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<span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-White_and_gray_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_and_gray_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>White and gray matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_and_gray_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spinal_cord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spinal_cord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Spinal cord</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spinal_cord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cranial_nerves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cranial_nerves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Cranial nerves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cranial_nerves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brainstem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brainstem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Brainstem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brainstem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerebellum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebellum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Cerebellum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebellum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diencephalon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diencephalon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Diencephalon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diencephalon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cerebrum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cerebrum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Cerebrum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cerebrum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difference_from_the_peripheral_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_from_the_peripheral_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Difference from the peripheral nervous system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_from_the_peripheral_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Planaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Planaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arthropoda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthropoda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Arthropoda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthropoda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chordata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chordata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Chordata</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chordata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3.1</span> <span>Mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Central nervous system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentrale_senuweestelsel" title="Sentrale senuweestelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sentrale senuweestelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="جهاز عصبي مركزي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز عصبي مركزي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AC%DC%98%DC%A9%DC%A2_%DC%93%DC%9D%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%90_%DC%A9%DC%A2%DC%9B%DC%AA%DC%98%DC%A2%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܬܘܩܢ ܓܝܕܝܐ ܩܢܛܪܘܢܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܬܘܩܢ ܓܝܕܝܐ ܩܢܛܪܘܢܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="কেন্দ্ৰীয় স্নায়ু তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কেন্দ্ৰীয় স্নায়ু তন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nerviosu_central" title="Sistema nerviosu central – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema nerviosu central" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99rk%C9%99zi_sinir_sistemi" title="Mərkəzi sinir sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mərkəzi sinir sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="কেন্দ্রীয় স্নায়ুতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কেন্দ্রীয় স্নায়ুতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-chhu_s%C3%AEn-keng_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Tiong-chhu sîn-keng hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-chhu sîn-keng hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Цэнтральная нервовая сістэма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цэнтральная нервовая сістэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Цэнтральная нэрвовая сыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Цэнтральная нэрвовая сыстэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Централна нервна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Централна нервна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralni_nervni_sistem" title="Centralni nervni sistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Centralni nervni sistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reizhiad_nervel_kreiz" title="Reizhiad nervel kreiz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Reizhiad nervel kreiz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervi%C3%B3s_central" title="Sistema nerviós central – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema nerviós central" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%95%D0%BF_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%C4%83%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Тĕп нерв тытăмĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тĕп нерв тытăмĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centr%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_nervov%C3%A1_soustava" title="Centrální nervová soustava – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Centrální nervová soustava" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralnervesystemet" title="Centralnervesystemet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Centralnervesystemet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guovdd%C3%A1%C5%A1nearvafierbmi" title="Guovddášnearvafierbmi – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Guovddášnearvafierbmi" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentralnervensystem" title="Zentralnervensystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zentralnervensystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AC%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%93%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%B0_%DE%82%DE%A7%DE%83%DE%88%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0_%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%93%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%B0" title="ސެންޓްރަލް ނާރވަސް ސިސްޓަމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސެންޓްރަލް ނާރވަސް ސިސްޓަމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskn%C3%A4rvis%C3%BCsteem" title="Kesknärvisüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kesknärvisüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervioso_central" title="Sistema nervioso central – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema nervioso central" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centra_nerva_sistemo" title="Centra nerva sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Centra nerva sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerbio-sistema_zentral" title="Nerbio-sistema zentral – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nerbio-sistema zentral" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="دستگاه عصبی مرکزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستگاه عصبی مرکزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_nerveux_central" title="Système nerveux central – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système nerveux central" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1rch%C3%B3ras_na_n%C3%A9ar%C3%B3g" title="Lárchóras na néaróg – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Lárchóras na néaróg" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervioso_central" title="Sistema nervioso central – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema nervioso central" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-khi_S%E1%B9%B3%CC%80n-k%C3%AEn_Ne-th%C3%BAng" title="Chûng-khi Sṳ̀n-kîn Ne-thúng – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-khi Sṳ̀n-kîn Ne-thúng" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%B6%94%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84" title="중추신경계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중추신경계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Կենտրոնական նյարդային համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենտրոնական նյարդային համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="केन्द्रीय तंत्रिका तंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="केन्द्रीय तंत्रिका तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sredi%C5%A1nji_%C5%BEiv%C4%8Dani_sustav" title="Središnji živčani sustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Središnji živčani sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrala_nervaro" title="Centrala nervaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Centrala nervaro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf_pusat" title="Sistem saraf pusat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem saraf pusat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_nervose_central" title="Systema nervose central – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Systema nervose central" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0taugakerfi%C3%B0" title="Miðtaugakerfið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðtaugakerfið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervoso_centrale" title="Sistema nervoso centrale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema nervoso centrale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%96%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מערכת העצבים המרכזית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת העצבים המרכזית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf_pusat" title="Sistem saraf pusat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sistem saraf pusat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Орталық жүйке жүйесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Орталық жүйке жүйесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8m_n%C3%A8ve_santral" title="Sistèm nève santral – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sistèm nève santral" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarekoendama_navend%C3%AE" title="Demarekoendama navendî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Demarekoendama navendî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Борбордук нерв системасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Борбордук нерв системасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_nervosum_centrale" title="Systema nervosum centrale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema nervosum centrale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centr%C4%81l%C4%81_nervu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Centrālā nervu sistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Centrālā nervu sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zentralen_Nervesystem" title="Zentralen Nervesystem – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Zentralen Nervesystem" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrin%C4%97_nerv%C5%B3_sistema" title="Centrinė nervų sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Centrinė nervų sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1tikati_ya_mint%C3%BAng%C3%BA" title="Kátikati ya mintúngú – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Kátikati ya mintúngú" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zponti_idegrendszer" title="Központi idegrendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Központi idegrendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Централен нервен систем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Централен нервен систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5" title="കേന്ദ്രനാഡീവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കേന്ദ്രനാഡീവ്യവസ്ഥ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%89_%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%B2%D9%89" title="جهاز عصبى مركزى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جهاز عصبى مركزى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_saraf_pusat" title="Sistem saraf pusat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem saraf pusat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%BE" title="Төв мэдрэлийн тогтолцоо – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Төв мэдрэлийн тогтолцоо" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centraal_zenuwstelsel" title="Centraal zenuwstelsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Centraal zenuwstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9E%A2%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E7%B3%BB" title="中枢神経系 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中枢神経系" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentralnervesystemet" title="Sentralnervesystemet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sentralnervesystemet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentralnervesystemet" title="Sentralnervesystemet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sentralnervesystemet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8ma_nervi%C3%B3s_central" title="Sistèma nerviós central – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sistèma nerviós central" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markaziy_nerv_sistemasi" title="Markaziy nerv sistemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Markaziy nerv sistemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C5%9Brodkowy_uk%C5%82ad_nerwowy" title="Ośrodkowy układ nerwowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ośrodkowy układ nerwowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_nervoso_central" title="Sistema nervoso central – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema nervoso central" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemul_nervos_central" title="Sistemul nervos central – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistemul nervos central" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Центральная нервная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Центральная нервная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Central nervous system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AA%D8%B2%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%88" title="مرڪزي تنتي سرشتو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مرڪزي تنتي سرشتو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centr%C3%A1lna_nervov%C3%A1_s%C3%BAstava" title="Centrálna nervová sústava – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Centrálna nervová sústava" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osrednje_%C5%BEiv%C4%8Devje" title="Osrednje živčevje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Osrednje živčevje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyntralny_uk%C5%82%C5%8Fd_nerwowy" title="Cyntralny ukłŏd nerwowy – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Cyntralny ukłŏd nerwowy" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="کۆئەندامی دەماریی ناوەندی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆئەندامی دەماریی ناوەندی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Централни нервни систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Централни нервни систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralni_nervni_sistem" title="Centralni nervni sistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Centralni nervni sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskushermosto" title="Keskushermosto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskushermosto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrala_nervsystemet" title="Centrala nervsystemet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Centrala nervsystemet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitnang_sistemang_nerbyos" title="Gitnang sistemang nerbyos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gitnang sistemang nerbyos" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மைய நரம்பு மண்டலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மைய நரம்பு மண்டலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagraw_anesur_alemmas" title="Anagraw anesur alemmas – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Anagraw anesur alemmas" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="కేంద్రీయ నాడీ వ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కేంద్రీయ నాడీ వ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="ระบบประสาทกลาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบประสาทกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkez%C3%AE_sinir_sistemi" title="Merkezî sinir sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Merkezî sinir sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Центральна нервова система – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Центральна нервова система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85" title="مرکزی عصبی نظام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرکزی عصبی نظام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%89%D8%B2%D9%89%D9%8A_%D9%86%DB%90%D8%B1%DB%8B%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%89%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%90%D9%85%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89%DA%AD_%D9%8A%DB%87%D9%82%DB%87%D9%85%D9%84%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89%D8%B4%D9%89_%D8%AA%DB%95%DA%BE%D8%B1%D9%89%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%95%D9%8A%D9%85%DB%95%D9%86" title="مەركىزىي نېرۋا سىستېمىسىنىڭ يۇقۇملىنىشى تەھرىرلەيمەن – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مەركىزىي نېرۋا سىستېمىسىنىڭ يۇقۇملىنىشى تەھرىرلەيمەن" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BA%A7n_kinh_trung_%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Hệ thần kinh trung ương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thần kinh trung ương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9E%A2%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="中枢神经系统 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中枢神经系统" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Brain and spinal cord</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Central nervous system</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg/300px-1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg/450px-1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg/600px-1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="760" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Schematic diagram showing the central nervous system in yellow, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral</a> in orange</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></th><td class="infobox-data">224</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>systema nervosum centrale<br />pars centralis systematis nervosi<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Acronym(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">CNS</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002490">D002490</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.00.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.00.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5364">5364</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma55675">55675</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47273" class="extiw" title="d:Q47273">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>central nervous system</b> (<b>CNS</b>) is the part of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> consisting primarily of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic animals</a>—that is, all multicellular animals except <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coelenterata" title="Coelenterata">diploblasts</a>. It is a structure composed of <a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">nervous tissue</a> positioned along the <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Cranial_and_caudal" title="Anatomical terms of location">rostral (nose end) to caudal (tail end)</a> axis of the body and may have an enlarged section at the rostral end which is a brain. Only <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">arthropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephalopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopods">cephalopods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a> have a true brain, though precursor structures exist in <a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">onychophorans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropods">gastropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lancelets" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancelets">lancelets</a>. </p><p>The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>, the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maton_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maton-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meninges provide <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">a barrier</a> to chemicals dissolved in the blood, protecting the brain from most <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxins">neurotoxins</a> commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_spinal_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral spinal fluid">cerebral spinal fluid</a> which replaces the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_fluid" title="Extracellular fluid">body fluid</a> found outside the cells of all <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilateral animals</a>. </p><p>In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_body_cavity" title="Dorsal body cavity">dorsal body cavity</a>, while the brain is housed in the <a href="/wiki/Cranial_cavity" title="Cranial cavity">cranial cavity</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a>. The spinal cord is housed in the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrae">vertebrae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maton_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maton-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the CNS, the interneuronal space is filled with a large amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglia or <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glia</a> from the Greek for "glue".<sup id="cite_ref-KettenmannFaissner1996_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KettenmannFaissner1996-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a><sup id="cite_ref-Purves_2000_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purves_2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial nerve">cranial nerve</a> II),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory nerves">olfactory nerves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">olfactory epithelium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">olfactory epithelium</a> is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic">therapeutic</a> agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></div> <p>The CNS consists of two major structures: the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">caudally</a> to the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, and continues through<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or starting below<sup id="cite_ref-Huijzen_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huijzen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Foramen_magnum" title="Foramen magnum">foramen magnum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and terminates roughly level with the first or second <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar vertebra">lumbar vertebra</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huijzen_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huijzen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occupying the upper sections of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral canal">vertebral canal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_and_gray_matter">White and gray matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: White and gray matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">Gray matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg/220px-1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg/330px-1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg/440px-1202_White_and_Gray_Matter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="975" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>Dissection of a human brain with labels showing the clear division between white and gray matter.</figcaption></figure> <p>Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (PNS).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CNS is composed of <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocytes</a>, while the gray matter consists of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glial</a> cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for <a href="/wiki/Neuroblast" title="Neuroblast">neuroblasts</a> to climb during <a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">neurogenesis</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bergmann_glia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bergmann glia">bergmann glia</a>, while others such as <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a> are a specialized form of <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophage</a>, involved in the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> of the brain as well as the clearance of various <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Brain_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tissue">brain tissue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocytes</a> may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillaries</a> of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing <a href="/wiki/Gliosis" title="Gliosis">gliosis</a>, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brain (<a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a>) consists of a <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex</a>, composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">tracts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">commissures</a>. Apart from cortical gray matter there is also <a href="/wiki/Subcortical_gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcortical gray matter">subcortical gray matter</a> making up a large number of different <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spinal_cord">Spinal cord</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spinal cord"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_615.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sobo_1909_615.png/220px-Sobo_1909_615.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sobo_1909_615.png/330px-Sobo_1909_615.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sobo_1909_615.png/440px-Sobo_1909_615.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the columns and of the course of the fibers in the spinal cord. Sensory synapses occur in the dorsal spinal cord (above in this image), and motor nerves leave through the ventral (as well as lateral) horns of the spinal cord as seen below in the image.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg/220px-1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg/330px-1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg/440px-1508_Autonomic_Control_of_Pupil_Size.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2275" data-file-height="2325" /></a><figcaption>Different ways in which the CNS can be activated without engaging the cortex, and making us aware of the actions. The above example shows the process in which the pupil dilates during dim light, activating neurons in the spinal cord. The second example shows the constriction of the pupil as a result of the activation of the Eddinger-Westphal nucleus (a cerebral ganglion).</figcaption></figure> <p>From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal</a> <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a> (sometimes segmental nerves<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">efferent</a> motor as well as <a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">afferent sensory signals</a> and stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem,<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the <a href="/wiki/Brachial_plexus" title="Brachial plexus">brachial plexa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacral_plexus" title="Sacral plexus">sacral plexa</a> etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the final common pathway<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and ultimately to the cortex. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord."><img alt="Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg/119px-1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg/179px-1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg/239px-1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1475" data-file-height="1483" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the CNS as in the below example of a short reflex."><img alt="Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the CNS as in the below example of a short reflex." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg/120px-1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg/180px-1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg/240px-1507_Short_and_Long_Reflexes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1991" data-file-height="1917" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the CNS as in the below example of a short reflex.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cranial_nerves">Cranial nerves</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cranial nerves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a> directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a>. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the <a href="/wiki/Trapezius_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapezius muscle">trapezius muscle</a>, which is innervated by <a href="/wiki/Accessory_nerve" title="Accessory nerve">accessory nerves</a><sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as certain <a href="/wiki/Cervical_spinal_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervical spinal nerve">cervical spinal nerves</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two pairs of cranial nerves; the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">olfactory nerves</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerves</a><sup id="cite_ref-Purves_2000_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purves_2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are often considered structures of the CNS. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs. <sup id="cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:632px;max-width:632px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:506px;max-width:506px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image showing the way Schwann cells myelinate periferal nerves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg/504px-Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg" decoding="async" width="504" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg/756px-Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Periferal_nerve_myelination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="232" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A neuron of the CNS, myelinated by an oligodendrocyte" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/120px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/180px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg/240px-Neuron_with_oligodendrocyte_and_myelin_sheath.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="485" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A peripheral nerve myelinated by <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cells</a> (left) and a CNS neuron myelinated by an <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocyte</a> (right)</div></div></div></div><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain">Brain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a></div> <p>At the anterior end of the spinal cord lies the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS. It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general. The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of <a href="/wiki/Spinal_locomotion" title="Spinal locomotion">spinal locomotion</a> and can process <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a>, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brainstem">Brainstem</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Brainstem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">Brainstem</a></div> <p>The brainstem consists of the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a>. Other nuclei are involved in <a href="/wiki/Balance_(ability)" title="Balance (ability)">balance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>, and control of muscles of the <a href="/wiki/Face" title="Face">face</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include <a href="/wiki/Pontine_nuclei" title="Pontine nuclei">pontine nuclei</a> which work with the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> and transmit information between the cerebellum and the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> and both <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a>, among others. Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of the face and neck through cranial nerves,<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">tenth cranial nerve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood vessels">blood vessels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupils</a>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brainstem also holds the <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a>, a group of nuclei involved in both <a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">alertness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cerebellum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></div> <p>The cerebellum lies behind the pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>. These connections have been shown by the use of <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">functional MRI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron emission tomography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>, but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibular organ">vestibular organ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diencephalon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></div> <p>The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (<a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefulness and consciousness, such as though the <a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">SCN</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as <a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">hunger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thirst" title="Thirst">thirst</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal bonding</a>. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>. Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> and many other behaviors of the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cerebrum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a></div> <p>The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Connecting each of the hemispheres is the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a> as well as several additional commissures.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the <a href="/wiki/Cortex_(anatomy)" title="Cortex (anatomy)">cortex</a>, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_from_the_peripheral_nervous_system">Difference from the peripheral nervous system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Difference from the peripheral nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg/350px-1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg/525px-1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg/700px-1205_Somatic_Autonomic_Enteric_StructuresN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>A map over the different structures of the nervous systems in the body, showing the CNS, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">enteric nervous system</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The PNS consists of neurons, axons, and <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwann cells">Schwann cells</a>. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed. </p><p>The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates a single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore's_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>, which envelop and enclose the axon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_621.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="CNS seen in a median section of a 5-week-old embryo." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sobo_1909_621.png/300px-Sobo_1909_621.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sobo_1909_621.png/450px-Sobo_1909_621.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sobo_1909_621.png/600px-Sobo_1909_621.png 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="1644" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_622.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="CNS seen in a median section of a 3-month-old embryo." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sobo_1909_622.png/300px-Sobo_1909_622.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sobo_1909_622.png/450px-Sobo_1909_622.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Sobo_1909_622.png/600px-Sobo_1909_622.png 2x" data-file-width="2312" data-file-height="1584" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Top image: CNS as seen in a median section of a 5-week-old embryo. Bottom image: CNS seen in a median section of a 3-month-old embryo.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neural_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural development">Neural development</a></div> <p>During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal <a href="/wiki/Neural_groove" title="Neural groove">groove</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Neural_plate" title="Neural plate">neural plate</a> gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the <a href="/wiki/Neural_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural folds">neural folds</a>) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formation of the neural tube is called <a href="/wiki/Neurulation" title="Neurulation">neurulation</a>. At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating <a href="/wiki/Neural_stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural stem cells">neural stem cells</a> in a region called the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_zone" title="Ventricular zone">ventricular zone</a>. The neural stem cells, principally <a href="/wiki/Radial_glial_cell" title="Radial glial cell">radial glial cells</a>, multiply and generate <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> through the process of <a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">neurogenesis</a>, forming the rudiment of the CNS.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a> gives rise to both <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(embryology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (embryology)">vesicles</a> (pockets): the <a href="/wiki/Prosencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosencephalon">prosencephalon</a> at the front, the <a href="/wiki/Mesencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</a>, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the <a href="/wiki/Rhombencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">rhombencephalon</a>. (By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the <a href="/wiki/Telencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a>; and the rhombencephalon divides into the <a href="/wiki/Metencephalon" title="Metencephalon">metencephalon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myelencephalon" title="Myelencephalon">myelencephalon</a>. The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube. </p><p>As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, and its cavity becomes the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_ventricles" title="Lateral ventricles">first and second ventricles</a> (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the <a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">subthalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epithalamus" title="Epithalamus">epithalamus</a>, and its cavity forms the <a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">third ventricle</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectum">tectum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pretectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pretectum">pretectum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_peduncle" title="Cerebral peduncle">cerebral peduncle</a> and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the <a href="/wiki/Mesencephalic_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalic duct">mesencephalic duct</a> (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, the myelencephalon forms the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>, and their cavities develop into the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_ventricle" title="Fourth ventricle">fourth ventricle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandel_9-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EmbryonicBrain.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain."><img alt="Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/120px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/180px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/240px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming <a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Development_of_the_neural_tube.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Development of the neural tube"><img alt="Development of the neural tube" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Development_of_the_neural_tube.png/120px-Development_of_the_neural_tube.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Development_of_the_neural_tube.png/180px-Development_of_the_neural_tube.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Development_of_the_neural_tube.png/240px-Development_of_the_neural_tube.png 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="368" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Development of the neural tube</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table style="margin:auto; width:75%;" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="6">CNS </td> <td rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Prosencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosencephalon">Prosencephalon</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Telencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">Telencephalon</a></td> <td colspan="2"> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhinencephalon" title="Rhinencephalon">Rhinencephalon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateral_ventricles" title="Lateral ventricles">lateral ventricles</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a></td> <td colspan="2"> <p><a href="/wiki/Epithalamus" title="Epithalamus">Epithalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">subthalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">third ventricle</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Brain_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain stem">Brain stem</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">Mesencephalon</a></td> <td colspan="2"> <p><a href="/wiki/Tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectum">Tectum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_peduncle" title="Cerebral peduncle">cerebral peduncle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pretectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pretectum">pretectum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesencephalic_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalic duct">mesencephalic duct</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhombencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">Rhombencephalon</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metencephalon" title="Metencephalon">Metencephalon</a></td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Myelencephalon" title="Myelencephalon">Myelencephalon</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">Medulla oblongata</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lancelets or amphioxus are regarded as similar to the archetypal vertebrate form, and possess to true brain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg/200px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg/300px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg/400px-Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="811" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A neuron of the CNS, myelinated by an oligodendrocyte" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/200px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/300px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg/400px-Haikouichthys_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="205" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spindle_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Traditional spindle diagram of the evolution of the vertebrates at class level." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/200px-Spindle_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/300px-Spindle_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/400px-Spindle_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="509" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Top: the <a href="/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</a>, regarded an archetypal vertebrate, lacking a true brain. Middle: an early <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a>. Bottom: spindle diagram of the evolution of vertebrates.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cephalization" title="Cephalization">Cephalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archicortex" title="Archicortex">Archicortex</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Planaria">Planaria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Planaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Planarian" title="Planarian">Planarians</a>, members of the phylum <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminthes">Platyhelminthes</a> (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS. Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS. The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS. </p><p>A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arthropoda">Arthropoda</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arthropoda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">arthropods</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord" title="Ventral nerve cord">ventral nerve cord</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Subesophageal_ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Subesophageal ganglia">subesophageal ganglia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Supraesophageal_ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraesophageal ganglia">supraesophageal ganglia</a> are usually seen as making up the CNS. Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory <a href="/wiki/Motor_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor neurons">motor neurons</a> due to their small size.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lateral_horn_of_insect_brain" title="Lateral horn of insect brain">Lateral horn of insect brain</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chordata">Chordata</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chordata"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The CNS of <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a> differs from that of other animals in being placed <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_nerve_cord" title="Dorsal nerve cord">dorsally</a> in the body, above the gut and <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">spine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Romer_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the <a href="/wiki/Telencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> of reptiles is only an appendix to the large <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a>, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> and the entire <a href="/wiki/Mesencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</a>. Indeed, the <a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">allometric</a> study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through <a href="/wiki/Cranial_endocast" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial endocast">cranial endocasts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mammals">Mammals</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a> – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MarkFBear-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">sensory cortices</a> (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by the <a href="/wiki/Tectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectum">tectum</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neocortex of <a href="/wiki/Monotremes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotremes">monotremes</a> (the duck-billed <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypus</a> and several species of <a href="/wiki/Echidna" title="Echidna">spiny anteaters</a>) and of <a href="/wiki/Marsupials" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupials">marsupials</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo" title="Kangaroo">kangaroos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koala" title="Koala">koalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opossum" title="Opossum">opossums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wombat" title="Wombat">wombats</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_devil" title="Tasmanian devil">Tasmanian devils</a>) lack the convolutions – <a href="/wiki/Gyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyri">gyri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a> – found in the neocortex of most <a href="/wiki/Placental_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental mammals">placental mammals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eutherians" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutherians">eutherians</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-KentCarr_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KentCarr-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MarkFBear-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions.<sup id="cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MarkFBear-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, possibly related to their complex <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diseases">Diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_disease" title="Central nervous system disease">Central nervous system disease</a></div> <p>There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including <a href="/wiki/List_of_central_nervous_system_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="List of central nervous system infections">infections</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">poliomyelitis</a>, early-onset <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological disorders">neurological disorders</a> including <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>, seizure disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, headache disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">migraine</a>, late-onset <a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">neurodegenerative diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Essential_tremor" title="Essential tremor">essential tremor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune</a> and inflammatory diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis" title="Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis">acute disseminated encephalomyelitis</a>, genetic disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Krabbe%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Krabbe's disease">Krabbe's disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adrenoleukodystrophy" title="Adrenoleukodystrophy">adrenoleukodystrophy</a>. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when <a href="/wiki/Malignant_brain_tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant brain tumor">malignant</a>, can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">Specialty</a> professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer a specific clinical question and not as routine screening.<sup id="cite_ref-ACRASNRcomtom_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACRASNRcomtom-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary, Farlex 2012</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Farlex+Partner+Medical+Dictionary%2C+Farlex+2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maton-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maton_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maton_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatonJean_HopkinsCharles_William_McLaughlinSusan_Johnson1993" class="citation book cs1">Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho/page/132"><i>Human Biology and Health</i></a></span>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, US: Prentice Hall. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho/page/132">132–144</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-981176-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-981176-1"><bdi>0-13-981176-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Biology+and+Health&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pages=132-144&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-13-981176-1&rft.aulast=Maton&rft.aufirst=Anthea&rft.au=Jean+Hopkins&rft.au=Charles+William+McLaughlin&rft.au=Susan+Johnson&rft.au=Maryanna+Quon+Warner&rft.au=David+LaHart&rft.au=Jill+D.+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhumanbiologyheal00scho%2Fpage%2F132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KettenmannFaissner1996-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KettenmannFaissner1996_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettenmannFaissnerTrotter1996" class="citation book cs1">Kettenmann, H.; Faissner, A.; Trotter, J. (1996). "Neuron-Glia Interactions in Homeostasis and Degeneration". <i>Comprehensive Human Physiology</i>. pp. 533–543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-60946-6_27">10.1007/978-3-642-60946-6_27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-64619-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-64619-5"><bdi>978-3-642-64619-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neuron-Glia+Interactions+in+Homeostasis+and+Degeneration&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Human+Physiology&rft.pages=533-543&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-60946-6_27&rft.isbn=978-3-642-64619-5&rft.aulast=Kettenmann&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Faissner%2C+A.&rft.au=Trotter%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Purves_2000-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Purves_2000_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Purves_2000_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurves2000" class="citation book cs1">Purves, Dale (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10799/"><i>Neuroscience, Second Edition</i></a>. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780878937424" title="Special:BookSources/9780878937424"><bdi>9780878937424</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140311185033/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10799/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+MA&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780878937424&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=Dale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK10799%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68009900">"Medical Subject Headings (MeSH): Optic Nerve"</a>. National Library of Medicine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131002063049/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68009900">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medical+Subject+Headings+%28MeSH%29%3A+Optic+Nerve&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fmesh%2F68009900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fitzgerald-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEstomih_Mtui2012" class="citation book cs1">Estomih Mtui, M.J. Turlough FitzGerald, Gregory Gruener (2012). <i>Clinical neuroanatomy and neuroscience</i> (6th ed.). Edinburgh: Saunders. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3738-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3738-2"><bdi>978-0-7020-3738-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+neuroanatomy+and+neuroscience&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=38&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-3738-2&rft.aulast=Estomih+Mtui&rft.aufirst=M.J.+Turlough+FitzGerald%2C+Gregory+Gruener&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gizurarson_S._2012_566–582_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGizurarson_S2012" class="citation journal cs1">Gizurarson S (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480721">"Anatomical and histologica\ ]=\ factors affecting intranasal drug and vaccine delivery"</a>. <i>Current Drug Delivery</i>. <b>9</b> (6): 566–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F156720112803529828">10.2174/156720112803529828</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480721">3480721</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22788696">22788696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Drug+Delivery&rft.atitle=Anatomical+and+histologica%5C+%5D%3D%5C+factors+affecting+intranasal+drug+and+vaccine+delivery.&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=566-582&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3480721%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22788696&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F156720112803529828&rft.au=Gizurarson+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3480721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore's-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore's_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalleyMooreAgur2010" class="citation book cs1">Dalley, Arthur F.; Moore, Keith L; Agur, Anne M.R. (2010). <i>Clinically oriented anatomy</i> (6th ed., [International ed.]. ed.). Philadelphia [etc.]: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Wolters Kluwer. pp. 48–55, 464, 700, 822, 824, 1075. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60547-652-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60547-652-0"><bdi>978-1-60547-652-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinically+oriented+anatomy&rft.place=Philadelphia+%5Betc.%5D&rft.pages=48-55%2C+464%2C+700%2C+822%2C+824%2C+1075&rft.edition=6th+ed.%2C+%5BInternational+ed.%5D.&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins%2C+Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60547-652-0&rft.aulast=Dalley&rft.aufirst=Arthur+F.&rft.au=Moore%2C+Keith+L&rft.au=Agur%2C+Anne+M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kandel-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel_9-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartz2012" class="citation book cs1">Kandel ER, Schwartz JH (2012). <i>Principles of neural science</i> (5. ed.). Appleton & Lange: McGraw Hill. pp. 338–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-139011-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-139011-8"><bdi>978-0-07-139011-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+neural+science&rft.place=Appleton+%26+Lange&rft.pages=338-343&rft.edition=5.&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-07-139011-8&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huijzen-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huijzen_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huijzen_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuijzen2007" class="citation book cs1">Huijzen, R. Nieuwenhuys, J. Voogd, C. van (2007). <i>The human central nervous system</i> (4th ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-34686-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-34686-9"><bdi>978-3-540-34686-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+human+central+nervous+system&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-34686-9&rft.aulast=Huijzen&rft.aufirst=R.+Nieuwenhuys%2C+J.+Voogd%2C+C.+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerZachary2020" class="citation book cs1">Miller AD, Zachary JF (10 May 2020). "Nervous System". <i>Pathologic Basis of Veterinary Disease</i>. pp. 805–907.e1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-323-35775-3.00014-X">10.1016/B978-0-323-35775-3.00014-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780323357753" title="Special:BookSources/9780323357753"><bdi>9780323357753</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7158194">7158194</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nervous+System&rft.btitle=Pathologic+Basis+of+Veterinary+Disease.&rft.pages=805-907.e1&rft.date=2020-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7158194%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-323-35775-3.00014-X&rft.isbn=9780323357753&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=AD&rft.au=Zachary%2C+JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThauReddySingh2020" class="citation journal cs1">Thau L, Reddy V, Singh P (January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542179/">"Anatomy, Central Nervous System"</a>. StatPearls. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31194336">31194336</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Anatomy%2C+Central+Nervous+System&rft.date=2020-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31194336&rft.aulast=Thau&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Reddy%2C+V&rft.au=Singh%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK542179%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/brain-spinal/brain-and-spinal-tumours/the-brain-and-spinal-cord/?region=on">"The brain and spinal cord – Canadian Cancer Society"</a>. <i>www.cancer.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Neuroscience</i>. <b>10</b> (10): 724–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2719">10.1038/nrn2719</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2913577">2913577</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19763105">19763105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+neocortex%3A+a+perspective+from+developmental+biology.&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=724-35&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2913577%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19763105&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn2719&rft.aulast=Rakic&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2913577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickmanLarry_S._RobertsSusan_L._KeenAllan_Larson2008" class="citation book cs1">Hickman, Cleveland P. 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New York, NY, US: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 733. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-297004-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-297004-3"><bdi>978-0-07-297004-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Integrated+Princinples+of+Zoology%3A+Fourteenth+Edition&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+US&rft.pages=733&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Higher+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-07-297004-3&rft.aulast=Hickman&rft.aufirst=Cleveland+P.+Jr.&rft.au=Larry+S.+Roberts&rft.au=Susan+L.+Keen&rft.au=Allan+Larson&rft.au=Helen+L%27Anson&rft.au=David+J.+Eisenhour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellJane_B._ReeceLisa_A._UrryMichael_L._Cain2008" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Neil A.; Jane B. 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(1949): <i>The Vertebrate Body.</i> W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. (2nd ed. 1955; 3rd ed. 1962; 4th ed. 1970)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarkFBear-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarkFBear_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearBarry_W._ConnorsMichael_A._Paradiso2007" class="citation book cs1">Bear, Mark F.; Barry W. Connors; Michael A. Paradiso (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=75NgwLzueikC&q=neuroscience+exploring+the+brain"><i>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain: Third Edition</i></a>. Philadelphia, PA, US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 196–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4"><bdi>978-0-7817-6003-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain%3A+Third+Edition&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA%2C+US&rft.pages=196-199&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=Mark+F.&rft.au=Barry+W.+Connors&rft.au=Michael+A.+Paradiso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D75NgwLzueikC%26q%3Dneuroscience%2Bexploring%2Bthe%2Bbrain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feinberg, T. E., & Mallatt, J. (2013). The evolutionary and genetic origins of consciousness in the Cambrian Period over 500 million years ago. Frontiers in psychology, 4, 667. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00667">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00667</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KentCarr-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KentCarr_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKentRobert_K._Carr2001" class="citation book cs1">Kent, George C.; Robert K. Carr (2001). <i>Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates: Ninth Edition</i>. 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Reston, VA, US: <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Radiology" title="American College of Radiology">American College of Radiology</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guidelines.gov/content.aspx?id=32518">the original</a> on 15 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Agency+for+Healthcare+Research+and+Quality&rft.atitle=ACR-ASNR+practice+guideline+for+the+performance+of+computed+tomography+%28CT%29+of+the+brain&rft.date=2010&rft.au=American+College+of+Radiology&rft.au=American+Society+of+Neuroradiology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guidelines.gov%2Fcontent.aspx%3Fid%3D32518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACentral+nervous+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_nervous_system&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191011040440/http://primate-brain.org/">High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170626152300/http://humannervoussystem.info/">Explaining the human nervous system</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="v:Topic:Neuroscience">Department of Neuroscience</a> at <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="v:">Wikiversity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.histology-world.com/photoalbum/thumbnails.php?album=16">Central nervous system histology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system" title="Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system" title="Template talk:Nervous system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Central nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">Hindbrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">Medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">Midbrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">Forebrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">Peripheral nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">Sensory nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">Motor nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">Cranial nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal nerve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">Sympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">Parasympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">Enteric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nervous_tissue" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_tissue" title="Template talk:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_tissue" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous tissue"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_tissue" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">CNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tissue Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Projection_fiber" title="Projection fiber">Projection fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fiber" title="Association fiber">Association fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemniscus_(anatomy)" title="Lemniscus (anatomy)">Lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">Neuropil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Economo_neuron" title="Von Economo neuron">Von Economo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Glial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependymal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">Tanycyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">Microglia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Dorsal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">Ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Ventral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramus_communicans" title="Ramus communicans">Ramus communicans</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_ramus_communicans" title="Gray ramus communicans">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ramus_communicans" title="White ramus communicans">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglion" title="Autonomic ganglion">Autonomic ganglion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Preganglionic nerve fibers">Preganglionic nerve fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Postganglionic nerve fibers">Postganglionic nerve fibers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">Nerve fascicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Funiculus (neuroanatomy)">Funiculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epineurium" title="Epineurium">Epineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perineurium" title="Perineurium">Perineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoneurium" title="Endoneurium">Endoneurium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Neuroglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelination</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin_incisure" title="Myelin incisure">Myelin incisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internodal_segment" title="Internodal segment">Internodal segment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_glial_cell" title="Satellite glial cell">Satellite glial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neurons</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber">nerve fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">Soma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telodendron" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendron">Telodendron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">Axoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">Neurofibril/neurofilament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nissl_body" title="Nissl body">Nissl body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dendrite" title="Apical dendrite">Apical dendrite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_dendrite" title="Basal dendrite">Basal dendrite</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_neuron" title="Bipolar neuron">Bipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_neuron" title="Unipolar neuron">Unipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">Pseudounipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">Multipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">Afferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_somatic_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special somatic afferent">SSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">SVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon#types" title="Axon">fibers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Ib or Golgi or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II or Aβ and Aγ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">III or Aδ or fast pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">IV or C or slow pain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">Efferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">Motor neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">Upper motor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">Lower motor neuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">α motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">β motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">γ motorneuron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Termination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapse</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic vesicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">Autapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Ruffini ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">Muscle spindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">Olfactory receptor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47273#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47273#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47273#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4067637-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Central nervous system"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85021906">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Système nerveux central"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119326149">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Système nerveux central"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119326149">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00989651">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="centrální nervový systém"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119102&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007284968205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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