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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Mechanisms and pathways</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanisms_and_pathways-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mechanisms and pathways subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms_and_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes_to_the_distribution_of_vectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_the_distribution_of_vectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Changes to the distribution of vectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_to_the_distribution_of_vectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increased_water_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increased_water_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Increased water temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increased_water_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_in_precipitation_and_water_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_precipitation_and_water_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Changes in precipitation and water cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_precipitation_and_water_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_examples_of_relevant_infectious_diseases_in_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_examples_of_relevant_infectious_diseases_in_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Selected examples of relevant infectious diseases in humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selected_examples_of_relevant_infectious_diseases_in_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Selected examples of relevant infectious diseases in humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Selected_examples_of_relevant_infectious_diseases_in_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Malaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Malaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dengue_fever" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dengue_fever"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Dengue fever</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dengue_fever-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tick_borne_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tick_borne_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tick borne disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tick_borne_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leishmaniasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leishmaniasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Leishmaniasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leishmaniasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ebola" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ebola"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ebola</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ebola-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zika_fever" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zika_fever"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Zika fever</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zika_fever-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-COVID-19" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COVID-19"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>COVID-19</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-COVID-19-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vibrio_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vibrio_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Vibrio infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vibrio_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin_Rashes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_Rashes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Skin Rashes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_Rashes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diarrhea_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diarrhea_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Diarrhea diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diarrhea_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungal_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungal_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Fungal infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungal_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_new_infectious_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_new_infectious_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Emergence of new infectious diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_new_infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infectious_diseases_in_wild_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_diseases_in_wild_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Infectious diseases in wild animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infectious_diseases_in_wild_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infectious diseases in wild animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases_in_wild_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geographic_range_and_distribution_of_wildlife_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_range_and_distribution_of_wildlife_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_range_and_distribution_of_wildlife_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenology_and_wildlife_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenology_and_wildlife_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Phenology and wildlife diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenology_and_wildlife_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife_host-to-pathogen_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife_host-to-pathogen_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife_host-to-pathogen_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife_disease_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife_disease_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Wildlife disease patterns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife_disease_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infectious_diseases_in_domestic_animals_and_livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_diseases_in_domestic_animals_and_livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases_in_domestic_animals_and_livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Responses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Responses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monitoring_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Monitoring and research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Overview of the relationship between climate change and infectious diseases</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3553" data-file-height="2453" /></a><figcaption>Climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of some insects that can carry diseases, for example <i><a href="/wiki/Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a></i>, the mosquito that is the <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector</a> for <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a> transmission.</figcaption></figure> <p>Global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has increased the occurrence of some <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example, <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a> like <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">tick-borne diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">zika fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects (or <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">disease vectors</a>) that can carry the diseases. Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">food-borne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne diseases</a> has increased (very high confidence)."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> </p><p>Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a> etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria through water), and food-borne diseases.(spread through pathogens via food)<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1107">: 1107 </span></sup> Climate change affects the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Romanello2021_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanello2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup></a> Like other ways climate change affects <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">human health</a>, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease. </p><p>Mosquito-borne diseases that are sensitive to climate include <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">lymphatic filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, dengue fever, <a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mosquitoes-Borne_Disease_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mosquitoes-Borne_Disease-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-elephantiasis_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elephantiasis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_&_health_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_&_health-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists found in 2022 that rising temperatures are increasing the areas where dengue fever, malaria and other mosquito-carried diseases are able to spread.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1062">: 1062 </span></sup> Warmer temperatures are also advancing to higher elevations, allowing mosquitoes to survive in places that were previously in hospitable to them.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1045">: 1045 </span></sup> This risks malaria returning to areas where it was previously eradicated.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Mosquito's_Bite_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Mosquito's_Bite-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ticks are changing their geographic range because of rising temperatures, and this puts new populations at risk. Ticks can spread <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">lyme disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">tick-borne encephalitis</a>. It is expected that climate change will increase the incidence of these diseases in the Northern Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1094">: 1094 </span></sup> For example, a review of the literature found that "In the USA, a 2°C warming could increase the number of lyme disease cases by over 20% over the coming decades and lead to an earlier onset and longer length of the annual Lyme disease season".<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1094">: 1094 </span></sup> </p><p>Waterborne diseases are transmitted through water. The symptoms of waterborne diseases typically include <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, fever and other flu-like symptoms, neurological disorders, and liver damage.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate changes have a large effect on the distribution of microbial species. These communities are very complex and can be extremely sensitive to external climate stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-(Walker,_2018)_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Walker,_2018)-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a range of waterborne diseases and parasites that will pose greater health risks in the future. This will vary by region. For example, in Africa, <a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium" title="Cryptosporidium">Cryptosporidium</a><i> spp. and </i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_duodenalis" title="Giardia duodenalis">Giardia duodenalis</a><i> (<a href="/wiki/Protozoan_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan parasite">protozoan parasites</a>) will increase. This is due to increasing temperatures and drought.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1095">: 1095 </span></sup></i> </p><p> Scientist also expect that disease outbreaks caused by <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrio</a> (in particular the bacterium that causes <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">vibrio cholerae</a>) are increasing in occurrence and intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1107">: 1107 </span></sup> One reason is that the area of coastline with suitable conditions for vibrio bacteria has increased due to changes in <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> and sea surface salinity caused by climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Romanello2021_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanello2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup></a> These pathogens can cause <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>, cholera, wound infections, and <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>. The increasing occurrence of higher temperature days, heavy rainfall events and flooding due to climate change could lead to an increase in cholera risks.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1045">: 1045 </span></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style></p><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_health_context">Public health context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Public health context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1988, little was known about the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">effects of climate change on human health</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_Climate_Change_and_Human_Health_2003_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_Climate_Change_and_Human_Health_2003-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2023, the evidence has grown significantly and is for example summarised in the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientific understanding of potential health risks and observed health impacts caused by climate change is now better understood. One category of health risks is that of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>. A study concluded in 2022 that "58% (that is, 218 out of 375) of infectious diseases confronted by humanity worldwide have been at some point aggravated by climatic hazards".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mora_2022_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mora_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infectious diseases have played a significant role in human history, impacting the rise and fall of civilizations and facilitating the conquest of new territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During recent decades, there are significant regional changes in <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> distribution reported in temperate, peri‐Arctic, Arctic, and tropical highland regions. </p><p>Climate change is one of the factors that causes the spread of human diseases. Other key factors, include the mobility of people, animals, and goods; control measures in place; availability of effective drugs; quality of public health services; human behavior; and political stability and conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The March 2022 report from the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> warned that without swift climate action we will see an escalation of infectious diseases. They will spread to new regions (may decline in some endemic areas) and surge in areas where they were previously under control. As a result, diseases that have never previously infected humans (Disease X) may 'spill over' from animals<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Global warming, increased drought and flooding represent a significant threat to public health, likely leading to the escalation of vector, food and water-borne diseases<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of climate change on health will impact most populations over the next few decades.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Africa, and specifically, the African Highlands, are susceptible to being particularly negatively affected. For example, with regard to malaria, in 2010, 91% of the global burden due to malaria deaths occurred in Africa. Several spatiotemporal models have been studied to assess the potential effect of projected climate scenarios on malaria transmission in Africa. It is expected that the most significant climate change effects are confined to specific regions, including the African Highlands.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in the prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, an "emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases" occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Epstein_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epstein-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons for this are likely multi-causal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the "volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability".<sup id="cite_ref-Epstein_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epstein-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms_and_pathways">Mechanisms and pathways</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mechanisms and pathways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a></div><p>Infectious diseases (also called <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> diseases) depend on "a pathogen and a person coming into contact, and the extent to which peoples’ resistance is diminished, or the pathogen is strengthened, by a climatic <a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">hazard</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Mora_2022_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mora_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climatic hazards, which can be strengthened by climate change, include warming of land and oceans, <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heatwaves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">marine heatwaves</a>, floods, drought, storms, land cover change, fires and so forth.<sup id="cite_ref-Mora_2022_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mora_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Possible pathways that can increase the infectious disease occurrence and which are affected by climate change include:<sup id="cite_ref-Mora_2022_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mora_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Climatic hazards bringing pathogens closer to people (e.g. shifts in the geographical range of species)</li> <li>Climatic hazards bringing people closer to pathogens (e.g. heatwaves bringing more people to recreational water activities)</li> <li>Pathogens strengthened by climatic hazards (e.g. "improved climate suitability for reproduction, acceleration of the life cycle, increasing seasons/length of likely exposure", for example <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean Warming">ocean warming</a> can lead to increased <a href="/wiki/Vibriosis" title="Vibriosis">Vibriosis</a> outbreaks)</li> <li>People impaired by climatic hazards (e.g. from <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> due to drought conditions)</li></ul> <p>Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a> (transmitted via viruses or bacteria, e.g.: E. Coli),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a> (transmitted via mosquitos, ticks etc.), and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food-borne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Food-borne diseases">food-borne diseases</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a> bacteria, causing <a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">Salmonellosis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1107">: 1107 </span></sup></li></ul> <p>Climate change is affecting the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Romanello2021_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanello2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup></a> </p><p>Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. One reason for that is that temperature and rainfall play a key role in the distribution, magnitude, and viral capacity of mosquitoes, who are primary vectors for many vectors borne diseases. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_to_the_distribution_of_vectors">Changes to the distribution of vectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Changes to the distribution of vectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">Disease vector</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito-borne disease</a></div> <p>Climate change affects vector-borne diseases by affecting the survival, distribution and behavior of vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and rodents.<sup id="cite_ref-Impacts_of_Climate_Change_Ch_1_2016_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impacts_of_Climate_Change_Ch_1_2016-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> The viruses, bacteria and protozoa are carried by these vectors transferring them from one carrier to another.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vectors and pathogens can adapt to the climate fluctuations by shifting and expanding their geographic ranges, which alter the rate of new cases of disease depending on vector-host interaction, host immunity and pathogen evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that climate change affects infectious diseases by changing the length of the transmission season and their geographical range.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate change is leading to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that surface air warming for a "high scenario" is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4–6.4 C by 2100.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria. </p><p>Changes in climate and global warming have significant influences on the biology and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and their associated illnesses. Regional changes resulting from changing weather conditions and patterns within temperate climates will stimulate the reproduction of certain insect species that are vectors for disease. </p><p>One major disease-spreading insect is the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a>, which can carry diseases like <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>. With regional temperatures changing due to climate change, the range of mosquitos will change as well.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range of mosquitoes will move farther north and south, and places will have a longer period of mosquito habitability than at present, leading to an increase in the mosquito population in these areas. This range shift has already been seen in highland Africa. Since 1970, the incidence of malaria in high-elevation areas in East Africa has increased greatly. This has been proven to be caused by the warming of regional climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostfeld_2009_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostfeld_2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vectors of transmission are the major reason for the increased ranges and infection of these diseases. If the vector has a range shift, so do the associated diseases; if the vector increases in activity due to changes in climate, then there is an effect on the transmission of disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostfeld_2009_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostfeld_2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However it will be hard to classify exactly why the range shifts or an increase in infection rates occurs as there are many other factors to consider besides climate change, such as <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">human migration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> quality, and <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land usage</a>; but climate change is still potentially a key factor.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooney_2011_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooney_2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental changes, <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate variability">climate variability</a>, and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and <a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">disease ecology</a> of Anopheles vectors and their <a href="/wiki/Disease_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Disease transmission">disease transmission</a> potential.<sup id="cite_ref-Afrane_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afrane-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitos' dwell. When the temperature rises, the <a href="/wiki/Larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvae">larvae</a> take a shorter time to mature<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available. </p><p>Environmental changes such as deforestation could also increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vector capacity of the anopheles.<sup id="cite_ref-Afrane_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afrane-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">lymphatic filariasis</a> and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the <a href="/wiki/O%27nyong%27nyong_virus" title="O'nyong'nyong virus">O'nyong'nyong virus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Afrane_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Afrane-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increased_water_temperature">Increased water temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Increased water temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High temperatures can alter the survival, replication, and virulence of a pathogen.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher temperatures can also increase the pathogen yields in animal reservoirs. During the warmer summer months an increase in yield of bacteria from drinking water delivery systems has been recorded. During times of warmer temperatures water consumption rates are also typically higher. These together increase the probability of pathogen ingestion and infection.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2016)_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2016)-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With an increase in not only temperature, but also higher nutrient concentrations due to runoff there will be an increase in <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterial</a> blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-(Hunter,_2003)_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Hunter,_2003)-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health#Harmful_algal_blooms_in_oceans_and_lakes" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health § Harmful algal blooms in oceans and lakes</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health&action=edit#Harmful_algal_blooms_in_oceans_and_lakes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png/220px-Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png/330px-Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png/440px-Blue-gree_algae_bloom_Lake_Erie.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> (blue-green algae) bloom on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> (United States) in 2009. These kinds of algae can cause harmful algal blooms.</figcaption></figure> <p>The warming oceans and lakes are leading to more frequent <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">harmful algal blooms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_The_Mosquito_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_The_Mosquito-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Climate_change_&_health_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Climate_change_&_health-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Mozambique_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_Mozambique-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, during droughts, surface waters are even more susceptible to harmful algal blooms and microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algal blooms increase water turbidity, suffocating aquatic plants, and can deplete oxygen, killing fish. Some kinds of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">blue-green algae</a> (cyanobacteria) create <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxins</a>, hepatoxins, cytotoxins or endotoxins that can cause serious and sometimes fatal neurological, liver and digestive diseases in humans. Cyanobacteria grow best in warmer temperatures (especially above 25 degrees Celsius), and so areas of the world that are experiencing general warming as a result of climate change are also experiencing harmful algal blooms more frequently and for longer periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> One of these toxin producing algae is <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-nitzschia" title="Pseudo-nitzschia">Pseudo-nitzschia</a> fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called <a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">domoic acid</a> which is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Amnesic shellfish poisoning">amnesic shellfish poisoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations associated with ocean acidification.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; <a href="/wiki/Ciguatera_fish_poisoning" title="Ciguatera fish poisoning">Ciguatera fish poisoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paralytic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Paralytic shellfish poisoning">paralytic shellfish poisoning</a>, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhetic_shellfish_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning">diarrhetic shellfish poisoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning">neurotoxic shellfish poisoning</a> and the above-mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health_pseudo-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_in_precipitation_and_water_cycle">Changes in precipitation and water cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Changes in precipitation and water cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Effects of climate change on the water cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_impacts" title="Flood">Flood § Health impacts</a></div> <p>Climate change is forecast to have substantial effects on the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, with an increase in both frequency and intensity of droughts and heavy precipitation events.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A literature review in 2016 found that generally there is an increase in <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrheal</a> disease (except for viral diarrheal disease) during or after certain weather conditions: elevated ambient temperature, heavy rainfall, and flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_2016_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy_2016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three weather conditions are predicted to increase (or to intensify) with climate change in future. There is already now a high current baseline rate of the diarrheal diseases in developing countries. Climate change therefore poses a real risk of an uptick in these diseases for those regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_2016_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy_2016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change#Floods" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change § Floods</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change&action=edit#Floods">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, <a href="/wiki/Floods" class="mw-redirect" title="Floods">floods</a> are likely to become more severe when they do occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1155">: 1155 </span></sup> The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1156">: 1156 </span></sup> Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_WG_1_chapter_8-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1155">: 1155 </span></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_examples_of_relevant_infectious_diseases_in_humans">Selected examples of relevant infectious diseases in humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Selected examples of relevant infectious diseases in humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_diseases_spread_by_invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="List of diseases spread by invertebrates">List of diseases spread by invertebrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_insect-borne_diseases" title="List of insect-borne diseases">List of insect-borne diseases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito-borne disease</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaria">Malaria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Malaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Malaria#Climate_change" title="Malaria">Malaria § Climate change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/435px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/580px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths due to malaria per million persons in 2012 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff20; color:black;"> </span> 0–0</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffa020; color:black;"> </span> 1–2</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9a20; color:black;"> </span> 3–54</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f08015; color:black;"> </span> 55–325</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e06815; color:black;"> </span> 326–679</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d85010; color:black;"> </span> 680–949</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d02010; color:white;"> </span> 950–1,358</div></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/290px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/435px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/580px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption>Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009</figcaption></figure> <p>Increased rainfall could increase the number of <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a> indirectly by expanding larval habitat and food supply. Malaria, which kills about 300,000 children (under age 5) annually, poses an <a href="/wiki/Imminent_threat" class="mw-redirect" title="Imminent threat">imminent threat</a> through temperature increase.<sup id="cite_ref-malaria_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-malaria-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Models suggest, conservatively, that the risk of malaria will increase 5–15% by 2100 due to climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Bhattacharya_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bhattacharya-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Africa alone, according to the MARA Project (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa),<sup id="cite_ref-mara_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mara-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is a projected increase of 16–28% in person-month exposures to malaria by 2100.<sup id="cite_ref-Patz_2005_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patz_2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate is an influential driving force of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Malaria is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change because mosquitoes lack the mechanisms to regulate their internal temperature. This implies that there is a limited range of climatic conditions within which the pathogen (malaria) and vector (a mosquito) can survive, reproduce, and infect hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-infectious_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infectious-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, have distinctive characteristics that determine <a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">pathogenicity</a>. These include the survival and reproduction rate of the vector, the level of vector activity (i.e. the biting or feeding rate), and the development and reproduction rate of the pathogen within the vector or host.<sup id="cite_ref-infectious_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infectious-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in climate factors substantially affect reproduction, development, distribution, and seasonal transmissions of malaria. </p><p>Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host's circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver, where it can mature and reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancet_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancet-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dengue_fever">Dengue fever</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dengue fever"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disease_Vector.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Disease_Vector.jpg/220px-Disease_Vector.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Disease_Vector.jpg/330px-Disease_Vector.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Disease_Vector.jpg/440px-Disease_Vector.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>This figure shows how the <a href="/wiki/Flavivirus" title="Flavivirus">Flavivirus</a> is carried by <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a>. The mosquito would be considered a <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">disease vector</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a> is an infectious disease caused by <a href="/wiki/Dengue_virus" title="Dengue virus">dengue viruses</a> known to be in the tropical regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Dengue_and_Severe_Dengue_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dengue_and_Severe_Dengue-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is transmitted by the mosquito <a href="/wiki/Aedes" title="Aedes">Aedes</a>, or A. aegypti.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dengue incidence has increased in the last few decades and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dengue can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-www.who.int_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dengue fever is spread by the bite of the female mosquito known as <i>Aedes aegypti.</i> The female mosquito is a highly effective vector of this disease.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The evidence for the spread of dengue fever is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue. Because there are multiple drivers of transmission, it is easier to model and project changes in the geographic range and seasonality. The drivers for the recent spread of this disease are globalization, trade, urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebi_2016_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebi_2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas, and to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Dengue_hemorrhagic_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue hemorrhagic fever">dengue hemorrhagic fever</a>. </p><p>The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an increase from a thousand to one million confirmed cases between 1955 and 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-www.who.int_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence and number of <i>Aedes aegypti</i> mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers or pockets of stagnant water in an area, daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Patz_2005_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patz_2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While dengue fever is primarily considered a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">tropical and subtropical disease</a>, the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding. The cases of dengue fever have increased dramatically since the 1970s and it continues to become more prevalent.<sup id="cite_ref-Dengue_and_Severe_Dengue_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dengue_and_Severe_Dengue-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dengue is ranked as the most important vector-borne viral disease in the world. An estimated 50–100 million dengue fever infections occur annually. In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebi_2016_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebi_2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of reported cases has continually increased along with dengue spreading to new areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tick_borne_disease">Tick borne disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tick borne disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adult_deer_tick(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Adult_deer_tick%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ixodes_scapularis" title="Ixodes scapularis">deer tick</a>, a vector for <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> pathogens</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tick_on_human_head.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tick_on_human_head.jpg/220px-Tick_on_human_head.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tick_on_human_head.jpg/330px-Tick_on_human_head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tick_on_human_head.jpg/440px-Tick_on_human_head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="1706" /></a><figcaption>A tick crawling on a human head in a wooded area near <a href="/wiki/LeRoy,_Michigan" title="LeRoy, Michigan">LeRoy, Michigan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick-borne disease</a>, which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">transmitted by</a> <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">tick</a> bites. A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have indicated that temperature and vapor play a significant role in determining the range for tick population. More specifically, maximum temperature has been found to play the most influential variable in sustaining tick populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Brownstein_2003_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brownstein_2003-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher temperatures augment both hatching and developmental rates while hindering overall survival. Temperature is so important to overall survival that an average monthly minimum temperature of below -7 °C in the winter can prevent an area from maintaining established populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Brownstein_2003_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brownstein_2003-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of climate on the tick life cycle is one of the more difficult projections to make in relation to climate and vector-borne disease. Unlike other vectors, tick life cycles span multiple seasons as they mature from larva to nymph to adult.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, infection and spread of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> happen across the multiple stages and different classes of vertebrate hosts, adding additional variables to consider. Although it is a European species from the Lyme borreliosis spirochetes, <i>Borrelia garinii</i> was documented from infected ticks on seabirds in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further research is needed to improve evolutionary models predicting distributional changes in this tick-borne system in the face of climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infection of ticks happen in the larval/nymph stage (after the first blood meal) when they are exposed to <i>Borrelia burgdorferi</i> (the spirochete responsible for Lyme disease<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), but transmission to humans doesn't occur until the adult stages. </p><p>The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climatic change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick, known as <i>I. scapularis,</i> is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes of the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Esteve-Gassent_38–64_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esteve-Gassent_38–64-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Esteve-Gassent_38–64_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esteve-Gassent_38–64-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the face of these expanding threats, strong collaboration between government officials and environmental scientists is necessary for advancing preventive and reactive response measures. Without acknowledging the climate changes that make environments more habitable for disease carriers, policy and infrastructure will lag behind vector borne disease spread.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is conducting a grant program called Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) which details a 5 step process for combating climate effects like tick borne disease spread.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Leishmaniasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a></div> <p>As in other <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a>, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a> is the susceptibility of the <a href="/wiki/Sandfly" title="Sandfly">sandfly</a> vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity; these conditions will alter their range of distribution and seasonality.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_2020_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization_2020-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, modelling studies have predicted that climate change will increase suitable conditions for <i><a href="/wiki/Phlebotomus" title="Phlebotomus">Phlebotomus</a></i> vector species in Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another model that looked at the distribution of <i><a href="/wiki/Lutzomyia_longipalpis" title="Lutzomyia longipalpis">Lutzomyia longipalpis</a></i>, an important visceral leishmaniasis vector, suggested an increased range of this species in the Amazon Basin.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different study model that factored data on climate, policy and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socio-economic</a> changes of land use, found that the effects were different for cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, emphasizing the importance of considering each disease and region separately.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parasite development inside the sand can also be affected by temperature changes. For instance, <i>Leishmania peruviana</i> infections were lost during sand defecation when the infected vector was kept at higher temperatures, whereas in the same experiment <i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania_infantum" title="Leishmania infantum">Leishmania infantum</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania_braziliensis" title="Leishmania braziliensis">Leishmania braziliensis</a></i> temperature seemed to make no difference.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leishmaniasis is a <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">neglected tropical disease</a>, caused by parasites of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a></i> and transmitted by sandflies; it is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand fly vector and reservoir hosts are present.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The WHO estimates 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a> for the spread of this disease include poverty, urbanization, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, and climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_2020_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization_2020-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ebola">Ebola</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ebola"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ebola_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola virus">Ebola virus</a> has been infecting people from time to time, leading to outbreaks in several African countries. The average case fatality rate of the Ebola virus is approximately 40% and there have been more than 28,600 cases with 11,310 deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many researchers are linking deforestation to the disease, observing that change in the landscape increases wildlife contact with humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen_2019_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen_2019-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent studies are holding climate change indirectly liable for the uptick in Ebola: Seasonal droughts alongside strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and a change in rainfall patterns also impact wildlife migration. These conditions pull them away from their natural environment and closer to human proximity.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of an Ebola outbreak caused by climate change or a shift in nature was seen during the drought of Central Africa. This ultimately amplified food insecurity leading West African communities to eat animals such as bats who were infected with the virus.<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen_2019_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen_2019-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zika_fever">Zika fever</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Zika fever"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a>, a vector-borne virus was historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a> epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brazil has experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5 million cases reported in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with congenital malformations, including microcephaly.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the context of climate change and temperature rise, it is predicted that Zika virus will affect more than 1.3 billion people by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is largely due to the expansion of environments conducive to vector growth and life cycles, such as those with temperatures ranging from 23.9 °C to 34 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mosquito behaviors are also affected by the change in temperature including increased breeding and biting rates.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, extreme climate patterns, including drought, floods and heatwaves are known to exacerbate the proliferation of mosquito breeding ground and as a result, escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="COVID-19">COVID-19</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: COVID-19"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_COVID-19" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of COVID-19">Origin of COVID-19</a></div> <p>There is no direct evidence that the spread of <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> is worsened or is caused by climate change, although investigations continue. As of 2020<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> summarized the current knowledge about the issue as follows: "There is no evidence of a direct connection between climate change and the emergence or transmission of COVID-19 disease. [...] However, climate change may indirectly affect the COVID-19 response, as it undermines environmental determinants of health, and places additional stress on health systems."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyer_2021_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyer_2021-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyer_2021_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyer_2021-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyer_2021_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyer_2021-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyer_2021_85-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyer_2021-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate changed might induce changes to bat habitats which may have driven them closer to populated areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Gudipati_2020_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gudipati_2020-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Gudipati_2020_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gudipati_2020-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-Gudipati_2020_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gudipati_2020-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vibrio_infections">Vibrio infections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vibrio infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrio</a></div> <p>Scientist expect that disease outbreaks caused by <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrio</a> (in particular the bacterium that causes <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">vibrio cholerae</a>) are increasing in occurrence and intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1107">: 1107 </span></sup> One reason is that the area of coastline with suitable conditions for vibrio bacteria has increased due to changes in <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> and sea surface salinity caused by climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Romanello2021_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanello2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup></a> These pathogens can cause <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, wound infections, and <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>. It has been observed that in the period of 2011–21, the "area of coastline suitable for Vibrio bacterial transmission has increased by 35% in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltics</a>, 25% in the Atlantic Northeast, and 4% in the Pacific Northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-Romanello2021_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romanello2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup></a> Furthermore, the increasing occurrence of higher temperature days, heavy rainfall events and flooding due to climate change could lead to an increase in cholera risks.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1045">: 1045 </span></sup> </p><p>Vibrio illnesses are <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne disease</a> and are increasing worldwide. Vibrio infections are recently being reported where historically it did not occur. The warming climate seems to be playing a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.<sup id="cite_ref-(Walker,_2018)2_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Walker,_2018)2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vibrio infections are caused by consuming raw or undercooked seafood, or by exposing an open wound to <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contaminated</a> sea water. Vibrio infections are most likely to occur during the warm season, May through October.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_Rashes">Skin Rashes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Skin Rashes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Climate change affects human health adversely and its impact on the skin is no exception. It is one of the greatest threats to our capacity to benefit in the context of “<a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">Skin Care</a> for All.”<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study conducted in South Africa, the reduced work capacities and outputs were attributed to heat waves, which caused severe sunburns, sleeplessness, irritability, and exhaustion in workers. <a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessments</a> were conducted for extreme health impacts across African countries, especially Kenya, both at the regional and city scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rising temperature and humidity increase skin bacteria growth overall geographical distribution of other organisms that infect humans. The different organisms that form the skin microflora have variable optimal temperature for survival and growth. <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium_striatum" title="Corynebacterium striatum">Corynebacterium sp.</a></i> amongst others are more tolerant to rising temperatures and higher salt conditions compared to other, non-commensal bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diarrhea_diseases">Diarrhea diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Diarrhea diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a></div> <p>One of the most commonly transmitted waterborne disease categories are the diarrhea diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2018)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These diseases are transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.<sup id="cite_ref-(Hunter,_2003)_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Hunter,_2003)-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diarrheal diseases account for 10–12% of deaths in children under five, as the second leading cause of death in children this age. They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9 million deaths worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-(Levy_et_al.,_2016)_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Levy_et_al.,_2016)-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungal_infections">Fungal infections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fungal infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">Fungal infections</a> will also see an increase due to the warming of certain climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostfeld_2009_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostfeld_2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the fungus <a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_gattii" title="Cryptococcus gattii">Cryptococcus gattii</a> has been found in Canada but is normally found in warmer climates such as in <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a>. There are now two <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strains</a> of this fungus in the northwestern part of North America, affecting many terrestrial animals. The spread of this fungus is hypothesized to be linked to climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooney_2011_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooney_2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_new_infectious_diseases">Emergence of new infectious diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Emergence of new infectious diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is concern about the emergence of new diseases from the <a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">fungal</a> kingdom. Mammals have <i>endothermy</i> and <i>homeothermy</i>, which allows them to maintain elevated body temperature through life; but it can be defeated if the fungi were to adapt to higher temperatures and survive in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi that are pathogenic for insects can be experimentally adapted to replicate at mammalian temperatures through cycles of progressive warming. This demonstrates that fungi are able to adapt rapidly to higher temperatures. The emergence of <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_auris" title="Candida auris">Candida auris</a></i> on three continents is proposed to be as a result of global warming and has raised the danger that increased warmth by itself will trigger adaptations on certain microbes to make them pathogenic for humans.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is projected that <a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">interspecies viral sharing</a>, that can lead to <a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection#Spillover_zoonoses" title="Spillover infection">novel viral spillovers</a>, will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>). <a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Risk hotspots would mainly be located at</a> "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate change may also lead to new infectious diseases due to changes in microbial and vector geographic range. Microbes that are harmful to humans can adapt to higher temperatures, which will allow them to build better tolerance against human endothermy defences.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infectious_diseases_in_wild_animals">Infectious diseases in wild animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Infectious diseases in wild animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Effects of climate change on biomes</a></div> <p>Climate change and increasing temperatures will also impact the health of wildlife animals as well. Specifically, climate change will impact wildlife disease, specifically affecting "geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases, plant and animal phenology, wildlife host-pathogen interactions, and disease patterns in wildlife".<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be a better indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographic_range_and_distribution_of_wildlife_diseases">Geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Northern geographic shifts of disease vectors and parasitic disease in the Northern Hemisphere have likely been due to global warming. The geographic range of a lung parasite that impacts ungulates like caribou and mountain goats, <i>Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei</i>, has been shifting northward since 1995, and a tick vector for Lyme disease and other tick-borne zoonotic diseases known as <i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_scapularis" title="Ixodes scapularis">Ixodes scapularis</a></i> has been expanding its presence northward as well. It is also predicted that climate warming will also lead to changes in disease distribution at certain altitudes. At high elevation in the Hawaiian Islands, for example, it is expected that climate warming will allow for year-round transmission of <a href="/wiki/Avian_malaria" title="Avian malaria">avian malaria</a>. This increased opportunity for transmission will likely be devastating to endangered native Hawaiian birds at those altitudes that have little or no resistance to the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenology_and_wildlife_diseases">Phenology and wildlife diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Phenology and wildlife diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">Phenology</a> is the study of seasonal cycles, and with climate change the seasonal biologic cycles of many animals have already been affected. For example, the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is higher to humans when early spring temperatures are warmer. The warmer temperatures result in an overlap in feeding activity of ticks who are infected with the virus (nymphal) with ticks who aren't (larval). This overlapped feeding leads to more of the uninfected larval ticks acquiring the infection and therefore increases the risk of humans being infected with TBE. On the other hand, cooler spring temperatures would result in less overlapped feeding activity, and would therefore decrease the risk of zoonotic transmission of TBE.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife_host-to-pathogen_interaction">Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The transmission of pathogens can be achieved through either direct contact from a diseased animal to another, or indirectly through a host like infected prey or a vector. Higher temperatures as a result of climate change results in an increased presence of disease producing agents in hosts and vectors, and also increases the "survival of animals that harbor disease".<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Survival of <i><a href="/wiki/Parelaphostrongylus_tenuis" title="Parelaphostrongylus tenuis">Parelaphostrongylus tenuis</a></i>, a brain worm of white-tailed deer that affects moose, could be increased due to the higher temperatures and milder winters that are caused by climate change. In moose, this brain causes neurological disease and eventually ends up being fatal. Moose are already facing heat stress due to climate change, and may have increased susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases like the brain worm.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife_disease_patterns">Wildlife disease patterns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Wildlife disease patterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Predicting the impact climate change might have on disease patterns in different geographic regions can be difficult, because its effects likely have high variability. This has been more evident in marine ecosystems than terrestrial environments, where massive decline in coral reefs has been observed due to disease spread.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofmeister_2010_94-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofmeister_2010-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infectious_diseases_in_domestic_animals_and_livestock">Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vector-borne diseases seriously affect the health of domestic animals and <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">trypanosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley Fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bluetongue_disease" title="Bluetongue disease">bluetongue</a>). Therefore, climate change will also indirectly affect the health of humans through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Mosquitoes also carry diseases like <i><a href="/wiki/Dirofilaria_immitis" title="Dirofilaria immitis">Dirofilaria immitis</a></i> which affect dogs (dog heartworm). Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical diseases">tropical diseases</a> will probably migrate and become <a href="/wiki/Endemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic">endemic</a> in many other ecosystems due to an increase in mosquito range.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock#Pathogens_and_parasites" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock § Pathogens and parasites</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit#Pathogens_and_parasites">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>While climate-induced heat stress can directly reduce domestic animals' immunity against all diseases,<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Lacetera2018_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Lacetera2018-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> climatic factors also impact the distribution of many livestock pathogens themselves. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> outbreaks in East Africa are known to be more intense during the times of drought or when there is an <a href="/wiki/El_Nino" class="mw-redirect" title="El Nino">El Nino</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is that of <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminths</a> in Europe which have now spread further towards the poles, with higher survival rate and higher reproductive capacity (<a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter2_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter2-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> Detailed long-term records of both livestock diseases and various agricultural interventions in Europe mean that demonstrating the role of climate change in the increased helminth burden in livestock is actually easier than attributing the impact of climate change on diseases which affect humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter2_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter2-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231">: 231 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FCO-brebis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/220px-FCO-brebis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/330px-FCO-brebis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/440px-FCO-brebis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1928" data-file-height="1588" /></a><figcaption>A sheep infected with bluetongue virus.</figcaption></figure> <p>Temperature increases are also likely to benefit <a href="/wiki/Culicoides_imicola" title="Culicoides imicola">Culicoides imicola</a>, a species of <a href="/wiki/Midge" title="Midge">midge</a> which spreads <a href="/wiki/Bluetongue_virus" title="Bluetongue virus">bluetongue virus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without a significant improvement in epidemiological control measures, what is currently considered an once-in-20-years outbreak of bluetongue would occur as frequently as once in five or seven years by midcentury under all but the most optimistic warming scenario. <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_Fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift Valley Fever">Rift Valley Fever</a> outbreaks in East African livestock are also expected to increase.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter5_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter5-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 747">: 747 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ixodes_ricinus" title="Ixodes ricinus">Ixodes ricinus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">tick</a> which spreads pathogens like <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">tick-borne encephalitis</a>, is predicted to become 5–7% more prevalent on livestock farms in Great Britain, depending on the extent of future climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The impacts of climate change on <a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">leptospirosis</a> are more complicated: its outbreaks are likely to worsen wherever flood risk increases,<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_Bett2017-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet the increasing temperatures are projected to reduce its overall incidence in the Southeast Asia, particularly under the high-warming scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsetse flies">Tsetse flies</a>, the hosts of <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma" title="Trypanosoma">trypanosoma</a> parasites, already appear to be losing habitat and thus affect a smaller area than before.<sup id="cite_ref-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter5_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock_AR6_WGII_Chapter5-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 747">: 747 </span></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responses">Responses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The policy implications of climate change and infectious diseases fall into two categories:<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_2015_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus slowing down climate change, and</li> <li>Mitigating problems that have already arisen, and will inevitably continue to develop, due to climate change.</li></ol> <p>Addressing both of these areas is of importance, as those in the poorest countries face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria (for example), their prospects for economic growth are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell-Lendrum_2015_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-Lendrum_2015-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Policies are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in developing countries. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to diseases like malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_2015_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also important to focus on "<a href="/wiki/One_Health" title="One Health">one-health</a> approaches."<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_2015_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means collaborating on an interdisciplinary level, across various geographic areas, to come up with workable solutions. As is the case when responding to the effects of climate change, vulnerable populations including children and the elderly will need to be prioritized by any intervention. </p><p>The United Nations Environment Programme states that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a> is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and bio-diverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring_and_research">Monitoring and research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Monitoring and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/220px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/330px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/440px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>An <i><a href="/wiki/Anopheles_stephensi" title="Anopheles stephensi">Anopheles stephensi</a></i> mosquito shortly after obtaining blood from a human (the droplet of blood is expelled as a surplus). This mosquito is a vector of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, and mosquito control is an effective way of reducing its incidence.</figcaption></figure> <p>Significant progress has been achieved in terms of surveillance systems, disease and vector control measures, vaccine development, diagnostic tests, and mathematical risk modeling/mapping in recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-Caminade219_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caminade219-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A tool that has been used to predict this distribution trend is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomological</a> data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Scientists are carrying out attribution studies, to find the degree to which climate change affects the spread of infectious diseases. There is also a need for scenario modeling which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on infectious disease rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell-Lendrum_2015_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-Lendrum_2015-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveillance and monitoring of infectious diseases and their vectors is important to better understand these diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_2015_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governments should accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Disease ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span 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Transmission in the Southeastern United States"</a>. <i>Environmental Health Perspectives</i>. <b>125</b> (4): 579–585. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2FEHP218">10.1289/EHP218</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5381975">5381975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27713106">27713106</a>.</cite><span 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pandemics,_epidemics_and_notable_disease_outbreaks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epidemics" title="Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epidemics" title="Template talk:Epidemics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pandemics,_epidemics_and_notable_disease_outbreaks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> and notable <a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">disease outbreaks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List of epidemics and pandemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_plague" title="Hittite plague">Hittite plague</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1330</span> BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">Plague of Athens</a> (429–426 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> (165–180 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> (250–266)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-<br />classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> (541–542)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Plague_of_590" title="Roman Plague of 590">Roman Plague</a> (590)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Sheroe" title="Plague of Sheroe">Plague of Sheroe</a> (627–628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas" title="Plague of Amwas">Plague of Amwas</a> (638–639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_664" title="Plague of 664">Plague of 664</a> (664–689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/735%E2%80%93737_Japanese_smallpox_epidemic" title="735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic">Japanese smallpox</a> (735–737)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweating_sickness" title="Sweating sickness">Sweating sickness</a> (1485–1551)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early<br />modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox_in_Mexico" title="History of smallpox in Mexico">Mexican smallpox</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoliztli_epidemics" title="Cocoliztli epidemics">"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico</a> (1545, 1576)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1563_London_plague" title="1563 London plague">London plague</a> (1563–1564)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1592–1593 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_London_plague" title="1592–1593 London plague">London plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1603_London_plague" title="1603 London plague">London plague</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1623_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1623 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague" title="1629–1631 Italian plague">Italian plague</a> (1629–1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_smallpox_epidemic" title="Massachusetts smallpox epidemic">Massachusetts smallpox</a> (1633)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty</a> (1633–1644)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Seville" title="Great Plague of Seville">Great Plague of Seville</a> (1647–1652)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1655_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1655 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_Plague_(1656)" title="Naples Plague (1656)">Naples Plague</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague of London</a> (1665–1666)</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1675%E2%80%931676_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1675–1676 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1675–1676)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Vienna" title="Great Plague of Vienna">Great Plague of Vienna</a> (1679)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1707%E2%80%9308_Iceland_smallpox_epidemic" title="1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic">Iceland smallpox epidemic</a> (1707–1708)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War_plague_outbreak" title="Great Northern War plague outbreak">Great Northern War plague</a> (1710–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Marseille" title="Great Plague of Marseille">Great Plague of Marseille</a> (1720–1722)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_1738" title="Great Plague of 1738">Great Plague of 1738</a> (1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1770%E2%80%931772_Russian_plague" title="1770–1772 Russian plague">Russian plague</a> (1770–1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1772%E2%80%931773_Persian_Plague" title="1772–1773 Persian Plague">Persian Plague</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1775%E2%80%931782_North_American_smallpox_epidemic" title="1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic">North American smallpox</a> (1780–1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic">Philadelphia yellow fever</a> (1793–1798)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1812%E2%80%931819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic" title="1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic">Ottoman plague</a> (1812–1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1813%E2%80%931814_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1813–1814 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1813–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caragea%27s_plague" title="Caragea's plague">Caragea's plague</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_epidemic" title="Groningen epidemic">Groningen epidemic</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1837_Great_Plains_smallpox_epidemic" title="1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic">Great Plains smallpox</a> (1837–1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1847_North_American_typhus_epidemic" title="1847 North American typhus epidemic">Typhus</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Copenhagen_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak">Copenhagen cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Stockholm_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak">Stockholm cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">Broad Street cholera</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_Guam_smallpox_epidemic" title="1856 Guam smallpox epidemic">Guam smallpox</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1862_Pacific_Northwest_smallpox_epidemic" title="1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic">Pacific Northwest smallpox</a> (1862–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Barcelona_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic">Barcelona yellow fever</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_in_Buenos_Aires" title="Yellow fever in Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires yellow fever</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague" title="1894 Hong Kong plague">Hong Kong plague</a> (1894)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_plague_of_1900%E2%80%931904" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco plague of 1900–1904">San Francisco plague</a> (1900–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a> (1910–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Los_Angeles_pneumonic_plague_outbreak" title="1924 Los Angeles pneumonic plague outbreak">LA pneumonic plague</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croydon_typhoid_outbreak_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Croydon typhoid outbreak of 1937">Croydon typhoid</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_New_York_City_smallpox_outbreak" title="1947 New York City smallpox outbreak">NYC smallpox</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_smallpox_epidemic_in_Wroc%C5%82aw" title="1963 smallpox epidemic in Wrocław">Wrocław smallpox</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Yugoslav_smallpox_outbreak" title="1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak">Yugoslav smallpox</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_flu" title="London flu">London flu</a> (1972–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_smallpox_epidemic_in_India" title="1974 smallpox epidemic in India">Indian smallpox</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_plague_in_India" title="1994 plague in India">Surat plague</a> (1994)</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Malaysia_Nipah_virus_outbreak" title="1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak">Malaysian Nipah virus</a> (1998–1999)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS</a> (2002–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Midwest_monkeypox_outbreak" title="2003 Midwest monkeypox outbreak">Midwest monkeypox</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Bird flu</a> (2003–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2005 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_India" title="2006 dengue outbreak in India">Indian dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_chikungunya" title="Epidemiology of chikungunya">Chikungunya outbreaks</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2006 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Iraq_cholera_outbreak" title="2007 Iraq cholera outbreak">Iraqi cholera</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_cholera_outbreak" title="2008 Zimbabwean cholera outbreak">Zimbabwean cholera</a> (2008–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2008–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Bolivian_dengue_fever_epidemic" title="2009 Bolivian dengue fever epidemic">Bolivian dengue</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Gujarat_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak">Gujarat hepatitis</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009%E2%80%932010_West_African_meningitis_outbreak" title="2009–2010 West African meningitis outbreak">Western African meningitis</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_Haiti_cholera_outbreak" title="2010s Haiti cholera outbreak">Haiti cholera</a> (2010–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2011 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_yellow_fever_outbreak_in_Darfur,_Sudan" title="2012 yellow fever outbreak in Darfur, Sudan">Darfur yellow fever</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 MERS outbreak">MERS</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2013 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Swansea_measles_epidemic" title="2013 Swansea measles epidemic">Swansea measles</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_chikungunya_outbreak" title="2013–2014 chikungunya outbreak">Chikungunya</a> (2013–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western African Ebola virus epidemic">Western African Ebola</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Ebola_virus_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak">DR Congo Ebola</a> (2014)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Odisha_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2014 Odisha hepatitis outbreak">Odisha hepatitis</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_eradication#2011–2015" title="Polio eradication">Polio declaration</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Indian_swine_flu_outbreak" title="2015 Indian swine flu outbreak">Indian swine flu</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_MERS_outbreak_in_South_Korea" title="2015 MERS outbreak in South Korea">South Korean MERS</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Zika_virus_epidemic" title="2015–16 Zika virus epidemic">Zika</a> (2015–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Angola_and_DR_Congo_yellow_fever_outbreak" title="2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak">Angolan yellow fever</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%932022_Yemen_cholera_outbreak" title="2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak">Yemeni cholera</a> (2016–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Gorakhpur_hospital_deaths" title="2017 Gorakhpur hospital deaths">Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis</a> (2017)</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2018_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 MERS outbreak">Saudi Arabian MERS</a> (2018)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus_outbreaks_in_Kerala#2018_outbreak" title="Nipah virus outbreaks in Kerala">Kerala Nipah virus</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_%C3%89quateur_province_Ebola_outbreak" title="2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak">Équateur province Ebola</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic" title="Kivu Ebola epidemic">Kivu Ebola</a> (2018–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Madagascar_measles_outbreak" title="2018 Madagascar measles outbreak">Madagascar measles</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Samoa_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Samoa measles outbreak">Samoa measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_measles_outbreak_in_the_Philippines" title="2019 measles outbreak in the Philippines">Philippine measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Pacific_Northwest_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Pacific Northwest measles outbreak">Pacific NW measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_New_York_measles_outbreak" title="2019 New York measles outbreak">New York measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Kuala_Koh_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Kuala Koh measles outbreak">Kuala Koh measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Tonga_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Tonga measles outbreak">Tonga measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_measles_outbreak_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="2019–2020 measles outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DRC measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_New_Zealand_measles_outbreak" title="2019–2020 New Zealand measles outbreak">New Zealand measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2020 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022-2023_Uganda_Ebola_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2022-2023 Uganda Ebola outbreak">Uganda Ebola</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_dengue_outbreak_in_Jamaica" title="2023 dengue outbreak in Jamaica">Jamaica dengue</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Bangsamoro_measles_outbreak" title="2023–2024 Bangsamoro measles outbreak">Bangsamoro measles</a> (2023–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_outbreak_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="2024 dengue outbreak in Latin America and the Caribbean">2024 Latin American dengue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_epidemic_in_Argentina" title="2024 dengue epidemic in Argentina">Argentina</a> (2024)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First plague pandemic</a> (541–767)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a> (1348–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">First cholera pandemic</a> (1816–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">Second cholera pandemic</a> (1829–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1846%E2%80%931860_cholera_pandemic" title="1846–1860 cholera pandemic">Third cholera pandemic</a> (1852–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a> (1855–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic" title="1863–1875 cholera pandemic">Fourth cholera pandemic</a> (1863–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">Fifth cholera pandemic</a> (1881–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">Russian flu</a> (1889–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">Sixth cholera pandemic</a> (1899–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919%E2%80%931930_encephalitis_lethargica_epidemic" title="1919–1930 encephalitis lethargica epidemic">encephalitis lethargica epidemic</a> (1919–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">Asian flu</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_cholera_pandemic" title="Seventh cholera pandemic">Seventh cholera pandemic</a> (1961–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu</a> (1968–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">Russian flu pandemic</a> (1977–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked during 2020-23">*</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_mpox_outbreak" title="2022–2023 mpox outbreak">Mpox (clade II) outbreak</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_mpox_epidemic" title="2023–2024 mpox epidemic">Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic</a> (2023–2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&oldid=1234079069">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&oldid=1234079069</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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