one of several factors aiding the establishment of one of the nation's oldest and best-established <a href="/wiki/American_Black_Upper_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="American Black Upper Class">African-American elite</a> in Atlanta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gate_City_of_the_New_South:_1872-1905">Gate City of the New South: 1872-1905</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gate City of the New South: 1872-1905"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_New_South">The New South</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The New South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Grady" title="Henry W. Grady">Henry W. Grady</a>, the editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Constitution">Atlanta Constitution</a></i>, promoted the city to investors as a city of the "<a href="/wiki/New_South" title="New South">New South</a>", by which he meant a diversification of the economy away from agriculture, and a shift from the "<a href="/wiki/Old_South" title="Old South">Old South</a>" attitudes of slavery and rebellion. As part of the effort to modernize the South, Grady and many others also supported the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_School_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia School of Technology">Georgia School of Technology</a> (now the Georgia Institute of Technology), which was founded on the city's northern outskirts in 1885. With Grady's support, the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Soldiers%27_Home" title="Confederate Soldiers' Home">Confederate Soldiers' Home</a> was built in 1889. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_Tech" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Georgia Tech">History of Georgia Tech</a></div> <p>In 1880, Sister Cecilia Carroll, RSM, and three companions traveled from Savannah, Georgia to Atlanta to minister to the sick. With just 50 cents in their collective purse<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, the sisters opened the Atlanta Hospital, the first medical facility in the city after the Civil War. This later became known as Saint Joseph's Hospital. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_and_the_first_planned_suburbs">Expansion and the first planned suburbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Expansion and the first planned suburbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:House_Inman_Park_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/House_Inman_Park_4.jpg/220px-House_Inman_Park_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/House_Inman_Park_4.jpg/330px-House_Inman_Park_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/House_Inman_Park_4.jpg/440px-House_Inman_Park_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inman_Park" title="Inman Park">Inman Park</a>, one of Atlanta's first planned garden suburbs</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting in 1871, <a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">horse-drawn, and later, starting in 1888, electric streetcars</a> fueled real estate development and <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_ward_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta ward system">the city's expansion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington-Rawson" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington-Rawson">Washington Street</a> south of downtown and <a href="/wiki/Peachtree_Street" title="Peachtree Street">Peachtree Street</a> north of the central business district became wealthy residential areas. </p><p>In the 1890s, <a href="/wiki/West_End_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="West End (Atlanta)">West End</a> became the suburb of choice for the city's elite, but <a href="/wiki/Inman_Park" title="Inman Park">Inman Park</a>, planned as a harmonious whole, soon overtook it in prestige. Peachtree Street's mansions reached ever further north into what is now Midtown Atlanta, including <a href="/wiki/Amos_G._Rhodes" title="Amos G. Rhodes">Amos G. Rhodes</a>' (founder of the <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Furniture" title="Rhodes Furniture">Rhodes Furniture</a> Company in 1875) mansion, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Hall" title="Rhodes Hall">Rhodes Hall</a>, which can still be visited. </p><p>Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgia's largest city by 1880. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disenfranchisement_of_black_people">Disenfranchisement of black people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Disenfranchisement of black people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era</a></div> <p>As Atlanta grew, ethnic and racial tensions mounted. Late 19th- and early 20th-century immigration added a very small number of new Europeans to the mix. After Reconstruction, whites had used a variety of tactics, including militias and legislation, to re-establish political and social supremacy throughout the South. Starting with a <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll tax</a> in 1877, by the turn of the century, Georgia passed a variety of legislation that completed the disfranchisement of black people. Not even college-educated men could vote.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Nonetheless, African Americans in Atlanta had been developing their own businesses, institutions, churches, and a strong, educated middle class. Meanwhile, the 2nd Ku Klux Klan era, (1915–1944) headed by William J. Simmons, and the 3rd Ku Klux Klan era, (1946–present) headed by Dr. Samuel Green, both started off in Atlanta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Coca-Cola"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The identities of Atlanta and <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> have been intertwined since 1886, when <a href="/wiki/John_Pemberton" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pemberton">John Pemberton</a> developed the soft drink in response to Atlanta and Fulton County going "dry". The first sales were at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta. <a href="/wiki/Asa_Griggs_Candler" title="Asa Griggs Candler">Asa Griggs Candler</a> acquired a stake in Pemberton's company in 1887 and incorporated it as the <a href="/wiki/Coca_Cola_Corporation" title="Coca Cola Corporation">Coca Cola Company</a> in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-Pendergrast2000_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pendergrast2000-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1892, Candler incorporated a second company, <a href="/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company" title="The Coca-Cola Company"><i>The</i> Coca-Cola Company</a>, the current corporation. By the time of its 50th anniversary, the drink had reached the status of a national icon in the USA. Coca-Cola's world headquarters have remained in Atlanta ever since. In 1991, the company opened the <a href="/wiki/World_of_Coca-Cola" title="World of Coca-Cola">World of Coca-Cola</a>, which has remained one of the city's top visitor attractions. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg/220px-Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg/330px-Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg/440px-Cleveland_at_atlanta_expo_1895.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">President Cleveland</a> at the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States and International Exposition</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cotton_States_Expo_and_Booker_T._Washington_speech">Cotton States Expo and Booker T. Washington speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cotton States Expo and Booker T. Washington speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1895, the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States and International Exposition</a> was held at what is now <a href="/wiki/Piedmont_Park" title="Piedmont Park">Piedmont Park</a>. Nearly 800,000 visitors attended the event. The exposition was designed to promote the region to the world and showcase products and new technologies, as well as to encourage trade with Latin America. The exposition featured exhibits from several states, including various innovations in agriculture and technology. President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> presided over the opening of the exposition, but the event is best remembered for the both hailed and criticized <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">"Atlanta Compromise" speech</a> given by <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> in which Southern black people would work meekly and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that black people would receive basic education and due process in law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906–1945"><span id="Streetcar_suburbs_and_World_War_II:_1906.E2.80.931945"></span>Streetcar suburbs and World War II: 1906–1945</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Streetcar suburbs and World War II: 1906–1945"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1906_race_riot">1906 race riot</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1906 race riot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg/220px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg/330px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg/440px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3431" data-file-height="5016" /></a><figcaption>The cover of French magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)" title="Le Petit Journal (newspaper)">Le Petit Journal</a></i> in October 1906 depicting the Atlanta race riot</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_massacre_of_1906" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta massacre of 1906">Atlanta massacre of 1906</a></div> <p>Competition between working-class whites and black for jobs and housing gave rise to fears and tensions. In 1906, print media fueled these tensions with hearsay about alleged sexual assaults on white women by Black men, triggering the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="1906 Atlanta race riot">1906 Atlanta race riot</a>, which left at least 27 people dead<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (25 of them black) and over 70 injured. Many Black businesses were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_Sweet_Auburn">Rise of Sweet Auburn</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Rise of Sweet Auburn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black businesses started to move from the previously integrated business district downtown to the relative safety of the area around the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University_Center" title="Atlanta University Center">Atlanta University Center</a> west of downtown, and to Auburn Avenue in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Fourth_Ward" title="Old Fourth Ward">Fourth Ward</a> east of downtown. <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Auburn" title="Sweet Auburn">"Sweet" Auburn Avenue</a> became home to <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Herndon" title="Alonzo Herndon">Alonzo Herndon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Mutual Life Insurance Company">Atlanta Mutual</a>, the city's first black-owned life insurance company, and to a celebrated concentration of black businesses, newspapers, churches, and nightclubs. In 1956, <i><a href="/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)">Fortune</a></i> magazine called Sweet Auburn "the richest Negro street in the world", a phrase originally coined by civil-rights leader <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sweet Auburn and Atlanta's <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University_Center" title="Atlanta University Center">elite black colleges</a> formed the nexus of a prosperous <a href="/wiki/Black_middle_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Black middle class">black middle class</a> and <a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">upper class</a>, which arose despite enormous social and legal obstacles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jim_Crow_laws">Jim Crow laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Jim Crow laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ponce_de_leon_springs_segregation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ponce_de_leon_springs_segregation.jpg/220px-Ponce_de_leon_springs_segregation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Ponce_de_leon_springs_segregation.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="109" /></a><figcaption>A sign at the entrance to <a href="/wiki/Ponce_de_Leon_amusement_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponce de Leon amusement park">Ponce de Leon amusement park</a> in 1908 indicating "colored persons admitted as servants only"</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> were passed in swift succession in the years after the riot. The result was in some cases segregated facilities, with nearly always inferior conditions for black customers. In many cases it resulted in no facilities at all available to black people, e.g. all parks were designated whites-only (although a private park, <a href="/wiki/Joyland_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joyland (Atlanta)">Joyland</a>, opened in 1921). In 1910, the city council passed an ordinance requiring that restaurants be designated for one race only, hobbling black restaurant owners who had been attracting both black and white customers.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">Atlanta's streetcars</a> were segregated, with black patrons required to sit in the rear. If not enough seats were available for all white riders, the black people sitting furthest forward in the trolley were required to stand and give their seats to whites. In 1913, the city created official boundaries for white and black residential areas. In 1920, the city prohibited black-owned salons from serving white women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beyond this, black people were subject to the South's "racial protocol", whereby, according to the <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>[A]ll blacks were required to pay obeisance to all whites, even those whites of low social standing. And although they were required to address whites by the title "sir," blacks rarely received the same courtesy themselves. Because even minor breaches of racial etiquette often resulted in violent reprisals, the region's codes of deference transformed daily life into a theater of ritual, where every encounter, exchange, and gesture reinforced black inferiority.</p></blockquote> <p>In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a>, a Jewish supervisor at a factory in Atlanta, was put on trial for raping and murdering a 13-year-old white employee from Marietta, a suburb of Atlanta. After doubts about Frank's guilt led his death sentence to be commuted in 1915, riots broke out in Atlanta among whites. They kidnapped Frank from the State Prison Farm in the city of Milledgeville, with the collusion of prison guards, and took him to Marietta, where he was lynched. Later that year, the Klan was reborn in Atlanta.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Country_music_scene">Country music scene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Country music scene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Country_music_in_Atlanta" title="Country music in Atlanta">Country music in Atlanta</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachian</a> people came to Atlanta to work in the cotton mills and brought their music with them. Starting with a 1913 fiddler's convention, Atlanta became the center of a thriving <a href="/wiki/Country_music_in_Atlanta" title="Country music in Atlanta">country-music scene</a>. Atlanta was an important center for country music recording and talent recruiting in the 1920s and 1930s, and a live music center for an additional two decades after that. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peachtree1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Peachtree1907.jpg/220px-Peachtree1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Peachtree1907.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1914, <a href="/wiki/Asa_Griggs_Candler" title="Asa Griggs Candler">Asa Griggs Candler</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company" title="The Coca-Cola Company">The Coca-Cola Company</a> and brother to former Emory President <a href="/wiki/Warren_Candler" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Candler">Warren Candler</a>, persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Episcopal Church South">Methodist Episcopal Church South</a> to build the new campus of <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a> in the emerging affluent suburb of <a href="/wiki/Druid_Hills,_Georgia" title="Druid Hills, Georgia">Druid Hills</a>, which borders northeastern Atlanta. </p><p>In 1916, Candler was elected mayor of Atlanta (taking office in 1917). As mayor he balanced the city budget and coordinated rebuilding efforts after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_fire_of_1917" title="Great Atlanta fire of 1917">Great Atlanta fire of 1917</a> destroyed 1,500 homes. He also made large personal loans in order to develop the water and sewage facilities of the city of Atlanta, in order to provide the infrastructure necessary to a modern city.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Candler was also a philanthropist, endowing numerous schools and universities (he gave a total of $7 million to <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and the <a href="/wiki/Candler_Hospital_(Savannah)" title="Candler Hospital (Savannah)">Candler Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a>. Candler had paid to relocate Emory University from <a href="/wiki/Oxford,_Georgia" title="Oxford, Georgia">Oxford, Georgia</a>, to Atlanta.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917">Great Atlanta Fire of 1917</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Great Atlanta Fire of 1917"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917fireatlanta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/1917fireatlanta.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="171" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Atlanta Fire of 1917">Great Atlanta Fire</a> in the Fourth Ward, 1917</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Atlanta Fire of 1917">Great Atlanta Fire of 1917</a></div> <p>On May 21, 1917, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_Fire_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Atlanta Fire of 1917">Great Atlanta Fire</a> destroyed 1,938 buildings, mostly wooden, in what is now the <a href="/wiki/Old_Fourth_Ward" title="Old Fourth Ward">Old Fourth Ward</a>. The fire resulted in 10,000 people becoming homeless. Only one person died, a woman who died of a heart attack when seeing her home in ashes. </p><p>In the 1930s, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> hit Atlanta. With the city government nearing bankruptcy, the Coca-Cola Company had to help bail out the city's deficit. The federal government stepped in to help Atlantans by establishing <a href="/wiki/Techwood_Homes" title="Techwood Homes">Techwood Homes</a>, the nation's first federal <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">housing project</a> in 1935. </p><p>On the political scene, between March and May 1930, the police arrested six communist leaders, who became known as the Atlanta Six, under a restoration-era insurrection statute. These leaders were Morris H. Powers, Joseph Carr, Mary Dalton, <a href="/wiki/Ann_Burlak" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann Burlak">Ann Burlak</a>, Herbert Newton, and Henry Storey. During the summer of 1930, approximately 150 Atlanta business leaders, American Legion members, and members of law enforcement founded the American Fascisti Association and Order of the Black Shirts with the goal to "foster the principles of white supremacy".<sup id="cite_ref-Four_Hundred_Souls_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Four_Hundred_Souls-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1932, the city began to deny the Black Shirts permits for parades and charters. In 1932, <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Herndon" title="Angelo Herndon">Angelo Herndon</a> was arrested and charged under the insurrection statute for being in possession of communist literature. Herndon's defense team, including attorney <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Benjamin J. Davis Jr.</a>, countered that by systemically excluding Black Americans from the jury pool, the criminal justice system was violating Herndon's civil rights, making the verdict invalid. The defense team appealed the decision to the Supreme Court twice and secured a decision against the insurrection statute in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Four_Hundred_Souls_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Four_Hundred_Souls-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gone_with_the_Wind_premiere"><i>Gone with the Wind</i> premiere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Gone with the Wind premiere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On December 15, 1939, Atlanta hosted the premiere of <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)"><i>Gone with the Wind</i></a>, the movie based on Atlanta resident <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell" title="Margaret Mitchell">Margaret Mitchell</a>'s best-selling novel. Stars <a href="/wiki/Clark_Gable" title="Clark Gable">Clark Gable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vivien_Leigh" title="Vivien Leigh">Vivien Leigh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olivia_de_Havilland" title="Olivia de Havilland">Olivia de Havilland</a> were in attendance. The premiere was held at <a href="/wiki/Loew%27s_Grand_Theatre" title="Loew's Grand Theatre">Loew's Grand Theatre</a>, at Peachtree and Forsyth Streets, current site of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia-Pacific" title="Georgia-Pacific">Georgia-Pacific</a> building. An enormous crowd, numbering 300,000 people according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Constitution">Atlanta Constitution</a></i>, filled the streets on an ice-cold night in Atlanta. A rousing ovation greeted a group of <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> veterans who were guests of honor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absence_of_film's_black_stars_at_event"><span id="Absence_of_film.27s_black_stars_at_event"></span>Absence of film's black stars at event</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Absence of film's black stars at event"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Noticeably absent was <a href="/wiki/Hattie_McDaniel" title="Hattie McDaniel">Hattie McDaniel</a>, who won the <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress" title="Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress">Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress</a> for her role as Mammy, as well as <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_McQueen" title="Butterfly McQueen">Butterfly McQueen</a> (Prissy). The black actors were barred from attending the premiere, from appearing in the <a href="/wiki/Souvenir_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Souvenir program">souvenir program</a>, and from all the film's advertising in the South. Director <a href="/wiki/David_Selznick" class="mw-redirect" title="David Selznick">David Selznick</a> had attempted to bring McDaniel to the premiere, but <a href="/wiki/MGM" class="mw-redirect" title="MGM">MGM</a> advised him not to do so. Clark Gable angrily threatened to boycott the premiere, but McDaniel convinced him to attend, anyway.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McDaniel did attend the Hollywood debut thirteen days later, and was featured prominently in the program.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controversial_participation_of_Martin_Luther_King_Sr.">Controversial participation of Martin Luther King Sr.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Controversial participation of Martin Luther King Sr."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> sang at the gala as part of a children's choir of his father's church, Ebenezer Baptist.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The boys dressed as <a href="/wiki/Pickaninnies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pickaninnies">pickaninnies</a> and the girls wore "<a href="/wiki/Aunt_Jemima" title="Aunt Jemima">Aunt Jemima</a>"-style bandanas, the dress seen by many black people as humiliating.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a> tried to dissuade Rev. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a>, from participating at the whites-only event, and Rev. King was harshly criticized in the black community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_hub">Transportation hub</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Transportation hub"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Delta_Air_Lines#1940s_and_1950s" title="History of Delta Air Lines">Delta Air Lines</a> moved its headquarters to Atlanta. Delta became the world's largest airline in 2008 after acquiring <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Airlines" title="Northwest Airlines">Northwest Airlines</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the entry of the United States into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, soldiers from around the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern United States</a> went through Atlanta to train and later be discharged at Fort McPherson. War-related manufacturing such as the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Aircraft" title="Bell Aircraft">Bell Aircraft</a> factory in the suburb of <a href="/wiki/Marietta,_Georgia" title="Marietta, Georgia">Marietta</a> helped boost the city's population and economy. Shortly after the war in 1946, the Communicable Disease Center, later called the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> was founded in Atlanta from the old Malaria Control in War Areas offices and staff. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946–1989"><span id="Suburbanization_and_Civil_Rights:_1946.E2.80.931989"></span>Suburbanization and Civil Rights: 1946–1989</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Suburbanization and Civil Rights: 1946–1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg/300px-Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="390" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg/450px-Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Atlanta_annexation_1952.jpg 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>1952 annexation</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1951, the city received the <a href="/wiki/All-America_City_Award" title="All-America City Award">All-America City Award</a> due to its rapid growth and high standard of living in the southern U.S. </p><p>Annexation was the central strategy for growth. In 1952, Atlanta annexed <a href="/wiki/Buckhead" title="Buckhead">Buckhead</a> as well as vast areas of what are now northwest, southwest, and south Atlanta, adding 82 square miles (210 km<sup>2</sup>) and tripling its area. By doing so, 100,000 new affluent white residents were added, preserving white political power, expanding the city's property tax base, and enlarging the traditional white upper middle class leadership. This class now had room to expand inside the city limits. </p><p>Federal court decisions in 1962 and 1963 ended the county-unit system, thus greatly reducing rural Georgia control over the state legislature, enabling Atlanta and other cities to gain proportional political power. The federal courts opened the Democratic Party primary to black voters, who surged in numbers and became increasingly well organized through the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blockbusting_and_racial_transition_in_neighborhoods">Blockbusting and racial transition in neighborhoods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Blockbusting and racial transition in neighborhoods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1950s, after forced-housing patterns<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="what are forced housing patterns? (August 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> were outlawed, violence, intimidation, and organized political pressure were used in some white neighborhoods to discourage black people from buying homes there. However, by the late 1950s, such efforts proved futile as <a href="/wiki/Blockbusting" title="Blockbusting">blockbusting</a> drove whites to sell their homes in neighborhoods such as <a href="/wiki/Adamsville_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adamsville (Atlanta)">Adamsville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Center_Hill_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Center Hill (Atlanta)">Center Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grove_Park_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Park (Atlanta)">Grove Park</a> in northwest Atlanta, and white sections of <a href="/wiki/Edgewood_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgewood (Atlanta)">Edgewood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirkwood (Atlanta)">Kirkwood</a> on the east side. In 1961, the city attempted to thwart blockbusting by erecting road barriers in <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Heights" title="Cascade Heights">Cascade Heights</a>, countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to foster Atlanta as the "city too busy to hate".<sup id="cite_ref-kruse_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kruse-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Efforts to stop transition in Cascade failed too. Neighborhoods of new black homeowners took root, helping alleviate the enormous strain of the lack of housing available to African Americans. Atlanta's western and southern neighborhoods transitioned to majority black — between 1960 and 1970 the number of census tracts that were at least 90% black, tripled. <a href="/wiki/East_Lake_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="East Lake (Atlanta)">East Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirkwood (Atlanta)">Kirkwood</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Watts_Road&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Watts Road (page does not exist)">Watts Road</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reynoldstown" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynoldstown">Reynoldstown</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almond_Park_(Atlanta)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Almond Park (Atlanta) (page does not exist)">Almond Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozley_Park" title="Mozley Park">Mozley Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Center_Hill_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Center Hill (Atlanta)">Center Hill</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Heights" title="Cascade Heights">Cascade Heights</a> underwent an almost total transition from white to black. The black proportion of the city's population rose from 38 to 51%. Meanwhile, during the same decade, the city lost 60,000 white residents, a 20% decline.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a> and the building of malls in the suburbs triggered a slow decline of the central business district. Meanwhile, conservatism grew rapidly in the suburbs, and white Georgians were increasingly willing to vote for Republicans, most notably <a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_Rights_Movement">Civil Rights Movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Civil Rights Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg/220px-Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg/330px-Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg/440px-Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3327" data-file-height="4590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the wake of the landmark <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> decision <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, which helped usher in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, racial tensions in Atlanta erupted in acts of violence. One such instance occurred on October 12, 1958, when <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_the_Hebrew_Benevolent_Congregation_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple">a Reform Jewish temple on Peachtree Street was bombed</a>. A group of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacists</a> calling themselves the "Confederate Underground" claimed responsibility. The temple's leader, Rabbi Jacob Rothschild, actively spoke out in support of the burgeoning Civil Rights Movement and against segregation, which is likely why the congregation was targeted.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In January 1956, <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Grier_(American_football_player)" title="Bobby Grier (American football player)">Bobby Grier</a> became the first black player to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_Bowl" title="Sugar Bowl">Sugar Bowl</a>. He is also regarded as the first black player to compete at a bowl game in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>, though others such as <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Triplett" title="Wallace Triplett">Wallace Triplett</a> had played in games like the 1948 Cotton Bowl in Dallas. Grier's team, the Pittsburgh Panthers, was set to play against the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. However, Georgia's Governor <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Griffin" title="Marvin Griffin">Marvin Griffin</a> beseeched Georgia Tech's president <a href="/wiki/Blake_Van_Leer" class="mw-redirect" title="Blake Van Leer">Blake Van Leer</a> and its players to not participate in this racially integrated game. Griffin was widely criticized by news media leading up to the game, and protests were held at his mansion by Georgia Tech students. After delivering a commencement speech at the all-Black Morris Brown College, Van Leer was summoned by the board of regents where he was quoted <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Either we're going to the Sugar Bowl or you can find yourself another damn president of Georgia Tech.</p></blockquote><p>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the governor's objections, Georgia Tech upheld the contract and proceeded to compete in the bowl. In the game's first quarter, a pass interference call against Grier ultimately resulted in Yellow Jackets' 7-0 victory. Grier stated that he has mostly positive memories about the experience, including the support from teammates and letters from all over the world.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s, Atlanta was a major organizing center of the Civil Rights Movement, with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, and students from Atlanta's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. On October 19, 1960, a sit-in at the lunch counters of several Atlanta department stores led to the arrest of Dr. King and several students. This drew attention from the national media and from presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Despite this incident, Atlanta's political and business leaders fostered Atlanta's image as "the city too busy to hate". While the city mostly avoided confrontation, minor race riots did occur in 1965 and 1968.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Desegregation">Desegregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Desegregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Desegregation of the public sphere came in stages, with buses and <a href="/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Atlanta" title="Trolleybuses in Atlanta">trolleybuses</a> desegregated in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> restaurants at <a href="/wiki/Rich%27s_(department_store)" title="Rich's (department store)">Rich's</a> department store in 1961,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (though <a href="/wiki/Lester_Maddox" title="Lester Maddox">Lester Maddox</a>'s Pickrick restaurant famously remained segregated through 1964),<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and movie theaters in 1962–3.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in 1961, Mayor <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Allen_Jr." title="Ivan Allen Jr.">Ivan Allen Jr.</a> became one of the few Southern white mayors to support desegregation of his city's public schools, initial compliance was token, and in reality desegregation occurred in stages from 1961 to 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1962_air_crash_and_influence_on_art_scene">1962 air crash and influence on art scene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 1962 air crash and influence on art scene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_007#Impact_on_Atlanta,_Georgia" title="Air France Flight 007">Orly Air Crash of 1962: Impact on Atlanta</a></div> <p>In 1962, Atlanta in general and its arts community in particular were shaken by the deaths of 106 people on <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a> charter flight <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_007" title="Air France Flight 007">007</a>, which crashed. The <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Art_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Art Association">Atlanta Art Association</a> had sponsored a month-long tour of the art treasures of Europe. 106<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the tour members were heading home to Atlanta on the flight. The group included many of Atlanta's cultural and civic leaders. Atlanta mayor <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Allen_Jr." title="Ivan Allen Jr.">Ivan Allen Jr.</a> went to Orly, France, to inspect the crash site where so many important Atlantans perished.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss was a catalyst for the arts in Atlanta and helped create the <a href="/wiki/Woodruff_Arts_Center" title="Woodruff Arts Center">Woodruff Arts Center</a>, originally called the Memorial Arts Center, as a tribute to the victims, and led to the creation of the Atlanta Arts Alliance. The French government donated a <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Rodin</a> sculpture, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Shade_(scultpture)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Shade (scultpture) (page does not exist)">The Shade</a></i>, to the <a href="/wiki/High_Museum_of_Art" title="High Museum of Art">High</a> in memory of the victims of the crash.<sup id="cite_ref-GTAlumni-Orly_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GTAlumni-Orly-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crash occurred during the Civil Rights Movement and affected it, as well. Martin Luther King Jr., and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a> announced cancellation of a <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-in</a> in downtown Atlanta as a conciliatory gesture to the grieving city, while <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> gained widespread national attention for the first time by expressing joy over the deaths of the all-white group.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freeway_construction_and_revolts">Freeway construction and revolts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Freeway construction and revolts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atlanta's freeway system was completed in the 1950s and 1960s, with the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_285_(Georgia)" title="Interstate 285 (Georgia)">Perimeter</a> completed in 1969. Historic neighborhoods such as <a href="/wiki/Washington-Rawson" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington-Rawson">Washington-Rawson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copenhill" title="Copenhill">Copenhill</a> were damaged or destroyed in the process. Additional proposed freeways were never built due to the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_freeway_revolts" title="Atlanta freeway revolts">protests of city residents</a>. The opposition lasted three decades, with then-governor <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> playing a key role in stopping <a href="/wiki/Interstate_485_(Georgia)" title="Interstate 485 (Georgia)">I-485</a> through <a href="/wiki/Morningside-Lenox_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Morningside-Lenox Park">Morningside</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Highland" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Highland">Virginia Highland</a> to <a href="/wiki/Inman_Park" title="Inman Park">Inman Park</a> in 1973, but pushing hard in the 1980s for a <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_freeway_revolts#Battling_Jimmy_Carter's_"Presidential_Parkway"" title="Atlanta freeway revolts">"Presidential Parkway"</a> between downtown, the new <a href="/wiki/Carter_Center" title="Carter Center">Carter Center</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Druid_Hills,_Georgia" title="Druid Hills, Georgia">Druid Hills</a>/<a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_renewal">Urban renewal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Urban renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1960s, slums such as <a href="/wiki/Buttermilk_Bottom" title="Buttermilk Bottom">Buttermilk Bottom</a> near today's Civic Center were razed, in principle to build better housing, but much of the land remained empty until the 1980s, when mixed-income communities were built in what was renamed <a href="/wiki/Bedford_Pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Bedford Pine">Bedford Pine</a>. The African-American community east of downtown suffered as the center of the black economy moved squarely to southwestern Atlanta. During the 1960s, African-American citizens'-rights groups such as <a href="/wiki/U-Rescue" title="U-Rescue">U-Rescue</a> emerged to address the lack of housing for poor black people.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shoppers_move_to_new_malls_as_Downtown_gains_new_roles">Shoppers move to new malls as Downtown gains new roles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Shoppers move to new malls as Downtown gains new roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="transformation_of_downtown"></span> The first major mall built in Atlanta was <a href="/wiki/Lenox_Square" title="Lenox Square">Lenox Square</a> in Buckhead, opening in August 1959. From 1964 until 1973, nine major malls opened, most at the Perimeter freeway: <a href="/wiki/Cobb_Center" title="Cobb Center">Cobb Center</a> in 1963, <a href="/wiki/Avondale_Mall" title="Avondale Mall">Columbia Mall</a> in 1964, <a href="/wiki/North_DeKalb_Mall" title="North DeKalb Mall">North DeKalb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenbriar_Mall" title="Greenbriar Mall">Greenbriar</a> malls in 1965, <a href="/wiki/Gallery_at_South_DeKalb" title="Gallery at South DeKalb">South DeKalb Mall</a> in 1968, <a href="/wiki/Phipps_Plaza" title="Phipps Plaza">Phipps Plaza</a> (near Lenox Square) in 1969, <a href="/wiki/Perimeter_Mall" title="Perimeter Mall">Perimeter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northlake_Mall_(Atlanta)" title="Northlake Mall (Atlanta)">Northlake</a> malls in 1971, and <a href="/wiki/Cumberland_Mall_(Georgia)" title="Cumberland Mall (Georgia)">Cumberland Mall</a> in 1973. <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Atlanta" title="Downtown Atlanta">Downtown Atlanta</a> became less and less a shopping destination for the area's shoppers. <a href="/wiki/Rich%27s_(department_store)" title="Rich's (department store)">Rich's</a> closed its flagship store downtown in 1991, leaving government offices the major presence in the <a href="/wiki/South_Downtown,_Atlanta" title="South Downtown, Atlanta">South Downtown</a> area around it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On the north side of Five Points, Downtown continued as the <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Atlanta#Buildings" title="Downtown Atlanta">largest concentration of office space</a> in Metro Atlanta, though it began to compete with Midtown, Buckhead, and the suburbs. The first four towers of <a href="/wiki/Peachtree_Center" title="Peachtree Center">Peachtree Center</a> were built in 1965–1967, including the <a href="/wiki/Hyatt_Regency_Atlanta" title="Hyatt Regency Atlanta">Hyatt Regency Atlanta</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Portman" class="mw-redirect" title="John Portman">John Portman</a>, with its 22-story atrium. In total, 17 buildings of more than 15n floors were built in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The center of gravity of Downtown Atlanta correspondingly moved north from the <a href="/wiki/Five_Points_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Points (Atlanta)">Five Points</a> area towards <a href="/wiki/Peachtree_Center" title="Peachtree Center">Peachtree Center</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Atlanta's convention and hotel facilities also grew immensely. <a href="/wiki/John_C._Portman_Jr." title="John C. Portman Jr.">John C. Portman Jr.</a> designed and opened what is now the <a href="/wiki/AmericasMart" title="AmericasMart">AmericasMart</a> merchandise mart in 1958; the Sheraton Atlanta, the city's first convention hotel, was built in the 1960s; the Atlanta Hilton opened in 1971; as did two Portman-designed hotels: the Peachtree Plaza Hotel now owned by <a href="/wiki/Westin_Peachtree_Plaza_Hotel" title="Westin Peachtree Plaza Hotel">Westin</a> in 1976, and the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Marriott_Marquis" title="Atlanta Marriott Marquis">Marriott</a> in 1985. The <a href="/wiki/Omni_Coliseum" title="Omni Coliseum">Omni Coliseum</a> opened in 1976, as did the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_World_Congress_Center" title="Georgia World Congress Center">Georgia World Congress Center</a> (GWCC). The GWCC expanded multiple times in succeeding decades and helped make Atlanta one of the country's top convention cities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_political_power_and_Mayor_Jackson">Black political power and Mayor Jackson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Black political power and Mayor Jackson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1960, whites comprised 61.7% of the city's population.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African Americans became a majority in the city by 1970, and exercised new-found political influence by electing Atlanta's first black mayor, <a href="/wiki/Maynard_Jackson" title="Maynard Jackson">Maynard Jackson</a>, in 1973. In 1974, the Board of Aldermen was officially overhauled into the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_City_Council" title="Atlanta City Council">Atlanta City Council</a>. </p><p>During Jackson's first term as mayor, much progress was made in improving race relations in and around Atlanta, and Atlanta acquired the motto "A City Too Busy to Hate". As mayor, he led the beginnings and much of the progress on several huge public-works projects in Atlanta and its region. He helped arrange for the rebuilding of the airport's huge terminal to modern standards, and this airport was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_Atlanta_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport">Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport</a> in his honor shortly after his death, also named after him is the new <a href="/wiki/Maynard_Holbrook_Jackson_Jr._International_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Maynard Holbrook Jackson Jr. International Terminal">Maynard Holbrook Jackson Jr. International Terminal</a> which opened in May 2012. He also <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_freeway_revolts" title="Atlanta freeway revolts">fought against the construction of freeways through intown neighborhoods</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_of_MARTA_rail_system">Construction of MARTA rail system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Construction of MARTA rail system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg/220px-Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg/330px-Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg/440px-Marta_atlanta_skyline.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2629" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption>The MARTA train with Downtown Atlanta in background</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1965, an act of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_General_Assembly" title="Georgia General Assembly">Georgia General Assembly</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Atlanta_Rapid_Transit_Authority" title="Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority">Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority</a>, or <b>MARTA</b>, which was to provide rapid transit for the five largest metropolitan counties: <a href="/wiki/DeKalb_County,_Georgia" title="DeKalb County, Georgia">DeKalb</a>, Fulton, <a href="/wiki/Clayton_County,_Georgia" title="Clayton County, Georgia">Clayton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gwinnett_County,_Georgia" title="Gwinnett County, Georgia">Gwinnett</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cobb_County,_Georgia" title="Cobb County, Georgia">Cobb</a>, but a referendum authorizing participation in the system failed in Cobb County. A 1968 referendum to fund MARTA failed, but in 1971, Fulton and DeKalb Counties passed a 1% sales tax increase to pay for operations, while Clayton and Gwinnett counties overwhelmingly rejected the tax in referendum, fearing the introduction of crime and "undesirable elements".<sup id="cite_ref-bullard_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bullard-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, the agency bought the existing, bus-only <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Transit_Company" title="Atlanta Transit Company">Atlanta Transit Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hist1970_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hist1970-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction began on the new rail system in 1975. Service started in June 1979, running east–west from <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a> downtown to <a href="/wiki/Avondale_(MARTA_station)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avondale (MARTA station)">Avondale</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Five_Points_(MARTA_station)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Points (MARTA station)">Five Points</a> downtown hub opened later that year. A short north–south line opened in 1981, which by 1984 had been extended to reach from <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_(MARTA_station)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookhaven (MARTA station)">Brookhaven</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lakewood/Fort_McPherson_(MARTA_station)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakewood/Fort McPherson (MARTA station)">Lakewood/Fort McPherson</a>. In 1988, the line was extended to a <a href="/wiki/Airport_(MARTA_station)" class="mw-redirect" title="Airport (MARTA station)">station inside the airport terminal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hist1970_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hist1970-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A line originally envisioned to run to <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a> is <a href="/wiki/Clifton_Corridor" title="Clifton Corridor">still under consideration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_murders">Child murders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Child murders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_murders_of_1979%E2%80%931981" title="Atlanta murders of 1979–1981">Atlanta murders of 1979–1981</a></div> <p>Atlanta was rocked by a <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_murders_of_1979%E2%80%931981" title="Atlanta murders of 1979–1981">series of murders of children</a> from the summer of 1979 until the spring of 1981. Over the two-year period, at least 22 children, and 6 adults were killed, all of them black. Atlanta native <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Williams" title="Wayne Williams">Wayne Williams</a>, also black and 23 years old at the time of the last murder, was convicted of two of the murders and sent to prison for life. The rest of the crimes remain unsolved today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Young.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Andrew_Young.jpg/120px-Andrew_Young.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Andrew_Young.jpg/180px-Andrew_Young.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Andrew_Young.jpg/240px-Andrew_Young.jpg 2x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>Mayor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mayor_Andrew_Young">Mayor Andrew Young</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Mayor Andrew Young"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1981, after being urged by a number of people, including <a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a>, the widow of Martin Luther King Jr., Democratic Congressman <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> ran for <a href="/wiki/Mayor" title="Mayor">mayor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>. He was elected later that year with 55% of the vote, succeeding <a href="/wiki/Maynard_Jackson" title="Maynard Jackson">Maynard Jackson</a>. As mayor of Atlanta, he brought in $70 billion of new private investment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He continued and expanded Maynard Jackson's programs for including minority and female-owned businesses in all city contracts. </p><p>The Mayor's Task Force on Education established the Dream Jamboree College Fair that tripled the college scholarships given to Atlanta public school graduates. In 1985, he was involved in privatizing the Atlanta Zoo, which was renamed <a href="/wiki/Zoo_Atlanta" title="Zoo Atlanta">Zoo Atlanta</a>. The then-moribund zoo was overhauled, making ecological habitats specific to different animals.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Young was re-elected as Mayor in 1985 with more than 80% of the vote. Atlanta hosted the <a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1988 Democratic National Convention">1988 Democratic National Convention</a> during Young's tenure. He was prohibited by <a href="/wiki/Term_limits" class="mw-redirect" title="Term limits">term limits</a> from running for a third term. He was succeeded by Maynard Jackson who returned as mayor from 1990 to 1994. <a href="/wiki/Bill_Campbell_(mayor)" title="Bill Campbell (mayor)">Bill Campbell</a> succeeded Jackson as mayor in 1994 and served through 2002. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campbell_mayorship_and_failure_of_Atlanta_Empowerment_Zone">Campbell mayorship and failure of Atlanta Empowerment Zone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Campbell mayorship and failure of Atlanta Empowerment Zone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In November 1994, the Atlanta Empowerment Zone was established, a 10-year, $250 million federal program to revitalize Atlanta's 34 poorest neighborhoods including <a href="/wiki/The_Bluff_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bluff (Atlanta)">The Bluff</a>. Scathing reports from both the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Housing and Urban Development">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> and the Georgia Department of Community Affairs revealed corruption, waste, bureaucratic incompetence, and specifically called out interference by mayor <a href="/wiki/Bill_Campbell_(mayor)" title="Bill Campbell (mayor)">Bill Campbell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cl2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cl2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1993-1996 about 250,000 people attended <a href="/wiki/Freaknik" title="Freaknik">Freaknik</a>, an annual Spring Break gathering for African Americans which was not centrally organized and which resulted in much traffic gridlock and increased crime. After a 1996 crackdown annual attendance dissipated and the event moved to other cities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Olympic_and_World_City:_1990–present"><span id="Olympic_and_World_City:_1990.E2.80.93present"></span>Olympic and World City: 1990–present</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Olympic and World City: 1990–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1996_Summer_Olympics">1996 Summer Olympics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: 1996 Summer Olympics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG/220px-Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG/330px-Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG/440px-Centennial_Olympic_Park_Fountains_at_Night.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Fountain of Rings at <a href="/wiki/Centennial_Olympic_Park" title="Centennial Olympic Park">Centennial Olympic Park</a>. The park commemorates the 1996 Summer Olympics</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics" title="1996 Summer Olympics">1996 Summer Olympics</a></div> <p>In 1990, the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a> selected Atlanta as the site for the <a href="/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics" title="1996 Summer Olympics">1996 Summer Olympics</a>. Following the announcement, Atlanta undertook several major construction projects to improve the city's parks, sports facilities, and transportation, including the completion of long-contested <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Parkway" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Parkway">Freedom Parkway</a>. Former Mayor <a href="/wiki/Bill_Campbell_(mayor)" title="Bill Campbell (mayor)">Bill Campbell</a> allowed many "tent cities" to be built, creating a carnival atmosphere around the games. Atlanta became the third American city to host the Summer Olympics, after <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis</a> (<a href="/wiki/1904_Summer_Olympics" title="1904 Summer Olympics">1904 Summer Olympics</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> (<a href="/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics" title="1932 Summer Olympics">1932</a>, <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2028_Summer_Olympics" title="2028 Summer Olympics">2028</a>). </p><p>The games themselves were notable in the realm of sporting events, but they were marred by numerous organizational inefficiencies. A dramatic event was the <a href="/wiki/Centennial_Olympic_Park_bombing" title="Centennial Olympic Park bombing">Centennial Olympic Park bombing</a>, in which two people died, one from a heart attack, and several others were injured. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Robert_Rudolph" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Robert Rudolph">Eric Robert Rudolph</a> was later convicted of the bombing as an anti-government and pro-life protest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shirley_Franklin_mayorship">Shirley Franklin mayorship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Shirley Franklin mayorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Franklin" title="Shirley Franklin">Shirley Franklin</a>'s 2001 run for mayor was her first run for public office. She won, succeeding Mayor <a href="/wiki/Bill_Campbell_(mayor)" title="Bill Campbell (mayor)">Bill Campbell</a> after winning 50 percent of the vote. Facing a massive and unexpected budget deficit, Franklin slashed the number of government employees and increased taxes to balance the budget as quickly as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Press_Release_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Press_Release-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Franklin made repairing the Atlanta <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a> system a main focus of her office. Prior to Franklin's term, Atlanta's <a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">combined sewer</a> system violated the federal <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a> and burdened the city government with fines from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>. In 2002, Franklin announced an initiative called "Clean Water Atlanta" to address the problem and begin improving the city's sewer system.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>She has been lauded for efforts to make the City of Atlanta "<a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">green</a>". Under Franklin's leadership Atlanta has gone from having one of the lowest percentages of <a href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">LEED</a> certified buildings to one of the highest. </p><p>In 2005, <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine named Franklin of the five best big-city American mayors.<sup id="cite_ref-Press_Release_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Press_Release-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October of that same year, she was included in the <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a></i> "Best Leaders of 2005" issue.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With solid popular support and strong backing from the business sector, Franklin was reelected mayor in 2005, garnering more than 90 percent of the vote.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2008_tornado">2008 tornado</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: 2008 tornado"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2008_Atlanta_tornado_outbreak" title="2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak">2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak</a></div> <p>On March 14, 2008, a <a href="/wiki/2008_Atlanta_tornado_outbreak" title="2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak">tornado</a> ripped through downtown Atlanta, the first since weather has been recorded in 1880. There was minor damage to many downtown skyscrapers. However, two holes were torn into the roof of the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Dome" title="Georgia Dome">Georgia Dome</a>, tearing down catwalks and the scoreboard as debris rained onto the court in the middle of an SEC game. The <a href="/wiki/Omni_Hotels" class="mw-redirect" title="Omni Hotels">Omni Hotel</a> suffered major damage, along with <a href="/wiki/Centennial_Olympic_Park" title="Centennial Olympic Park">Centennial Olympic Park</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_World_Congress_Center" title="Georgia World Congress Center">Georgia World Congress Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fulton_Bag_and_Cotton_Mills" title="Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills">Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oakland_Cemetery_(Atlanta,_Georgia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta, Georgia)">Oakland Cemetery</a> were also damaged. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg/220px-Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg/330px-Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg/440px-Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1003" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Historic_Fourth_Ward_Park" title="Historic Fourth Ward Park">Historic Fourth Ward Park</a>, a new park created as part of the <a href="/wiki/BeltLine" class="mw-redirect" title="BeltLine">BeltLine</a> project</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="BeltLine">BeltLine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: BeltLine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/BeltLine" class="mw-redirect" title="BeltLine">BeltLine</a></div> <p>In 2005, the $2.8 billion <a href="/wiki/BeltLine" class="mw-redirect" title="BeltLine">BeltLine</a> project was adopted, with the stated goals of converting a disused 22-mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art-filled multi-use trail and increasing the city's park space by 40%.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gentrification">Gentrification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Gentrification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gentrification_of_Atlanta" title="Gentrification of Atlanta">Gentrification of Atlanta</a></div> <p>Since 2000, Atlanta has undergone a profound transformation culturally, demographically, and physically. Much of the city's change during the decade was driven by young, college-educated professionals: from 2000 to 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Intown_Atlanta" title="Intown Atlanta">three-mile radius</a> surrounding <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Atlanta" title="Downtown Atlanta">Downtown Atlanta</a> gained 9,722 residents aged 25 to 34 holding at least a four-year degree, an increase of 61%.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, as gentrification spread throughout the city, Atlanta's cultural offerings expanded: the <a href="/wiki/High_Museum_of_Art" title="High Museum of Art">High Museum of Art</a> doubled in size; the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_Theatre" title="Alliance Theatre">Alliance Theatre</a> won a <a href="/wiki/Tony_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Tony Award">Tony Award</a>; and numerous art galleries were established on the once-industrial <a href="/wiki/West_Midtown" title="West Midtown">Westside</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-online.wsj.com_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-online.wsj.com-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_transition">Racial transition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Racial transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Atlanta" title="Demographics of Atlanta">Demographics of Atlanta</a></div> <p>The black population in the Atlanta area rapidly suburbanized in the 1990s and 2000s. From 2000 to 2010, the city of Atlanta's black population shrunk by 31,678 people, dropping from 61.4% to 54.0% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-Creative_Loafing_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creative_Loafing-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While black people exited the city and DeKalb County, the black population increased sharply in other areas of Metro Atlanta by 93.1%.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the same period, the proportion of whites in the city's population grew dramatically - faster than that of any other major U.S. city between 2000 and 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 2000 and 2010, Atlanta added 22,763 whites, and the white proportion of the population increased from 31% to 38%. In 2009, a white mayoral candidate, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Norwood" title="Mary Norwood">Mary Norwood</a>, lost by just 714 votes, out of over 84,000 cast, to <a href="/wiki/Kasim_Reed" title="Kasim Reed">Kasim Reed</a>. This represented a historic change from the perception until that time that Atlanta was "guaranteed" to elect a black mayor. Other areas, like Marietta and Alpharetta, are seeing similar demographic changes, with huge increases of middle and upper income black people and Asian people—mostly former residents of Atlanta.<sup id="cite_ref-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_events">Recent events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Recent events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools_cheating_scandal" title="Atlanta Public Schools cheating scandal">Atlanta Public Schools cheating scandal</a> began, which <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a> called the "worst in the country",<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in the 2013 indictment of superintendent <a href="/wiki/Beverly_Hall" title="Beverly Hall">Beverly Hall</a>. </p><p>Starting in October 2011, <a href="/wiki/Occupy_Atlanta" title="Occupy Atlanta">Occupy Atlanta</a> staged demonstrations against banks and <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="AT&T Inc.">AT&T</a> to protest alleged greed by those companies. </p><p>Significantly, in March 2020, Atlanta went to the national lockdown and social economic problems, where the city was impacted by <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. Following the approval of the first <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 vaccination in the United States">COVID-19 vaccines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, free and voluntary vaccination against the disease began in the city on December 14, 2020. However, many COVID-19 restrictions in the city were lifted up by June 2021.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In late May 2020 following <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd" title="George Floyd">George Floyd</a>'s murder, <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Atlanta" title="George Floyd protests in Atlanta">protests that developed into riots and looting</a> occurred across Atlanta; mainly in the Downtown and Buckhead neighborhoods. Notable buildings and museums such as The CNN Center<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and The College Football Hall of Fame<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were vandalized. </p><p>In 2021, <a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">a series of mass shootings</a> struck <a href="/wiki/Massage_parlor" title="Massage parlor">massage parlors</a> in Atlanta and the surrounding area. Eight people were killed and a ninth person was wounded. A suspect was arrested on the same day as the incidents in <a href="/wiki/Crisp_County,_Georgia" title="Crisp County, Georgia">Crisp County</a>, south of Atlanta.<sup id="cite_ref-AJC.Captured_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJC.Captured-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, a police training center that critics have called <a href="/wiki/Cop_City" title="Cop City">Cop City</a> became controversial. The controversy attracted international attention after a protestor, <a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Manuel_Esteban_Paez_Ter%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Killing of Manuel Esteban Paez Terán">Manuel Esteban Paez Teran</a> was killed by police in January 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Sugar_Bowl" title="1956 Sugar Bowl">1956 Sugar Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_Tech" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Georgia Tech">History of Georgia Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_bridges_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic bridges of the Atlanta area">Historic bridges of the Atlanta area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_ferries_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic ferries of the Atlanta area">Historic ferries of the Atlanta area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_mills_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic mills of the Atlanta area">Historic mills of the Atlanta area</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carson, O.E., <i>The Trolley Titans</i>, <a href="/wiki/Interurban_Press" title="Interurban Press">Interurban Press</a>, Glendale, CA, 1981, p.xi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Georgia's_Forts-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Georgia's_Forts_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Georgia's_Forts_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501222607/http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/lists/georgia_forts.html">"Georgia's Forts"</a>. Our Georgia History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/lists/georgia_forts.html">the original</a> on May 1, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georgia%27s+Forts&rft.pub=Our+Georgia+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fourgeorgiahistory.com%2Flists%2Fgeorgia_forts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ngeorgia.com/history/indianla.html">"Land Cessions of American Indians in Georgia"</a>. Ngeorgia.com. June 5, 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716235024/http://ngeorgia.com/history/indianla.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 16, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Land+Cessions+of+American+Indians+in+Georgia&rft.pub=Ngeorgia.com&rft.date=2007-06-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fngeorgia.com%2Fhistory%2Findianla.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/henry-county">"Henry County"</a>. <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170108190453/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/henry-county">Archived</a> from the original on January 8, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Henry+County&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Farticles%2Fcounties-cities-neighborhoods%2Fhenry-county&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1403">"New Georgia Encyclopedia, "DeKalb County"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Georgiaencyclopedia.org. June 19, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111103004532/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1403">Archived</a> from the original on November 3, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia%2C+%22DeKalb+County%22&rft.pub=Georgiaencyclopedia.org&rft.date=2008-06-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-1403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin" class="citation web cs1">Austin, Jeannette Holland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiapioneers.com/gahistory/oakland.html">"Oakland Cemetery, Atlanta, Georgia"</a>. <i>georgiapioneers.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411063410/http://georgiapioneers.com/gahistory/oakland.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=georgiapioneers.com&rft.atitle=Oakland+Cemetery%2C+Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Jeannette+Holland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiapioneers.com%2Fgahistory%2Foakland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiapioneers.com/images/hollandplat1.pdf">"Archibald Holland 1826 Land Grant in Downtown Atlanta"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Georgia Pioneers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094105/http://georgiapioneers.com/images/hollandplat1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 8, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Pioneers&rft.atitle=Archibald+Holland+1826+Land+Grant+in+Downtown+Atlanta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiapioneers.com%2Fimages%2Fhollandplat1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1984" class="citation book cs1">Austin, Jeannette Holland (January 1, 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4RCglni-o4IC&q=archibald+holland&pg=PA175"><i>The Georgians: Genealogies of Pioneer Settlers</i></a>. Genealogical Publishing Com. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806310817" title="Special:BookSources/9780806310817"><bdi>9780806310817</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112040513/https://books.google.com/books?id=4RCglni-o4IC&q=archibald+holland&pg=PA175">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Georgians%3A+Genealogies+of+Pioneer+Settlers&rft.pub=Genealogical+Publishing+Com&rft.date=1984-01-01&rft.isbn=9780806310817&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Jeannette+Holland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4RCglni-o4IC%26q%3Darchibald%2Bholland%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W&ARR-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W&ARR_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190608101512/http://www.aboutnorthgeorgia.com/ang/Building_the_Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad">"Creation of the Western and Atlantic Railroad"</a>. <i>About North Georgia</i>. Golden Ink. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboutnorthgeorgia.com/ang/Building_the_Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad">the original</a> on June 8, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=About+North+Georgia&rft.atitle=Creation+of+the+Western+and+Atlantic+Railroad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aboutnorthgeorgia.com%2Fang%2FBuilding_the_Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-garrett-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-garrett_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett2011" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, Franklin M. (March 1, 2011) [First published 1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fl6xNpS6qUUC"><i>Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events, 1820s-1870s</i></a>. Vol. 1. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820339030" title="Special:BookSources/9780820339030"><bdi>9780820339030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+and+Environs%3A+A+Chronicle+of+Its+People+and+Events%2C+1820s-1870s&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft.isbn=9780820339030&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Franklin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfl6xNpS6qUUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1978" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Walter G. (1978) [1934]. <i>Official History of Fulton County</i>. The Reprint Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Official+History+of+Fulton+County&rft.pub=The+Reprint+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Walter+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeromile-gi-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zeromile-gi_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/historical_markers/county/fulton/zero-mile-post">"Zero Mile Post Historical Marker"</a>. <i>GeorgiaInfo, Digital Library of Georgia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320065802/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/historical_markers/county/fulton/zero-mile-post">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GeorgiaInfo%2C+Digital+Library+of+Georgia&rft.atitle=Zero+Mile+Post+Historical+Marker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu%2Ftopics%2Fhistorical_markers%2Fcounty%2Ffulton%2Fzero-mile-post&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeromile-lat34-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zeromile-lat34_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeromile-lat34_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lat34north.com/historicmarkers/MarkerDetail.cfm?KeyID=060-124&MarkerTitle=Zero%20Mile%20Post">"Zero Mile Post"</a>. <i>Latitude 34 North</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091627/http://www.lat34north.com/historicmarkers/MarkerDetail.cfm?KeyID=060-124&MarkerTitle=Zero%20Mile%20Post">Archived</a> from the original on December 24, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Latitude+34+North&rft.atitle=Zero+Mile+Post&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lat34north.com%2Fhistoricmarkers%2FMarkerDetail.cfm%3FKeyID%3D060-124%26MarkerTitle%3DZero%2520Mile%2520Post&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2207">"New Georgia Encyclopedia: Atlanta"</a>. <i>Georgiaencyclopedia.org</i>. February 16, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115191520/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2207">Archived</a> from the original on January 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 18,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Georgiaencyclopedia.org&rft.atitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia%3A+Atlanta&rft.date=2012-02-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-2207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/historical_markers/county/fulton/thrasherville">"Thasherville Marker"</a>. <i>GeorgiaInfo, Digital Library of Georgia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170207113120/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/historical_markers/county/fulton/thrasherville">Archived</a> from the original on February 7, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GeorgiaInfo%2C+Digital+Library+of+Georgia&rft.atitle=Thasherville+Marker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu%2Ftopics%2Fhistorical_markers%2Fcounty%2Ffulton%2Fthrasherville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Y_World1878" class="citation news cs1">N. Y World (September 25, 1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn90052270/1878-09-25/ed-1/seq-2/">"Miss Martha Atalanta Lumpkin"</a>. <i>The Dublin Post</i>. No. 15. Dublin, Georgia. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180808160349/https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn90052270/1878-09-25/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on August 8, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Dublin+Post&rft.atitle=Miss+Martha+Atalanta+Lumpkin&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1878-09-25&rft.au=N.+Y+World&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu%2Flccn%2Fsn90052270%2F1878-09-25%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2012" class="citation news cs1">Burns, Rebecca (August 23, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlantamagazine.com/history/birth-of-martha-lumpkin-atlantas-namesake/">"Birth of Martha Lumpkin, Atlanta's namesake"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_(magazine)" title="Atlanta (magazine)">Atlanta</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126121228/https://www.atlantamagazine.com/history/birth-of-martha-lumpkin-atlantas-namesake/">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atlanta&rft.atitle=Birth+of+Martha+Lumpkin%2C+Atlanta%27s+namesake&rft.date=2012-08-23&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlantamagazine.com%2Fhistory%2Fbirth-of-martha-lumpkin-atlantas-namesake%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reed1889-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reed1889_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed1889" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Wallace Putnam (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyatlantag00reedgoog"><i>History of Atlanta, Georgia: With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Some of Its Prominent Men and Pioneers</i></a>. Syracuse, NY: D. Mason & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyatlantag00reedgoog/page/n70">60</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Atlanta%2C+Georgia%3A+With+Illustrations+and+Biographical+Sketches+of+Some+of+Its+Prominent+Men+and+Pioneers&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+NY&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=D.+Mason+%26+Company&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Wallace+Putnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryatlantag00reedgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garrett2011-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garrett2011_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett2011" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, Franklin Miller (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UXSjh5f3EUsC&pg=PA226"><i>Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events: Vol. 1: 1820s-1870s</i></a>. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3903-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3903-0"><bdi>978-0-8203-3903-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112040513/https://books.google.com/books?id=UXSjh5f3EUsC&pg=PA226">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+and+Environs%3A+A+Chronicle+of+Its+People+and+Events%3A+Vol.+1%3A+1820s-1870s&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2011-03&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3903-0&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Franklin+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUXSjh5f3EUsC%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn85038504/1845-09-09/ed-1/seq-1/">"Georgia Rail Road"</a>. <i>Tri-Weekly Chronicle & Sentinel</i>. No. 107. September 9, 1845. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180808160354/https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn85038504/1845-09-09/ed-1/seq-1/">Archived</a> from the original on August 8, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tri-Weekly+Chronicle+%26+Sentinel&rft.atitle=Georgia+Rail+Road&rft.issue=107&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1845-09-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu%2Flccn%2Fsn85038504%2F1845-09-09%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Felton1919-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Felton1919_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelton1919" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Latimer_Felton" title="Rebecca Latimer Felton">Felton, Rebecca Latimer</a> (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/countrylifeinge00feltgoog"><i>Country Life in Georgia in the Days of My Youth: Also Addresses Before Georgia Legislature Woman's Clubs, Women's Organizations and Other Noted Occasions</i></a>. Atlanta, GA: Index Printing Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/countrylifeinge00feltgoog/page/n56">50</a>–51<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+Life+in+Georgia+in+the+Days+of+My+Youth%3A+Also+Addresses+Before+Georgia+Legislature+Woman%27s+Clubs%2C+Women%27s+Organizations+and+Other+Noted+Occasions&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.pages=50-51&rft.pub=Index+Printing+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Felton&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+Latimer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcountrylifeinge00feltgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM." class="citation journal cs1">M., Garrett, Franklin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/381047">"Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events, 1820s-1870s"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170217062609/http://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/381047">Archived</a> from the original on February 17, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Atlanta+and+Environs%3A+A+Chronicle+of+Its+People+and+Events%2C+1820s-1870s&rft.aulast=M.&rft.aufirst=Garrett%2C+Franklin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fchapter%2F381047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1902" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Thomas H. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0cUAAAAYAAJ"><i>Atlanta and its builders: a comprehensive history of the Gate city of the South</i></a>. Century Memorial Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781174556104" title="Special:BookSources/9781174556104"><bdi>9781174556104</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112040527/https://books.google.com/books?id=u0cUAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 31,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+and+its+builders%3A+a+comprehensive+history+of+the+Gate+city+of+the+South&rft.pub=Century+Memorial+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1902&rft.isbn=9781174556104&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0cUAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reed-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reed_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reed_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed1889" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Wallace Putnam (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IpgO3_OF724C"><i>History of Atlanta, Georgia</i></a>. D. Mason & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781178490787" title="Special:BookSources/9781178490787"><bdi>9781178490787</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=D.+Mason+%26+Company&rft.date=1889&rft.isbn=9781178490787&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Wallace+Putnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIpgO3_OF724C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2011" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Robert Scott (February 25, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151018142219/https://books.google.com/books?id=xf3vP9sum70C"><i>Civil War Atlanta</i></a>. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596297630" title="Special:BookSources/9781596297630"><bdi>9781596297630</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xf3vP9sum70C">the original</a> on October 18, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+Atlanta&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2011-02-25&rft.isbn=9781596297630&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Robert+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxf3vP9sum70C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/atlanta/africanamerican.htm">"African American Experience"</a>, <i>nps.gov</i>, National Park Service, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140205045532/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/atlanta/africanamerican.htm">archived</a> from the original on February 5, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=nps.gov&rft.atitle=African+American+Experience&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnr%2Ftravel%2Fatlanta%2Fafricanamerican.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O.R._Series_1_p_80-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O.R._Series_1_p_80_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O.R. Series 1, Volume 38, Part 1, OR # 1, p 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrett, <i>Atlanta and Environs</i>, pp 433-634</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrett, <i>Atlanta and Environs</i>, P 634</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrett, <i>Atlanta and Environs</i>, P 640</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;idno=waro0076;node=waro0076%3A4;view=image;seq=839;page=root;size=100">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> O.R. Series 1, Volume 38, Part 5, <i>Special Field Order #67</i>, pp 837-838</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/index.html">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303160835/http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/index.html">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> University of West Virginia, Historical Census Browser, 1860 census</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/ajac/">[3]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2012">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dorsey-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dorsey_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dorsey_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dorsey_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U9WoypDYbBsC">Allison Dorsey, <i>To Build Our Lives Together</i>, p. 34ff.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett2011" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, Franklin M. (March 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hBgF5_3xzEQC&pg=PA746"><i>Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events, 1820s-1870s</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820339023" title="Special:BookSources/9780820339023"><bdi>9780820339023</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+and+Environs%3A+A+Chronicle+of+Its+People+and+Events%2C+1820s-1870s&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft.isbn=9780820339023&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Franklin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhBgF5_3xzEQC%26pg%3DPA746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDooley2014" class="citation book cs1">Dooley, Laurel-Ann (June 17, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2MqTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19"><i>Wicked Atlanta: The Sordid Side of Peach City History</i></a>. History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781626191051" title="Special:BookSources/9781626191051"><bdi>9781626191051</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wicked+Atlanta%3A+The+Sordid+Side+of+Peach+City+History&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2014-06-17&rft.isbn=9781626191051&rft.aulast=Dooley&rft.aufirst=Laurel-Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2MqTAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pendergrast2000-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pendergrast2000_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Pendergrast2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Pendergrast" title="Mark Pendergrast">Mark Pendergrast</a> (March 16, 2000). <i>For God, country and Coca-Cola</i>. Basic Books (AZ). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-05468-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-05468-8"><bdi>978-0-465-05468-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+God%2C+country+and+Coca-Cola&rft.pub=Basic+Books+%28AZ%29&rft.date=2000-03-16&rft.isbn=978-0-465-05468-8&rft.au=Mark+Pendergrast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080921160623/http://www.1906atlantaraceriot.org/">"Atlanta Race Riot"</a>. The Coalition to Remember the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1906atlantaraceriot.org/">the original</a> on September 21, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlanta+Race+Riot&rft.pub=The+Coalition+to+Remember+the+1906+Atlanta+Race+Riot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1906atlantaraceriot.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080921160623/http://www.1906atlantaraceriot.org/">"Atlanta Race Riot"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1906atlantaraceriot.org/">the original</a> on September 21, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlanta+Race+Riot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1906atlantaraceriot.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Crowe, "Racial Massacre in Atlanta: September 22, 1906." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 54.2 (1969): 150-173. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.2307/2716690">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302183904/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2507">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Auburn Avenue (Sweet Auburn)", <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2507">the original</a> on March 2, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Auburn+Avenue+%28Sweet+Auburn%29%22%2C+New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-2507&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lawrence_Otis_Graham,_''Our_Kind_of_People:_inside_America's_Black_upper_class'',_p._335_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_FWTEBzgNdcC">Lawrence Otis Graham, <i>Our Kind of People: inside America's Black upper class</i>, p. 335</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3610">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Segregation", <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303043419/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-3610">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Segregation%22%2C+New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-3610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wabe.org/stone-mountain-and-rebirth-kkk-one-century-ago/">"Stone Mountain and the rebirth of the KKK, one century ago"</a>. <i>WABE</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WABE&rft.atitle=Stone+Mountain+and+the+rebirth+of+the+KKK%2C+one+century+ago&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wabe.org%2Fstone-mountain-and-rebirth-kkk-one-century-ago%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shirley, 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emoryhistory.emory.edu/facts-figures/people/makers-history/profiles/candler-asa.html">"Coca-Cola Founder; Philanthropist; Emory Board Chair"</a>. <i>Emory.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220131155327/https://emoryhistory.emory.edu/facts-figures/people/makers-history/profiles/candler-asa.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 31, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 17,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Emory.edu&rft.atitle=Coca-Cola+Founder%3B+Philanthropist%3B+Emory+Board+Chair&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emoryhistory.emory.edu%2Ffacts-figures%2Fpeople%2Fmakers-history%2Fprofiles%2Fcandler-asa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikhil_Deogun1997" class="citation web cs1">Nikhil Deogun (October 20, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB877296933914475000">"Atlantans Taste the Fruits Of Goizueta's Sweet Labors"</a>. <i>Wsj.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221128213256/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB877296933914475000">Archived</a> from the original on November 28, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wsj.com&rft.atitle=Atlantans+Taste+the+Fruits+Of+Goizueta%27s+Sweet+Labors&rft.date=1997-10-20&rft.au=Nikhil+Deogun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB877296933914475000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Four_Hundred_Souls-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Four_Hundred_Souls_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Four_Hundred_Souls_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley2021" class="citation book cs1">Kelley, Robin D. G. (2021). "The Great Depression". In <a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi, Ibram X.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Keisha_N._Blain" title="Keisha N. Blain">Blain, Keisha N.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Hundred_Souls" title="Four Hundred Souls">Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019</a></i>. New York: One World. pp. 292–296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593134047" title="Special:BookSources/9780593134047"><bdi>9780593134047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Great+Depression&rft.btitle=Four+Hundred+Souls%3A+A+Community+History+of+African+America%2C+1619%E2%80%932019&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=292-296&rft.pub=One+World&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780593134047&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Robin+D.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, Warren G. <i>Clark Gable: A Biography</i>, Harmony, (2002), p. 203; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-307-23714-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-307-23714-1">0-307-23714-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watts, Jill. <i>Hattie McDaniel: Black Ambition, White Hollywood</i>, 2005, page 172 - <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-051490-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-051490-6">0-06-051490-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100115033241/http://ngeorgia.com/ang/Atlanta_Premiere_of_Gone_With_The_Wind">"Atlanta Premiere of Gone With The Wind"</a>. <i>ngeorgia.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ngeorgia.com/ang/Atlanta_Premiere_of_Gone_With_The_Wind">the original</a> on January 15, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ngeorgia.com&rft.atitle=Atlanta+Premiere+of+Gone+With+The+Wind&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fngeorgia.com%2Fang%2FAtlanta_Premiere_of_Gone_With_The_Wind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jS6ALW2OhtkC&dq=martin+luther+king+singing+gone+with+the+wind+premiere+criticized&pg=PA240">John Egerton, <i>Speak now against the day</i>, p.240</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta/the-little-known-story-1201765.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The little known story of MLK's 'drum major for justice'", <i>The Atlanta Journal-Constitution</i>, October 16, 2011"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120182409/http://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta/the-little-known-story-1201765.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+little+known+story+of+MLK%27s+%27drum+major+for+justice%27%22%2C+The+Atlanta+Journal-Constitution%2C+October+16%2C+2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajc.com%2Fnews%2Fatlanta%2Fthe-little-known-story-1201765.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mack H. Jones, "Black political empowerment in Atlanta: Myth and reality". <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i> 439#1 (1978) pp: 90-117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kruse-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kruse_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruse2008" class="citation book cs1">Kruse, Kevin Michael (February 1, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c5763Zgu4_oC&pg=PP1"><i>White flight: Atlanta and the making of modern conservatism By Kevin Michael Kruse</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691092607" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691092607"><bdi>978-0691092607</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112040527/https://books.google.com/books?id=c5763Zgu4_oC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+flight%3A+Atlanta+and+the+making+of+modern+conservatism+By+Kevin+Michael+Kruse&rft.date=2008-02-01&rft.isbn=978-0691092607&rft.aulast=Kruse&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5763Zgu4_oC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220123816/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,874660,00.html">"The South: Divided City"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. January 18, 1963. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,874660,00.html">the original</a> on December 20, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+South%3A+Divided+City&rft.date=1963-01-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C874660%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yfBJFZ-d8RoC">David Andrew Harmon, <i>Beneath the image of the Civil Rights Movement and race relations</i>, p. 177ff.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin M. Kruse, <i>White flight: Atlanta and the making of modern conservatism</i> (Princeton University Press, 2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatfield" class="citation web cs1">Hatfield, Edward A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/temple-bombing">"Temple Bombing"</a>. <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>. Georgia Humanities and the University of Georgia Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718214951/https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/temple-bombing">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Temple+Bombing&rft.aulast=Hatfield&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Farticles%2Farts-culture%2Ftemple-bombing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/archives/integration/integration1.html">"Finding Aid for University of Georgia Integration Materials 1938–1965"</a>. University Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521173049/http://www.libs.uga.edu/hargrett/archives/integration/integration1.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 21, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Finding+Aid+for+University+of+Georgia+Integration+Materials+1938%E2%80%931965&rft.pub=University+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libs.uga.edu%2Fhargrett%2Farchives%2Fintegration%2Fintegration1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dlynx.rhodes.edu/jspui/bitstream/10267/31663/6/MW_v18n95_1950-05-23.pdf">"Memphis World"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Dlync.rhodes.edu</i>. May 23, 1950. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126193453/https://dlynx.rhodes.edu/jspui/bitstream/10267/31663/6/MW_v18n95_1950-05-23.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on November 26, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 17,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dlync.rhodes.edu&rft.atitle=Memphis+World&rft.date=1950-05-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdlynx.rhodes.edu%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F10267%2F31663%2F6%2FMW_v18n95_1950-05-23.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThamel2006" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pete_Thamel" title="Pete Thamel">Thamel, Pete</a> (January 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/sports/ncaafootball/01grier.html">"Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150620004823/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/sports/ncaafootball/01grier.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Grier+Integrated+a+Game+and+Earned+the+World%27s+Respect&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.aulast=Thamel&rft.aufirst=Pete&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F01%2F01%2Fsports%2Fncaafootball%2F01grier.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlg.galileo.usg.edu/meta/html/nge/ngen/meta_nge_ngen_h-3664.html?Welcome">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Bus desegregation in Atlanta", <i>Digital Library of Georgia</i>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130724074117/http://dlg.galileo.usg.edu/meta/html/nge/ngen/meta_nge_ngen_h-3664.html?Welcome">Archived</a> from the original on July 24, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Bus+desegregation+in+Atlanta%22%2C+Digital+Library+of+Georgia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdlg.galileo.usg.edu%2Fmeta%2Fhtml%2Fnge%2Fngen%2Fmeta_nge_ngen_h-3664.html%3FWelcome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1888">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Rich's Department Store" <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120418140730/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1888">Archived</a> from the original on April 18, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Rich%27s+Department+Store%22+New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-1888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204040923/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1387">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Lester Maddox", <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1387">the original</a> on February 4, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Lester+Maddox%22%2C+New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-1387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://foxtheatreatlantascrapbook.blogspot.com/2010/05/appendix-19-souths-finest-1946-1969.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Negroes Attend Atlanta Theaters", <i>Atlanta Journal</i>, 15 May 1962"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323164044/http://foxtheatreatlantascrapbook.blogspot.com/2010/05/appendix-19-souths-finest-1946-1969.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 23, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Negroes+Attend+Atlanta+Theaters%22%2C+Atlanta+Journal%2C+15+May+1962&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffoxtheatreatlantascrapbook.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F05%2Fappendix-19-souths-finest-1946-1969.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://multimedia.dailyreportonline.com/120anniversary/120_1960.html"><i>Daily Report</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141218203605/http://multimedia.dailyreportonline.com/120anniversary/120_1960.html">Archived</a> December 18, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160113134157/http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=3">"Atlanta in the Civil Rights Movement"</a>. Atlanta Regional Council for Higher Education. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantahighered.org/civilrights/essay_detail.asp?phase=3">the original</a> on January 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Georgia Tech Alumni Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025005626/http://gtalumni.org/news/ttopics/spr00/firstperson.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 25, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 7,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Person&rft.pub=Georgia+Tech+Alumni+Association&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Gupton+Jr.&rft.au=Guy+W.+%22Pat%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgtalumni.org%2Fnews%2Fttopics%2Fspr00%2Ffirstperson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor_Branch1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUI6tY9RJUYC&q=%22Malcolm+X%22+%22Air+France%22+Atlanta&pg=PA14"><i>Pillar of fire: America in the King years, 1963-65</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Atlanta%22%2C+New+Georgia+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.georgiaencyclopedia.org%2Fnge%2FArticle.jsp%3Fid%3Dh-2207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120812191959/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html">"Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990"</a>. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html">the original</a> on August 12, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 2,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Race+and+Hispanic+Origin+for+Selected+Cities+and+Other+Places%3A+Earliest+Census+to+1990&rft.pub=U.S.+Census+Bureau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fpopulation%2Fwww%2Fdocumentation%2Ftwps0076%2Ftwps0076.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bullard-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bullard_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullard,_R._D.2000" class="citation book cs1">Bullard, R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 23,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.citymayors.com&rft.atitle=City+Mayors%3A+US+elections+2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.citymayors.com%2Fpolitics%2Fusa_elections05.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://beltline.org/Implementation/Planning/tabid/1794/Default.aspx">Atlanta BeltLine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120430202736/http://beltline.org/Implementation/Planning/tabid/1794/Default.aspx">Archived</a> April 30, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2011-04-01-1Ayoungrestless01_ST_N.htm?sms_ss=twitter&at_xt=4d959a9cc8ce3e5c,0">"Urban centers draw more young, educated adults"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. April 1, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111025100011/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2011-04-01-1Ayoungrestless01_ST_N.htm?sms_ss=twitter&at_xt=4d959a9cc8ce3e5c,0">Archived</a> from the original on October 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Urban+centers+draw+more+young%2C+educated+adults&rft.date=2011-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fnation%2F2011-04-01-1Ayoungrestless01_ST_N.htm%3Fsms_ss%3Dtwitter%26at_xt%3D4d959a9cc8ce3e5c%2C0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2011" class="citation news cs1">Schneider, Craig (April 13, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta/young-professionals-lead-surge-907440.html">"Young professionals lead surge of intown living"</a>. <i>ajc.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623143619/http://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta/young-professionals-lead-surge-907440.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 23, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ajc.com&rft.atitle=Young+professionals+lead+surge+of+intown+living&rft.date=2011-04-13&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajc.com%2Fnews%2Fatlanta%2Fyoung-professionals-lead-surge-907440.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-online.wsj.com-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-online.wsj.com_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2011" class="citation news cs1">Martin, Timothy W. (April 16, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704415104576250962970106874?mod=WSJ_hp_MIDDLETopMiniLeadStory">"The New New South"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171009195049/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704415104576250962970106874?mod=WSJ_hp_MIDDLETopMiniLeadStory">Archived</a> from the original on October 9, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+New+New+South&rft.date=2011-04-16&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Timothy+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424052748704415104576250962970106874%3Fmod%3DWSJ_hp_MIDDLETopMiniLeadStory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.urbandisplacement.org/maps/atlanta-gentrification-and-displacement/">"Atlanta – Gentrification and Displacement – Urban Displacement"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221208025309/https://www.urbandisplacement.org/maps/atlanta-gentrification-and-displacement/">Archived</a> from the original on December 8, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlanta+%E2%80%93+Gentrification+and+Displacement+%E2%80%93+Urban+Displacement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.urbandisplacement.org%2Fmaps%2Fatlanta-gentrification-and-displacement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Creative_Loafing-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Creative_Loafing_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatley2011" class="citation web cs1">Wheatley, Thomas (March 21, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativeloafing.com/content-213628-atlanta-s-census-numbers-reveal-dip-in-black-population---and-lots-of">"Thomas Wheatley, "Atlanta's census numbers reveal dip in black population – and lots of people who mysteriously vanished", Creative Loafing, March 21, 2011"</a>. Clatl.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110423202651/http://clatl.com/freshloaf/archives/2011/03/21/atlantas-census-numbers-reveal-dip-in-black-population-and-lots-of-people-who-mysteriously-vanished">Archived</a> from the original on April 23, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+Wheatley%2C+%22Atlanta%27s+census+numbers+reveal+dip+in+black+population+%E2%80%93+and+lots+of+people+who+mysteriously+vanished%22%2C+Creative+Loafing%2C+March+21%2C+2011&rft.pub=Clatl.com&rft.date=2011-03-21&rft.aulast=Wheatley&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcreativeloafing.com%2Fcontent-213628-atlanta-s-census-numbers-reveal-dip-in-black-population---and-lots-of&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US Census figures for black population in Metro Atlanta outside City of Atlanta and DeKalb County - 2000: 572,379. 2010: 1,105,322</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reed_Is_Winner_in_Atlanta_Mayor's_Race_-_The_New_York_Times_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2009" class="citation news cs1">Brown, Robbie (December 10, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/10/us/10atlanta.html">"Atlanta Mayor Recount Goes to Reed"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010054550/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/10/us/10atlanta.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 10, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Atlanta+Mayor+Recount+Goes+to+Reed&rft.date=2009-12-10&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Robbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F12%2F10%2Fus%2F10atlanta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/video/atlanta-school-system-caught-epic-cheating-scandal-18847538">"Video: Atlanta School System Caught in Epic Cheating Scandal"</a>. <i>ABC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127051252/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/video/atlanta-school-system-caught-epic-cheating-scandal-18847538">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Video%3A+Atlanta+School+System+Caught+in+Epic+Cheating+Scandal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FWNT%2Fvideo%2Fatlanta-school-system-caught-epic-cheating-scandal-18847538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernando_Alfonso_III2020" class="citation web cs1">Fernando Alfonso III (May 30, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/29/us/cnn-center-vandalized-protest-atlanta-destroyed/index.html">"CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209021321/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/29/us/cnn-center-vandalized-protest-atlanta-destroyed/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=CNN+Center+in+Atlanta+damaged+during+protests&rft.date=2020-05-30&rft.au=Fernando+Alfonso+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2020%2F05%2F29%2Fus%2Fcnn-center-vandalized-protest-atlanta-destroyed%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29244470/college-football-hof-damaged-protesters">"College Football HOF damaged by protesters"</a>. <i>ESPN.com</i>. May 30, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200530160628/https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29244470/college-football-hof-damaged-protesters">Archived</a> from the original on May 30, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ESPN.com&rft.atitle=College+Football+HOF+damaged+by+protesters&rft.date=2020-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.espn.com%2Fcollege-football%2Fstory%2F_%2Fid%2F29244470%2Fcollege-football-hof-damaged-protesters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJC.Captured-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AJC.Captured_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollisAbusaidStevens2021" class="citation news cs1">Hollis, Henri; Abusaid, Shaddi; Stevens, Alexis (March 16, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ajc.com/news/breaking-multiple-shootings-shut-down-busy-woodstock-highway/OLE23RVIO5BE3ELWBZAA6GVSSA/">"8 killed in metro Atlanta spa shooting spree; suspect captured in South Georgia"</a>. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210319142235/https://www.ajc.com/news/breaking-multiple-shootings-shut-down-busy-woodstock-highway/OLE23RVIO5BE3ELWBZAA6GVSSA/">Archived</a> from the original on March 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=8+killed+in+metro+Atlanta+spa+shooting+spree%3B+suspect+captured+in+South+Georgia&rft.date=2021-03-16&rft.aulast=Hollis&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft.au=Abusaid%2C+Shaddi&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Alexis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajc.com%2Fnews%2Fbreaking-multiple-shootings-shut-down-busy-woodstock-highway%2FOLE23RVIO5BE3ELWBZAA6GVSSA%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt2023" class="citation news cs1">Pratt, Timothy (June 24, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jun/24/atlanta-cop-city-referendum">"Atlanta activists in drive to put fate of controversial 'Cop City' on ballot"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Atlanta+activists+in+drive+to+put+fate+of+controversial+%E2%80%98Cop+City%E2%80%99+on+ballot&rft.date=2023-06-24&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2023%2Fjun%2F24%2Fatlanta-cop-city-referendum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Atlanta#Bibliography" title="Timeline of Atlanta">Timeline of Atlanta § Bibliography</a></div> <ul><li>Allen, Frederick. <i>Atlanta Rising: The Invention of an International City from 1946-1996</i> (Atlanta: Longstreet. 1996).</li> <li>Basmajian, Carlton Wade. <i>Planning Metropolitan Atlanta? The Atlanta Regional Commission, 1970--2002</i> (ProQuest, 2008).</li> <li>Bayor, Ronald H. <i>Race and the shaping of twentieth-century Atlanta</i> (U of North Carolina Press, 2000). <ul><li>Bayor, Ronald H. "The Civil Rights Movement as Urban Reform: Atlanta's Black Neighborhoods and a New 'Progressivism'." <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i> 77.2 (1993): 286-309. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40582710">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Burns, Rebecca. <i>Rage in the Gate City: The Story of the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2009).</li> <li>Davis, Harold E. <i>Henry Grady's New South: Atlanta, A Brave Beautiful City</i>. (U of Alabama Press, 1990).</li> <li>Dittmer, John. <i>Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920</i> (1977)</li> <li>Dorsey, Allison. <i>To Build Our Lives Together: Community Formation in Black Atlanta, 1875-1906</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2004).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer1999" class="citation book cs1">Dyer, Thomas G. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretyankeesuni00dyer"><i>Secret Yankees: The Union Circle in Confederate Atlanta</i></a></span>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-6116-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-6116-0"><bdi>0-8018-6116-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+Yankees%3A+The+Union+Circle+in+Confederate+Atlanta&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8018-6116-0&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Thomas+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretyankeesuni00dyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Egerton, John. "Days of Hope and Horror: Atlanta After World War II." <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i> 78.2 (1994): 281-305. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40583033">online</a></li> <li>Ferguson, Karen. <i>Black Politics in New Deal Atlanta</i> (2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett1954" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, Franklin M. (1954). <i>Atlanta and Environs, A Chronicle of its People and Events</i>. Lewis Historical Publishing, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0820309132" title="Special:BookSources/978-0820309132"><bdi>978-0820309132</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+and+Environs%2C+A+Chronicle+of+its+People+and+Events&rft.pub=Lewis+Historical+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0820309132&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Franklin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Godshalk, David Fort. <i>Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and the Reshaping of American Race Relations</i> (2006).</li> <li>Harvey, Bruce, and Lynn Watson-Powers. "The eyes of the world are upon us: A look at the Cotton States and International Exposition of 1895." <i>Atlanta History</i> 39#1 (1995): 5-11.</li> <li>Hanley, John. <i>The Archdiocese of Atlanta. A History</i> (2006), The Roman Catholics</li> <li>Hein, Virginia H. "The Image of a City Too Busy to Hate": Atlanta in the 1960s". <i>Phylon</i> 33, (Fall 1972), pp. 205–221; A Black perspective</li> <li>Henderson, Alexia B. <i>Atlanta Life Insurance Company: Guardian of Black Economic Dignity</i> (University of Alabama Press, 1990).</li> <li>Hickey, Georgina. <i>Hope and Danger in the New South City: Working Class Women and\ Urban Development in Atlanta, 1890-1940</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2005).</li> <li>Hobson, Maurice J. <i>The Dawning of the Black New South: A Geo-Political, Social, and Cultural History of Black Atlanta, Georgia, 1966-1996</i> (PhD Diss. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/14701/Hobson_Maurice%20J.pdf?sequence=5">online</a>; Bibliography pages 308-39</li> <li>Holliman, Irene V. "From Crackertown to Model City? Urban Renewal and Community Building in Atlanta, 1963—1966". <i>Journal of Urban History</i> 35.3 (2009): 369–386.</li> <li>Hornsby Jr., Alton. <i>A Short History of Black Atlanta, 1847-1993</i> (2015).</li> <li>Hornsby, Alton. <i>Black Power in Dixie: A Political History of African Americans in Atlanta</i> (2009)</li> <li>Kruse, Kevin M. <i>White flight: Atlanta and the making of modern conservatism</i> (Princeton University Press, 2013).</li> <li>Lands, LeeAnn. <i>The Culture of Property: Race, Class, and Housing Landscapes in Atlanta, 1880-1950</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2011).</li> <li>Levy, Jessica Ann. "Selling Atlanta Black Mayoral Politics from Protest to Entrepreneurism, 1973 to 1990". <i>Journal of Urban History</i> 41.3 (2015): 420–443. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://juh.sagepub.com/content/41/3/420.short">online</a></li> <li>Lewis, John and Andy Ambrose. <i>Atlanta: An Illustrated History</i> (2003), popular history</li> <li>Link, William A. <i>Atlanta, Cradle of the New South: Race and Remembering in the Civil War's Aftermath</i> (UNC Press, 2013).</li> <li>Meier, August, and David Lewis. "History of the Negro upper class in Atlanta, Georgia, 1890-1958". <i>Journal of Negro Education</i> 28.2 (1959): 128–139. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293711">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Mixon, Gregory. <i>The Atlanta Race Riots: Race, Class, and Violence in a New South City</i> (University of Florida Press, 2004).</li> <li>Nixon, Raymond B. <i>Henry W. Grady: Spokesman of the New South</i> (1943).</li> <li>Odum-Hinmon, Maria E. "The Cautious Crusader: How the Atlanta Daily World Covered the Struggle for African American Rights from 1945 to 1985". (Dissertation 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/2608/1/umi-umd-2505.pdf?pagewanted=all">online</a></li> <li>Peterson, Paul E. <i>The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940</i> (1985) covers Atlanta, Chicago, and San Francisco</li> <li>Roth, Darlene R., and Andy Ambrose. <i>Metropolitan Frontiers: A short history of Atlanta</i> (Longstreet Press, 1996).</li> <li>Russell, James M. and Thornbery, Jerry. "William Finch of Atlanta: The Black Politician as Civic Leader", in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 309–34.</li> <li>Russell, James Michael. <i>Atlanta, 1847-1890: City Building in the Old South and the New</i> (LSU Press, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40581930">review essay</a></li> <li>Shirley, Michael. "The 'Conscientious Conservatism' of Asa Griggs Candler." <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i> 67.3 (1983): 356-365. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40581101">online</a></li> <li>Stone, Clarence. <i>Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988</i> (University of Kansas Press, 1989).</li> <li>Strait, John Byron, and Gang Gong. "The Impact of Increased diversity on the Residential Landscape of a Sunbelt Metropolis: Racial and Ethnic Segregation Across the Atlanta Metropolitan Region, 1990–2010". <i>Southeastern Geographer</i> 55.2 (2015): 119–142.</li> <li>Watt, Eugene. <i>The Social Bases of City Politics: Atlanta, 1865-1903</i> (1978).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kuhn, Clifford and E. West, eds. <i>Living Atlanta: An Oral History of the City, 1914-1948</i> (Brown Thrasher Books, 1990).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="City_directories_online">City directories online</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: City directories online"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV._T._Barnwell1867" class="citation cs2">V. T. Barnwell (1867), <i>Barnwell's Atlanta city directory, and strangers' guide</i>, Atlanta: Intelligencer Book and Job Office, <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22850965M">22850965M</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barnwell%27s+Atlanta+city+directory%2C+and+strangers%27+guide&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=Intelligencer+Book+and+Job+Office&rft.date=1867&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL22850965M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.au=V.+T.+Barnwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/acpl_citydirectories_01_reel01#page/n157/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory for 1870</i></a>. Atlanta, Georgia: William R. Hanleiter. 1870.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory+for+1870&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=William+R.+Hanleiter&rft.date=1870&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Facpl_citydirectories_01_reel01%23page%2Fn157%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/acpl_citydirectories_01_reel01#page/n539/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory for 1872</i></a>. Atlanta, Georgia: Plantation Publishing Co. 1872.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory+for+1872&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=Plantation+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1872&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Facpl_citydirectories_01_reel01%23page%2Fn539%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/acpl_citydirectories_02_reel02#page/n8/mode/1up"><i>Directory of the City of Atlanta for 1877</i></a>. A.E. Sholes. 1877.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Directory+of+the+City+of+Atlanta+for+1877&rft.pub=A.E.+Sholes&rft.date=1877&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Facpl_citydirectories_02_reel02%23page%2Fn8%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/acpl_citydirectories_03_reel03#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory: 1882</i></a>. Sholes & Co. 1882.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory%3A+1882&rft.pub=Sholes+%26+Co.&rft.date=1882&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Facpl_citydirectories_03_reel03%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1891polk#page/80/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory</i></a>. Atlanta, Ga.: <a href="/wiki/R.L._Polk_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="R.L. Polk & Co.">R.L. Polk & Co.</a> 1891.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Ga.&rft.pub=R.L.+Polk+%26+Co.&rft.date=1891&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fatlantacitydirec1891polk%23page%2F80%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1896hgsa#page/32/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory for 1896</i></a>. Franklin Printing and Publishing Co. 1896.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory+for+1896&rft.pub=Franklin+Printing+and+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fatlantacitydirec1896hgsa%23page%2F32%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1898vvbu#page/14/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory for 1898</i></a>. Bullock and Saunders. 1898.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory+for+1898&rft.pub=Bullock+and+Saunders&rft.date=1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fatlantacitydirec1898vvbu%23page%2F14%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Published in the 20th century</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlantacitydirec1914foot"><i>Atlanta City Directory</i></a>. Foote & Davies Co. 1914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory&rft.pub=Foote+%26+Davies+Co.&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlantacitydirec1914foot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1904foot#page/n7/mode/2up">1904</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1908foot#page/n7/mode/2up">1908</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1919atla#page/n11/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory: 1919</i></a>. Atlanta City Directory Co. 1919.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory%3A+1919&rft.pub=Atlanta+City+Directory+Co.&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fatlantacitydirec1919atla%23page%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlantacitydirec1922atla#page/166/mode/2up"><i>Atlanta City Directory</i></a>. Atlanta City Directory Company. 1922.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlanta+City+Directory&rft.pub=Atlanta+City+Directory+Company&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fatlantacitydirec1922atla%23page%2F166%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_G._Cooper1978" class="citation book cs1">Walter G. Cooper (1978). <i>Official History of Futon County</i>. Spartanburg, South Carolina: The Reprint Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Official+History+of+Futon+County&rft.place=Spartanburg%2C+South+Carolina&rft.pub=The+Reprint+Company&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Walter+G.+Cooper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Atlanta" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atlanta" title="Template:Atlanta"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atlanta" title="Template talk:Atlanta"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="25px_City_of_Atlanta" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Atlanta.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Atlanta.svg/25px-Flag_of_Atlanta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Atlanta.svg/38px-Flag_of_Atlanta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Atlanta.svg/50px-Flag_of_Atlanta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1513" data-file-height="905" /></a></span> City of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulton_County,_Georgia" title="Fulton County, Georgia">Fulton County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta metropolitan area">Atlanta metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Atlanta" title="Architecture of Atlanta">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_structures_in_Atlanta" title="List of oldest structures in Atlanta">Oldest structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Atlanta" title="List of tallest buildings in Atlanta">Tallest buildings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_Atlanta" title="Arts in Atlanta">Arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_art_in_Atlanta" title="List of public art in Atlanta">Public art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_art_in_Atlanta" title="Street art in Atlanta">Street art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Atlanta" title="Crime in Atlanta">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Atlanta" title="Cuisine of Atlanta">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Atlanta" title="Demographics of Atlanta">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_communities_in_Metro_Atlanta" title="Hispanic and Latino communities in Metro Atlanta">Hispanics and Latinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Atlanta" title="History of the Jews in Atlanta">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Atlanta" title="Economy of Atlanta">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festivals_in_Atlanta" title="Festivals in Atlanta">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Atlanta" title="Geography of Atlanta">Geography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Atlanta" title="Timeline of Atlanta">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotels_in_Atlanta" title="Hotels in Atlanta">Hotels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Atlanta" title="Media in Atlanta">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Atlanta" title="List of museums in Atlanta">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Atlanta" title="Music of Atlanta">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhoods_in_Atlanta" title="Neighborhoods in Atlanta">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicknames_of_Atlanta" title="Nicknames of Atlanta">Nicknames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parks_in_Atlanta" title="Parks in Atlanta">Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Atlanta" title="List of people from Atlanta">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Atlanta" title="Religion in Atlanta">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Atlanta" title="List of tallest buildings in Atlanta">Skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Atlanta" title="Sports in Atlanta">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Atlanta" title="Tourism in Atlanta">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Atlanta" title="Transportation in Atlanta">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_tree_canopy" title="Atlanta tree canopy">Tree canopy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Atlanta.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/50px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/75px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_Atlanta.svg/100px-Seal_of_Atlanta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="1226" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_metropolitan_Atlanta" title="List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Atlanta">Colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_private_schools_in_Atlanta" title="List of private schools in Atlanta">Private schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools" title="Atlanta Public Schools">Public schools</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Atlanta" title="Government of Atlanta">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_City_Council" title="Atlanta City Council">City Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Fire_Rescue_Department" title="Atlanta Fire Rescue Department">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Housing_Authority" title="Atlanta Housing Authority">Atlanta Housing Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invest_Atlanta" title="Invest Atlanta">Invest Atlanta</a> development authority</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Atlanta" title="List of mayors of Atlanta">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Police_Department" title="Atlanta Police Department">Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Atlanta" title="Sports in Atlanta">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves" title="Atlanta Braves">Atlanta Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Dream" title="Atlanta Dream">Atlanta Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons" title="Atlanta Falcons">Atlanta Falcons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Hawks" title="Atlanta Hawks">Atlanta Hawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_United_FC" title="Atlanta United FC">Atlanta United FC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Panthers" title="Georgia State Panthers">Georgia State Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Tech_Yellow_Jackets" title="Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets">Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_ATL" class="mw-redirect" title="Rugby ATL">Rugby ATL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_Capitol" title="Georgia State Capitol">Georgia State Capitol</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Miss_Freedom" title="Miss Freedom">Miss Freedom</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sister_cities_of_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sister cities of Atlanta">Sister cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Atlanta" title="Category:Atlanta">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Atlanta" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atlanta_history" title="Template:Atlanta history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atlanta_history" title="Template talk:Atlanta history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atlanta history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Atlanta" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Atlanta</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Peachtree" title="Standing Peachtree">Standing Peachtree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historic_districts_in_Atlanta" title="Category:Historic districts in Atlanta">Historic districts</a></li> <li><i>Buildings listed on National Register</i>: <a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Fulton_County,_Georgia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Fulton County, Georgia">(Atlanta in Fulton Co.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_DeKalb_County,_Georgia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in DeKalb County, Georgia">(Atlanta in DeKalb Co.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Demolished_buildings_and_structures_in_Atlanta" title="Category:Demolished buildings and structures in Atlanta">Demolished buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolished_public_housing_projects_in_Atlanta" title="Demolished public housing projects in Atlanta">Demolished public housing projects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Civil War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain" title="Battle of Kennesaw Mountain">Kennesaw Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peachtree_Creek" title="Battle of Peachtree Creek">Peachtree Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ezra_Church" title="Battle of Ezra Church">Ezra Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Utoy_Creek" title="Battle of Utoy Creek">Utoy Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesborough" title="Battle of Jonesborough">Jonesborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain" title="Stone Mountain">Stone Mountain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Race massacre</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Ripper" title="Atlanta Ripper">Ripper</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank lynching</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Benevolent_Congregation_Temple_bombing" title="Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple bombing">Temple bombing</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Peyton Road affair</a> (1962–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_murders_of_1979%E2%80%931981" title="Atlanta murders of 1979–1981">Child murders</a> (1979–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_prison_riots" title="Atlanta prison riots">Prison riots</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Olympic_Park_bombing" title="Centennial Olympic Park bombing">Centennial Olympic Park bombing</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otherside_Lounge_bombing" title="Otherside Lounge bombing">Otherside Lounge bombing</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Atlanta_day_trading_firm_shootings" title="1999 Atlanta day trading firm shootings">Day trading firm shootings</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Kathryn_Johnston" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Kathryn Johnston">Shooting of Kathryn Johnston</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Schools_cheating_scandal" title="Atlanta Public Schools cheating scandal">Public schools cheating scandal</a> (2009–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Scout_Schultz" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Scout Schultz">Shooting of Scout Schultz</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_government_ransomware_attack" title="Atlanta government ransomware attack">Ransomware attack</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rayshard_Brooks" title="Killing of Rayshard Brooks">Killing of Rayshard Brooks</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">Spa shootings</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Atlanta_shooting" title="2023 Atlanta shooting">Northside Hospital shooting</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Atlanta" title="Opera in Atlanta">Opera in Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_Atlanta" title="Arts in Atlanta">Arts in Atlanta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disasters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Atlanta_fire_of_1917" title="Great Atlanta fire of 1917">Great Atlanta Fire</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winecoff_Hotel_fire" title="Winecoff Hotel fire">Winecoff Hotel fire</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_007" title="Air France Flight 007">Air France Flight 007 crash</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluffton_University_bus_crash" title="Bluffton University bus crash">Bluffton University bus crash</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Atlanta_tornado_outbreak" title="2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak">Tornado strikes downtown</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_85_bridge_collapse" title="Interstate 85 bridge collapse">Interstate 85 bridge collapse</a> (2017)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Atlanta" title="Timeline of Atlanta">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Cotton_Exposition" title="International Cotton Exposition">International Cotton Exposition</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_Exposition" title="Piedmont Exposition">Piedmont Exposition</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States and International Exposition</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)"><i>Gone with the Wind</i> premiere</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1968)</li> <li>Atlanta International Pop Festival (<a href="/wiki/Atlanta_International_Pop_Festival_(1969)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta International Pop Festival (1969)">1969</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_International_Pop_Festival_(1970)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta International Pop Festival (1970)">1970</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1988 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXVIII" title="Super Bowl XXVIII">Super Bowl XXVIII</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Series" title="World Series">World Series</a> (<a href="/wiki/1991_World_Series" title="1991 World Series">1991</a>, <a href="/wiki/1992_World_Series" title="1992 World Series">1992</a>, <a href="/wiki/1995_World_Series" title="1995 World Series">1995</a>, <a href="/wiki/1996_World_Series" title="1996 World Series">1996</a>, <a href="/wiki/1999_World_Series" title="1999 World Series">1999</a>, <a href="/wiki/2021_World_Series" title="2021 World Series">2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics" title="1996 Summer Olympics">Summer Olympics</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII" title="WrestleMania XXVII">WrestleMania XXVII</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl_LIII" title="Super Bowl LIII">Super Bowl LIII</a> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Labor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1881_Atlanta_washerwomen_strike" title="1881 Atlanta washerwomen strike">Washerwomen strike</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914%E2%80%931915_Fulton_Bag_and_Cotton_Mills_strike" title="1914–1915 Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills strike">Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills strike</a> (1914–1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Atlanta_streetcar_strike" title="1916 Atlanta streetcar strike">Streetcar strike</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_Atlanta_transit_strike" title="1950 Atlanta transit strike">Transit strike</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">Scripto strike</a> (1964–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Atlanta_sanitation_strike" title="1977 Atlanta sanitation strike">Sanitation strike</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Atlanta_sanitation_strike" title="2018 Atlanta sanitation strike">Sanitation strike</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_DeKalb_County_School_District_bus_drivers%27_strike" title="2018 DeKalb County School District bus drivers' strike">School bus drivers' strike</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">LGBT</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Public_Library_perversion_case" title="Atlanta Public Library perversion case">Library perversion case</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonesome_Cowboys_police_raid" title="Lonesome Cowboys police raid"><i>Lonesome Cowboys</i> police raid</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Pride" title="Atlanta Pride">Atlanta Pride</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Eagle_police_raid" title="Atlanta Eagle police raid">Atlanta Eagle police raid</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Atlanta" title="List of people from Atlanta">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Atlanta" title="List of mayors of Atlanta">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pioneers_of_Atlanta" title="Category:Pioneers of Atlanta">Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_communities_in_Metro_Atlanta" title="Hispanic and Latino communities in Metro Atlanta">History of Hispanics in Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">History of African Americans in Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Atlanta" title="Demographics of Atlanta">Demographic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification_of_Atlanta" title="Gentrification of Atlanta">Gentrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_Atlanta" title="Racial segregation in Atlanta">Racial segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Atlanta" title="History of the Jews in Atlanta">History of the Jews in Atlanta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhoods_in_Atlanta" title="Neighborhoods in Atlanta">History by neighborhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_neighborhoods_of_Atlanta" title="Category:Former neighborhoods of Atlanta">Former neighborhoods and settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_annexations_and_wards" title="Atlanta annexations and wards">Annexations and city wards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Atlanta_street_names" title="List of former Atlanta street names">Street names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Georgia_Institute_of_Technology" title="History of the Georgia Institute of Technology">History of Georgia Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_mills_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic mills of the Atlanta area">Historic mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Zero_Mile_Post" title="Atlanta Zero Mile Post">Zero Mile Post</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a> (1960-1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_freeway_revolts" title="Atlanta freeway revolts">Freeway revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Atlanta" title="Occupy Atlanta">Occupy Atlanta</a> (2011–2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Atlanta" title="George Floyd protests in Atlanta">George Floyd protests</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Cop_City" title="Stop Cop City">Stop Cop City</a> (2021–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mass_transit_in_Atlanta" title="Timeline of mass transit in Atlanta">Transportation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Transit_Company" title="Atlanta Transit Company">Atlanta Transit Company</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_bridges_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic bridges of the Atlanta area">Historic bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_ferries_of_the_Atlanta_area" title="Historic ferries of the Atlanta area">Historic ferries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streetcars_in_Atlanta" title="Streetcars in Atlanta">Streetcars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARTA" class="mw-redirect" title="MARTA">MARTA</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_and_Atlantic_Railroad" title="Western and Atlantic Railroad">Western and Atlantic Railroad</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Atlanta" title="Trolleybuses in Atlanta">Trolleybuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viaducts_of_Atlanta" title="Viaducts of Atlanta">Viaducts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Atlanta_timeline" title="Template:Atlanta timeline">Timeline of Atlanta history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&oldid=1241285058">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Atlanta&oldid=1241285058</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Atlanta" 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