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aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perianth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perianth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Perianth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perianth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calyx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calyx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Calyx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calyx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corolla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corolla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Corolla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corolla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Reproductive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Androecium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Androecium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Androecium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Androecium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gynoecium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gynoecium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Gynoecium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gynoecium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inflorescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflorescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Inflorescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inflorescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floral_diagrams_and_formulae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floral_diagrams_and_formulae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Floral diagrams and formulae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floral_diagrams_and_formulae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organ_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organ_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Organ development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organ_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Pollination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pollination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pollination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biotic_pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotic_pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Biotic pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biotic_pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Attraction_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attraction_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Attraction methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attraction_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollinator_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollinator_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Pollinator relationships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollinator_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abiotic_pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abiotic_pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Abiotic pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abiotic_pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cross-pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Cross-pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cross-pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Self-pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allergies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allergies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Allergies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allergies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Fertilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seed_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seed_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Seed development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seed_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fruit_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fruit_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Fruit development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fruit_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seed_dispersal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seed_dispersal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Seed dispersal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seed_dispersal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Seed dispersal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Seed_dispersal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allochory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allochory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Allochory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allochory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biotic_vectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotic_vectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Biotic vectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biotic_vectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abiotic_vectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abiotic_vectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>Abiotic vectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abiotic_vectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autochory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autochory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Autochory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autochory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Colour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Classical taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Symbolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Human use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Giving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Giving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Giving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Flower</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 200 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-200" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">200 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blom" title="Blom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Blom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%BCte" title="Blüte – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Blüte" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%A0%E1%89%A3" title="አበባ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አበባ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C5%8Dtsma" title="Blōtsma – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Blōtsma" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A9_(%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="زهرة (نبات) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زهرة (نبات)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%97%DC%92%DC%92%DC%90" title="ܗܒܒܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܗܒܒܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%AF" title="Ծաղիկ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ծաղիկ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilici" title="Lilici – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Lilici" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2" title="ফুল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ফুল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvoty" title="Yvoty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Yvoty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panqara" title="Panqara – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Panqara" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87i%C3%A7%C9%99k" title="Çiçək – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çiçək" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%DA%86%DA%A9" title="چیچک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چیچک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2" title="ফুল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফুল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambang" title="Kambang – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kambang" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoe" title="Hoe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kembang" title="Kembang – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Kembang" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%99" title="Сәскә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәскә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кветка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кветка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кветка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кветка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burak" title="Burak – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Burak" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Цвят (ботаника) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цвят (ботаника)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bliah" title="Bliah – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Bliah" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%8F%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82" title="མེ་ཏོག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མེ་ཏོག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvijet" title="Cvijet – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Cvijet" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleu%C3%B1v" title="Bleuñv – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bleuñv" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Сэсэг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сэсэг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Чечек – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Чечек" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kv%C4%9Bt" title="Květ – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Květ" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruva" title="Ruva – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruva" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blodeuyn" title="Blodeuyn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Blodeuyn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pum" title="Pum – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Pum" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blomst" title="Blomst – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Blomst" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blumm" title="Blumm – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Blumm" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%BCte" title="Blüte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Blüte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%8F%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82" title="མེ་ཏོག – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="མེ་ཏོག" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ཇོང་ཁ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95is" title="Õis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Άνθος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άνθος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floro" title="Floro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Floro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lore" title="Lore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuul" title="Fuul – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Fuul" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleur" title="Fleur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fleur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blom" title="Blom – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Blom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_(botaniche)" title="Rose (botaniche) – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Rose (botaniche)" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A1th_(planda)" title="Bláth (planda) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bláth (planda)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A0th" title="Blàth – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Blàth" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1" title="花 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="花" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%B2" title="ફૂલ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ફૂલ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%BC%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌱𐌻𐍉𐌼𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌱𐌻𐍉𐌼𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A2" title="Fâ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Fâ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%BD%83" title="꽃 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="꽃" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%AF" title="Ծաղիկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծաղիկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="पुष्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पुष्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%87enje" title="Kćenje – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Kćenje" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvijet" title="Cvijet – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cvijet" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floro" title="Floro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Floro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cful%C5%AB" title="Ìfulū – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ìfulū" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabong" title="Sabong – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sabong" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunga" title="Bunga – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bunga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%B1%E1%95%88%E1%96%85%E1%91%90%E1%93%B4%E1%94%AD%E1%96%85/piruqtusajaq" title="ᐱᕈᖅᑐᓴᔭᖅ/piruqtusajaq – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐱᕈᖅᑐᓴᔭᖅ/piruqtusajaq" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautchiaq" title="Nautchiaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Nautchiaq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%C3%A6%D0%B3" title="Дидинæг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Дидинæг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intyatyambo" title="Intyatyambo – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Intyatyambo" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%B3m" title="Blóm – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Blóm" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiore" title="Fiore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fiore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%97" title="פרח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kembang" title="Kembang – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kembang" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%81" title="ಹೂವು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹೂವು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ყვავილი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ყვავილი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B4" title="پوش – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="پوش" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwiat" title="Kwiat – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Kwiat" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BB" title="Гүл – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гүл" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ua" title="Ua – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ua" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%A8" title="Flè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Flè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%A8r" title="Flèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Flèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kul%C3%AElk" title="Kulîlk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kulîlk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BB" title="Гүл – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гүл" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%BCf" title="Ciüf – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Ciüf" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%80%D1%83%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B8" title="ТӀутӀи – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="ТӀутӀи" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flos" title="Flos – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Flos" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zieds" title="Zieds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zieds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A9i" title="Bléi – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bléi" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%83%D1%8C%D0%BA" title="Цуьк – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Цуьк" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiedas" title="Žiedas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žiedas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunga" title="Bunga – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Bunga" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom_(plantj)" title="Bloom (plantj) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Bloom (plantj)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3mb%C3%A9" title="Lómbé – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lómbé" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekimuli" title="Ekimuli – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ekimuli" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C3%B9r" title="Fiùr – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Fiùr" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vir%C3%A1g_(botanika)" title="Virág (botanika) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Virág (botanika)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Цвет – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цвет" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voninkazo" title="Voninkazo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Voninkazo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D" title="പൂവ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പൂവ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pua" title="Pua – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Pua" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="პეული – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პეული" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%87_(%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="زهره (نبات) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="زهره (نبات)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84" title="گال – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گال" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunga" title="Bunga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bunga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1" title="ꯂꯩꯔꯥꯡ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯩꯔꯥꯡ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C4%83" title="Huă – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huă" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frol" title="Frol – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Frol" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ပန်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပန်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senikau" title="Senikau – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Senikau" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloem_(plant)" title="Bloem (plant) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bloem (plant)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloeme" title="Bloeme – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Bloeme" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2" title="फूल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फूल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82" title="स्वां – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="स्वां" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1" title="花 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="花" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciuore" title="Sciuore – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Sciuore" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloos" title="Bloos – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Bloos" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowa" title="Flowa – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Flowa" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blomst" title="Blomst – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Blomst" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blome" title="Blome – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Blome" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%88_(%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB)" title="Пеледыш (кушкыл) – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Пеледыш (кушкыл)" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%B2" title="ଫୁଲ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଫୁଲ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraaraa" title="Daraaraa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Daraaraa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gul" title="Gul – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gul" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2" title="ਫੁੱਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫੁੱਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falo" title="Falo – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Falo" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%8F%DA%BE%D9%84" title="پُھل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پُھل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="گل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowaz" title="Flowaz – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Flowaz" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%95%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6" title="ផ្កា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ផ្កា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleur" title="Fleur – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Fleur" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%B6te" title="Blöte – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Blöte" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwiat" title="Kwiat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kwiat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flor" title="Flor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Flor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87e%C3%A7ek" title="Çeçek – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Çeçek" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floare" title="Floare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Floare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuktu" title="Tuktu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Tuktu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F" title="Косиця – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Косиця" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Цветок – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цветок" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8D%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Чэчик – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Чэчик" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/balu" title="balu – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="balu" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF" title="पुष्पाणि – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पुष्पाणि" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱵᱟᱦᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱟᱦᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flouer" title="Flouer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Flouer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phpah" title="Phpah – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Phpah" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lulja" title="Lulja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lulja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciuri" title="Ciuri – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ciuri" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A" title="මල් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මල්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower" title="Flower – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Flower" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گل – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="گل" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvet" title="Kvet – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kvet" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvet" title="Cvet – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Cvet" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubax" title="Ubax – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Ubax" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%DA%B5" title="گوڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گوڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Цвет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цвет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvijet" title="Cvijet – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Cvijet" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kembang" title="Kembang – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kembang" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kukka" title="Kukka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kukka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blomma" title="Blomma – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Blomma" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulaklak" title="Bulaklak – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bulaklak" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="மலர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மலர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turarin_n_wazzan" title="Turarin n wazzan – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Turarin n wazzan" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aje%C7%A7%C7%A7ig" title="Ajeǧǧig – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ajeǧǧig" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D3%99%D1%87%D3%99%D0%BA%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Чәчәкләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Чәчәкләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/phpax" title="phpax – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="phpax" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tayal</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%82" title="పుష్పం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పుష్పం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81" title="ดอก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดอก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Гул – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гул" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%A5%E1%8E%B8%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9" title="ᎠᏥᎸᏍᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏥᎸᏍᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87i%C3%A7ek" title="Çiçek – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çiçek" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhweren" title="Nhweren – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Nhweren" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kywat" title="Kywat – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Kywat" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сяська – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Сяська" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Квітка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Квітка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%88%D9%84" title="پھول – Urdu" lang="ur" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flowers&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Flowers">Flowers</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reproductive structure in flowering plants</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Flower_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Flower (disambiguation)">Flower (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Floral" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Floral_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Floral (disambiguation)">Floral (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flower_poster_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/330px-Flower_poster_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="439" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/495px-Flower_poster_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/660px-Flower_poster_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4462" data-file-height="5932" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>flower</b>, also known as a <b>bloom</b> or <b>blossom</b>, is the reproductive structure found in <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> (plants of the division <a href="/wiki/Angiospermae" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiospermae">Angiospermae</a>). Flowers consist of a combination of vegetative organs – <a href="/wiki/Sepals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepals">sepals</a> that enclose and protect the developing flower. These petals attract pollinators, and reproductive organs that produce <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>, which in flowering plants produce <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>. The male gametophytes, which produce sperm, are enclosed within <a href="/wiki/Pollen_grains" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen grains">pollen grains</a> produced in the <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anthers</a>. The female gametophytes are contained within the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a> produced in the <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>. </p><p>Most flowering plants depend on animals, such as bees, moths, and butterflies, to transfer their pollen between different flowers, and have evolved to attract these <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> by various strategies, including brightly colored, conspicuous petals, attractive scents, and the production of <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>, a food source for pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, many flowering plants have <a href="/wiki/Co-evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-evolution">co-evolved</a> with pollinators to be mutually dependent on services they provide to one another—in the plant's case, a means of reproduction; in the pollinator's case, a source of food.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When pollen from the anther of a flower is deposited on the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a>, this is called pollination. Some flowers may <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollinate</a>, producing seed using pollen from a different flower of the same plant, but others have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination and rely on <a href="/wiki/Pollination#Mechanism" title="Pollination">cross-pollination</a>, when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species. Self-pollination happens in flowers where the <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a> mature at the same time, and are positioned so that the pollen can land on the flower's stigma. This pollination does not require an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some flowers produce <a href="/wiki/Diaspore_(botany)" title="Diaspore (botany)">diaspores</a> without fertilization (<a href="/wiki/Parthenocarpy" title="Parthenocarpy">parthenocarpy</a>). After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>. </p><p>Flowers have long been appreciated for their beauty and pleasant scents, and also hold cultural significance as religious, ritual, or symbolic objects, or sources of <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicine</a> and food. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>Flower is from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <span title="Middle English-language text"><i lang="enm">flour</i></span>, which referred to both the ground grain and the reproductive structure in plants, before splitting off in the 17th century. It comes originally from the Latin name of the Italian goddess of flowers, <a href="/wiki/Flora_(mythology)" title="Flora (mythology)">Flora</a>. The early word for flower in English was <i>blossom</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it now refers to flowers only of <a href="/wiki/Fruit_tree" title="Fruit tree">fruit trees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mature_flower_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mature_flower_diagram.svg/389px-Mature_flower_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="389" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mature_flower_diagram.svg/584px-Mature_flower_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mature_flower_diagram.svg/778px-Mature_flower_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of flower parts.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Floral_morphology" title="Floral morphology">Floral morphology</a></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Floral_morphology"></span> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> of a flower, or its form and structure,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be considered in two parts: the vegetative part, consisting of non-reproductive structures such as <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">petals</a>; and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower is made up of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk or axis, called a <a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">receptacle</a>. Each of these parts or floral organs is arranged in a spiral called a <a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">whorl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20104_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20104-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are the <a href="/wiki/Calyx_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyx (botany)">calyx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corolla_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corolla (botany)">corolla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Androecium" class="mw-redirect" title="Androecium">androecium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">gynoecium</a>. Together the calyx and corolla make up the non-reproductive part of the flower called the <a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">perianth</a>, and in some cases may not be differentiated. If this is the case, then they are described as <a href="/wiki/Tepals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepals">tepals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20105–6_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20105–6-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perianth">Perianth</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calyx">Calyx</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">sepals</a>, collectively called the calyx, are modified leaves that occur on the outermost whorl of the flower. They are leaf-like, in that they have a broad base, <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may have <a href="/wiki/Stipules" class="mw-redirect" title="Stipules">stipules</a>. Sepals are often waxy and tough, and grow quickly to protect the flower as it develops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may be <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a>, but will more commonly grow on to assist in fruit dispersal. If the calyx is fused it is called gamosepalous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Corolla">Corolla</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">petals</a>, or corolla, are almost or completely fiberless leaf-like structures that form the innermost whorl of the perianth. They are often delicate and thin and are usually colored, shaped, or scented to encourage pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although similar to leaves in shape, they are more comparable to stamens in that they form almost simultaneously with one another, but their subsequent growth is delayed. If the corolla is fused together it is called sympetalous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproductive">Reproductive</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lillium_Stamens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lillium_Stamens.jpg/220px-Lillium_Stamens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lillium_Stamens.jpg/330px-Lillium_Stamens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lillium_Stamens.jpg/440px-Lillium_Stamens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Reproductive parts of easter lily (<i><a href="/wiki/Lilium_longiflorum" title="Lilium longiflorum">Lilium longiflorum</a></i>). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Androecium">Androecium</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Androecium" class="mw-redirect" title="Androecium">androecium</a>, or stamens, is the whorl of pollen-producing male parts. Stamens consist typically of an <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a>, made up of four pollen sacs arranged in two <a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">thecae</a>, connected to a <a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">filament</a>, or stalk. The anther contains microsporocytes which become <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, the male <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, after undergoing <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. Although they exhibit the widest variation among floral organs, the androecium is usually confined just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. Stamens range in number, size, shape, orientation, and in their point of connection to the flower. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, there is only one type of stamen, but there are plant species where the flowers have two types; a "normal" one and one with anthers that produce sterile pollen meant to attract pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">gynoecium</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpels</a>, is the female part of the flower found on the innermost whorl. Each carpel consists of a <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a>, which receives pollen, a <a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">style</a>, which acts as a stalk, and an <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>, which contains the ovules. Carpels may occur in one to several whorls, and when fused are often described as a <a href="/wiki/Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a>. Inside the ovary, the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a> are attached to the <a href="/wiki/Placentation#In_plants" title="Placentation">placenta</a> by structures called <i>funiculi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016229_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016229-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201014_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variation">Variation</h3></div> <p>Although this arrangement is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Sattler73_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sattler73-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions or look like what is typically another part.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some families, such as the <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a>, the petals are greatly reduced; in many species, the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified petal-like stamens; the double flowers of <a href="/wiki/Peonie" class="mw-redirect" title="Peonie">peonies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a> are mostly petaloid stamens.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many flowers have symmetry. When the <a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">perianth</a> is bisected through the central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced, the flower is said to be <a href="/wiki/Actinomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinomorphic">actinomorphic</a> or regular. This is an example of <a href="/wiki/Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial symmetry">radial symmetry</a>. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves, the flower is said to be irregular or <a href="/wiki/Zygomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygomorphic">zygomorphic</a>. If, in rare cases, they have no symmetry at all they are called asymmetric. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201025_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201025-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weberling-1992_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weberling-1992-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base (<a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">sessile</a>—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent). <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016243_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016243-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stem or stalk subtending a flower, or an <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> of flowers, is called a <a href="/wiki/Peduncle_(botany)" title="Peduncle (botany)">peduncle</a>. If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called <a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">pedicels</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.2010410_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.2010410-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle.<sup id="cite_ref-Weberling-1992_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weberling-1992-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the majority of species, individual flowers have both carpels and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite#Plants" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a>. In some species of plants, the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamen) or female (carpel) parts. If unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is called <a href="/wiki/Monoecy" title="Monoecy">monoecious</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if an individual plant is either female or male, the species is called <a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">dioecious</a>. Many flowers have <a href="/wiki/Nectaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Nectaries">nectaries</a>, which are glands that produce a sugary fluid used to attract pollinators. They are not considered as an organ on their own. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201021_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_and_yellow_flower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/White_and_yellow_flower.JPG/220px-White_and_yellow_flower.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/White_and_yellow_flower.JPG/330px-White_and_yellow_flower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/White_and_yellow_flower.JPG/440px-White_and_yellow_flower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Zantedeschia_aethiopica" title="Zantedeschia aethiopica">calla lily</a> is not a single flower. It is an <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> of tiny flowers pressed together on a central stalk that is surrounded by a large petal-like <a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">bract</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is called an <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a>. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. A common example of this is most members of the very large composite (<a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a>) group. A single <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">daisy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflower</a>, for example, is not a flower but a flower <a href="/wiki/Head_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Head (botany)">head</a>—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets). <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016228_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016228-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as <a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">bracts</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201022–24_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201022–24-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Floral_diagrams_and_formulae">Floral diagrams and formulae</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></div> <p>A <i>floral formula</i> is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. It can represent a <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a>, usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs, or particular species. Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since. Prenner <i>et al.</i> (2010) devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula.<sup id="cite_ref-prenner_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prenner-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world, yet they convey the same information.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201038_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201038-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2009165–166_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2009165–166-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of <a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">floral diagrams</a>. The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution. Such diagrams may show important features of flowers, including the relative positions of the various organs, including the presence of fusion and symmetry, as well as structural details. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201036_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.201036-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <p>A flower develops on a modified shoot or <i>axis</i> from a determinate apical <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristem</a> (<i>determinate</i> meaning the axis grows to a set size). It has compressed internodes, bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed developmental studies, however, have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like <a href="/wiki/Aerial_stem_modification" title="Aerial stem modification">modified stems</a> (caulomes) that in some cases may even resemble <a href="/wiki/Branchlet" class="mw-redirect" title="Branchlet">branchlets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sattler73_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sattler73-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking into account the whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants, we find a continuum between modified leaves (phyllomes), modified stems (caulomes), and modified branchlets (shoots).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition">Transition</h3></div><p> The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a> and the formation of <a href="/wiki/Seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seeds">seeds</a>, hence ensuring maximal <a href="/wiki/Reproductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive">reproductive</a> success. To meet these needs a plant can interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant hormones">plant hormones</a> and seasonable <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photoperiod" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoperiod">photoperiod</a> changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Ausin2005_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ausin2005-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennial</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Biennial_plant" title="Biennial plant">biennial</a> plants require <a href="/wiki/Vernalization" title="Vernalization">vernalization</a> to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as <a href="/wiki/Florigen" title="Florigen">florigen</a>, which involves a variety of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, including Constans, Flowering Locus C, and Flowering Locus T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in <a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">buds</a> and growing tips to induce several different physiological and morphological changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Turck2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turck2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ABC_flower_development.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ABC_flower_development.svg/170px-ABC_flower_development.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ABC_flower_development.svg/255px-ABC_flower_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ABC_flower_development.svg/340px-ABC_flower_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>The ABC model of flower development</figcaption></figure><p>The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change the cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpels</a>. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent on some environmental cue.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle2006_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle2006-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organ_development">Organ development</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">ABC model of flower development</a></div> <p>The ABC model is a simple model that describes the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> responsible for the development of flowers. Three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the <a href="/wiki/Primordium" title="Primordium">primordia</a> organ within the floral <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">apical meristem</a>. These gene functions are called A, B, and C. Genes are expressed in only the outer and lower most section of the apical meristem, which becomes a whorl of sepals. In the second whorl, both A and B genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of aberrant flowers and mutations in <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> and the snapdragon, <i><a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum_majus" title="Antirrhinum majus">Antirrhinum majus</a></i>. For example, when there is a loss of B gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl, the lack of the B function but the presence of the C function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016392–395_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016392–395-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></div> <p>The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are <i><a href="/wiki/Heterospory" title="Heterospory">heterosporous</a></i>, that is, every individual plant produces two types of <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. Microspores are produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> inside anthers and megaspores are produced inside ovules that are within an ovary. Anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a> inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores, i.e., they are endosporic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollination">Pollination</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg/200px-Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg/300px-Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg/400px-Bees_Collecting_Pollen_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="386" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker20209_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker20209-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, known as <a href="/wiki/Cross-pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-pollination">cross-pollination</a>, but many plants can self-pollinate. Cross-pollination is preferred because it allows for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a>, which contributes to the survival of the species. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many flowers depend on external factors for pollination, such as the wind, water, animals, and especially <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. Larger animals such as birds, bats, and even some <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_possum" title="Pygmy possum">pygmy possums</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, can also be employed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202065_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202065-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To accomplish this, flowers have specific designs which encourage the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. The period during which this process can take place (when the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called <i><a href="/wiki/Anthesis" title="Anthesis">anthesis</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020120_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020120-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hence the study of pollination biology is called <i><a href="/wiki/Anthecology" title="Anthecology">anthecology</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowering plants usually face <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">evolutionary pressure</a> to optimize the transfer of their <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behavior of the plants.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen may be transferred between plants via several 'vectors,' or methods. Around 80% of flowering plants make use of biotic or living vectors. Others use abiotic, or non-living, vectors and some plants make use of multiple vectors, but most are highly specialized.<sup id="cite_ref-Ackerman-2000_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackerman-2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though some fit between or outside of these groups,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202046_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202046-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most flowers can be divided between the following two broad groups of pollination methods: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biotic_pollination">Biotic pollination</h3></div> <p>Flowers that use biotic vectors attract and use <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">specialized</a> in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239–240_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239–240-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202068_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202068-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination, while others have elaborate designs to ensure pollination and prevent <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollination</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flowers use animals including: insects (<i><a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">entomophily</a></i>), birds (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithophily" title="Ornithophily">ornithophily</a></i>), bats (<i><a href="/wiki/Chiropterophily" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiropterophily">chiropterophily</a></i>), lizards,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even snails and slugs (<i>malacophilae</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190672–80_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190672–80-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attraction_methods">Attraction methods</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg/218px-Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg/327px-Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg/436px-Ophrys_apifera_flower1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Ophrys_apifera" title="Ophrys apifera">Ophrys apifera</a></i>, a bee orchid, which has evolved over many generations to mimic a female bee.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Most commonly, flowers are insect-pollinated, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">entomophilous</a></i>; literally "insect-loving" in Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202081_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202081-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To attract these insects flowers commonly have glands called <i>nectaries</i> on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020112–113_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020112–113-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some flowers have glands called <a href="/wiki/Elaiophore" title="Elaiophore">elaiophores</a>, which produce oils rather than nectar.<sup id="cite_ref-SCHAFFLER_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCHAFFLER-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds and bees have <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">color vision</a>, enabling them to seek out colorful flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020107–108_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020107–108-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some flowers have patterns, called <a href="/wiki/Nectar_guide" title="Nectar guide">nectar guides</a>, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light, which is visible to bees and some other insects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020121_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020121-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers also attract pollinators by <a href="/wiki/Floral_scent" title="Floral scent">scent</a>, though not all flower scents are appealing to humans; several flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals. These are often called <a href="/wiki/Carrion_flower" title="Carrion flower">carrion flowers</a>, including plants in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Rafflesia" title="Rafflesia">Rafflesia</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Titan_arum" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan arum">titan arum</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020107–108_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020107–108-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and so most such flowers are white.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020173_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020173-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some plants pollinated by bats have a sonar-reflecting petal above its flowers, which helps the bat find them,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one species, the cactus <i>Espostoa frutescens</i>, has flowers that are surrounded by an area of sound-absorbent and woolly hairs called the cephalium, which absorbs the bat's ultrasound instead.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant. Other flowers use mimicry or <a href="/wiki/Pseudocopulation" title="Pseudocopulation">pseudocopulation</a> to attract pollinators. Many orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees or wasps in color, shape, and scent. Males move from one flower to the next in search of a mate, pollinating the flowers. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016241_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016241-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pollinator_relationships">Pollinator relationships</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pollination_syndrome" title="Pollination syndrome">Pollination syndrome</a></div> <p>Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is an example of <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a>, as the flower and pollinator have developed together over a long period to match each other's needs. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016240_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016240-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This close relationship compounds the negative effects of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>, however, since the extinction of either member in such a relationship would almost certainly mean the extinction of the other member as well.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abiotic_pollination">Abiotic pollination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anemophily" title="Anemophily">Anemophily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrophily" title="Hydrophily">Hydrophily</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grassflower.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grassflower.svg/200px-Grassflower.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grassflower.svg/300px-Grassflower.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grassflower.svg/400px-Grassflower.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="353" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A grass flower with its long, thin filaments and a large feathery stigma.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg/200px-Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg/300px-Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg/400px-Enhalus_acoroides_fleur_femelle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="368" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The female flower of <i>Enhalus acoroides</i>, which is pollinated through a combination of hyphydrogamy and ephydrogamy.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Flowers that use abiotic, or non-living, vectors use the <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a> or, much less commonly, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, to move pollen from one flower to the next.<sup id="cite_ref-Ackerman-2000_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackerman-2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In wind-dispersed (<a href="/wiki/Anemophilous" class="mw-redirect" title="Anemophilous">anemophilous</a>) species, the tiny pollen grains are carried, sometimes many thousands of kilometers,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the wind to other flowers. Common examples include the <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birch_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Birch trees">birch trees</a>, along with many other species in the order <i><a href="/wiki/Fagales" title="Fagales">Fagales</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ragweed" title="Ragweed">ragweeds</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Cyperaceae" title="Cyperaceae">sedges</a>. They do not need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large, showy, or colorful flowers, and do not have nectaries, nor a noticeable scent. Because of this, plants typically have many thousands of tiny flowers which have comparatively large, feathery stigmas; to increase the chance of pollen being received. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016241_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016241-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers is usually large, sticky, and rich in <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> (to act as a "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is typically small-grained, very light, smooth, and of little nutritional value to <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–72_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–72-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order for the wind to effectively pick up and transport the pollen, the flowers typically have anthers loosely attached to the end of long thin filaments, or pollen forms around a <a href="/wiki/Catkin" title="Catkin">catkin</a> which moves in the wind. Rarer forms of this involve individual flowers being moveable by the wind (<a href="/wiki/Pendulous" class="mw-redirect" title="Pendulous">pendulous</a>), or even less commonly; the anthers exploding to release the pollen into the wind. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–72_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–72-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pollination through water (<a href="/wiki/Hydrophily" title="Hydrophily">hydrophily</a>) is a much rarer method, occurring in only around 2% of abiotically pollinated flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ackerman-2000_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackerman-2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common examples of this include <i>Calitriche autumnalis</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vallisneria_spiralis" title="Vallisneria spiralis">Vallisneria spiralis</a></i> and some <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">sea-grasses</a>. One characteristic which most species in this group share is a lack of an <a href="/wiki/Exine" class="mw-redirect" title="Exine">exine</a>, or protective layer, around the pollen grain. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202051_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202051-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paul Knuth identified two types of hydrophilous pollination in 1906 and Ernst Schwarzenbach added a third in 1944. Knuth named his two groups 'Hyphydrogamy' and the more common 'Ephydrogamy'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–69_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis190668–69-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In hyphydrogamy pollination occurs below the surface of the water and so the pollen grains are typically negatively <a href="/wiki/Buoyant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buoyant">buoyant</a>. For marine plants that exhibit this method, the stigmas are usually stiff, while freshwater species have small and feathery stigmas.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox-1988_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-1988-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In ephydrogamy pollination occurs on the surface of the water and so the pollen has a low density to enable floating, though many also use rafts, and are <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a>. Marine flowers have floating thread-like stigmas and may have adaptations for the tide, while freshwater species create indentations in the water.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox-1988_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-1988-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third category, set out by Schwarzenbach, is those flowers which transport pollen above the water through conveyance. This ranges from floating plants, (<a href="/wiki/Lemnoideae" title="Lemnoideae">Lemnoideae</a>), to <a href="/wiki/Staminate" class="mw-redirect" title="Staminate">staminate</a> flowers (<i><a href="/wiki/Vallisneria" title="Vallisneria">Vallisneria</a></i>). Most species in this group have dry, spherical pollen which sometimes forms into larger masses, and female flowers which form depressions in the water; the method of transport varies.<sup id="cite_ref-Cox-1988_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cox-1988-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h3></div> <p>Flowers can be pollinated by two mechanisms; cross-pollination and self-pollination. No mechanism is indisputably better than the other as they each have their advantages and disadvantages. Plants use one or both of these mechanisms depending on their <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202036–37_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202036–37-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cross-pollination">Cross-pollination</h4></div> <p>Cross-pollination is the pollination of the carpel by pollen from a different plant of the same species. Because the genetic make-up of the sperm contained within the pollen from the other plant is different, their combination will result in a new, genetically distinct, plant, through the process of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>. Since each new plant is genetically distinct, the different plants show <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">variation</a> in their physiological and structural adaptations and so the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> as a whole is better prepared for an adverse occurrence in the environment. Cross-pollination, therefore, increases the survival of the species and is usually preferred by flowers for this reason. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016222_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016222-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principal adaptive function of flowers is the promotion of cross-pollination or outcrossing, a process that allows the masking of deleterious mutations in the genome of progeny. The masking effect of outcrossing sexual reproduction is known as "genetic complementation".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This beneficial effect of outcrossing on progeny is also recognized as hybrid vigour or heterosis. Once outcrossing is established due to the benefits of genetic complementation, subsequent switching to inbreeding becomes disadvantageous because it allows the expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, usually referred to as inbreeding depression. Charles Darwin in his 1889 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the beginning of chapter XII noted, "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Self-pollination">Self-pollination</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clianthus_puniceus_(Kaka_Beak)_flowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg/220px-Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg/330px-Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg/440px-Clianthus_puniceus_%28Kaka_Beak%29_flowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><i>Clianthus puniceus</i>, the kakabeak.</figcaption></figure> <p>Self-pollination is the pollination of the carpel of a flower by pollen from either the same flower or another flower on the same plant,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016238-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the creation of a genetic clone through <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a>. This increases the reliability of producing seeds, the rate at which they can be produced, and lowers the amount energy needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202042_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202042-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, most importantly, it limits <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a>. In addition, self-pollination causes <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>, due largely to the expression of recessive deleterious <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extreme case of self-fertilization, when the ovule is fertilized by pollen from the same flower or plant, occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many <a href="/wiki/Dandelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dandelion">dandelions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some flowers are self-pollinated and have flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open; these flowers are called <a href="/wiki/Cleistogamy" title="Cleistogamy">cleistogamous</a>; many species in the genus <a href="/wiki/Viola_(plant)" title="Viola (plant)"><i>Viola</i></a> exhibit this, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-pollination and hence, self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-incompatible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016239-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202034_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202034-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Clianthus_puniceus" title="Clianthus puniceus">Clianthus puniceus</a></i>, self-pollination is used strategically as an "insurance policy". When a pollinator, in this case a bird, visits <i>C. puniceus</i>, it rubs off the stigmatic covering and allows for pollen from the bird to enter the stigma. If no pollinators visit, however, then the stigmatic covering falls off naturally to allow for the flower's own anthers to pollinate the flower through self-pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202042_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202042-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allergies">Allergies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollen_allergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen allergy">Pollen allergy</a></div> <p>Pollen is a large contributor to <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_allergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory allergy">respiratory allergies</a> which combined affect between 10 and 50% of people worldwide. This number appears to be growing, as the temperature increases due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> mean that plants are producing more pollen<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, which is also more allergenic. Pollen is difficult to avoid, however, because of its small size and prevalence in the natural environment. Most of the pollen which causes allergies is that produced by wind-dispersed pollinators such as the <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birch_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Birch trees">birch trees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> trees, and <a href="/wiki/Ragweed" title="Ragweed">ragweeds</a>; the allergens in pollen are proteins which are thought to be necessary in the process of pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fertilization">Fertilization</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sex_(electronic_resource)_(1914)_(14590686978).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg/200px-Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg/300px-Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg/400px-Sex_%28electronic_resource%29_%281914%29_%2814590686978%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="2118" /></a><figcaption>A floral diagram, with the pollen tube labeled <i>PG</i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a>, also called <i>Synagmy,</i> occurs following pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamen to the carpel. It encompasses both <a href="/wiki/Plasmogamy" title="Plasmogamy">plasmogamy</a>, the fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Protoplast" title="Protoplast">protoplasts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karyogamy" title="Karyogamy">karyogamy</a>, the fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a>. When pollen lands on the stigma of the flower it begins creating a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> which runs down through the style and into the ovary. After penetrating the center-most part of the ovary it enters the egg apparatus and into one <a href="/wiki/Synergid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synergid">synergid</a>. At this point the end of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells, one of which makes its way to an egg, while also losing its <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> and much of its <a href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">protoplasm</a>. The sperm's nucleus then fuses with the egg's nucleus, resulting in the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> (two copies of each <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>) cell.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016234_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016234-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas in fertilization only plasmogamy, or the fusion of the whole sex cells, results, in Angiosperms (flowering plants) a process known as double fertilization, which involves both karyogamy and plasmogamy, occurs. In double fertilization the second sperm cell subsequently also enters the synergid and fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell. Since all three nuclei are <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>, they result in a large <a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a> nucleus which is <a href="/wiki/Triploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploid">triploid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016234_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016234-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seed_development">Seed development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seed_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed development">Seed development</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg/220px-Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg/330px-Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg/440px-Autumn_Red_peaches.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1896" /></a><figcaption>The fruit of a peach with the seed or stone inside.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the formation of zygote it begins to grow through nuclear and cellular divisions, called <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, eventually becoming a small group of cells. One section of it becomes the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, while the other becomes the suspensor; a structure which forces the embryo into the <a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a> and is later undetectable. Two small <a href="/wiki/Primordium" title="Primordium">primordia</a> also form at this time, that later become the <a href="/wiki/Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledon</a>, which is used as an energy store. Plants which grow out one of these primordia are called <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocotyledons</a>, while those that grow out two are <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicotyledons</a>. The next stage is called the Torpedo stage and involves the growth of several key structures, including: the <a href="/wiki/Radicle" title="Radicle">radicle</a> (embryotic root), the <a href="/wiki/Epicotyl" title="Epicotyl">epicotyl</a> (embryotic stem), and the <a href="/wiki/Hypocotyl" title="Hypocotyl">hypocotyl</a>, (the root/shoot junction). In the final step <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a> develops around the seed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016235–237_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016235–237-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fruit_development">Fruit development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fruit#Development" title="Fruit">Fruit § Development</a></div> <p>The ovary, inside which the seed is forming from the ovule, grows into a <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a>. All the other main floral parts die during this development, including: the style, stigma, sepals, stamens, and petals. The fruit contains three structures: the <a href="/wiki/Exocarp" class="mw-redirect" title="Exocarp">exocarp</a>, or outer layer, the <a href="/wiki/Mesocarp" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesocarp">mesocarp</a>, or the fleshy part, and the <a href="/wiki/Endocarp" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocarp">endocarp</a>, or innermost layer, while the fruit wall is called the <a href="/wiki/Pericarp" class="mw-redirect" title="Pericarp">pericarp</a>. The size, shape, toughness, and thickness varies among different fruit. This is because it is directly connected to the method of seed dispersal; that being the purpose of fruit - to encourage or enable the seed's dispersal and protect the seed while doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016235–237_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016235–237-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seed_dispersal">Seed dispersal</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">Biological dispersal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:612px;max-width:612px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kereru_(New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg/200px-Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg/300px-Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg/400px-Kereru_%28New_Zealand_Wood_Pigeon%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="1282" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The kererū, <i><a href="/wiki/Hemiphaga_novaeseelandiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae">Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae</a></i>, is an important disperser of seeds in New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg/200px-This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg/300px-This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg/400px-This_seed_of_a_maple_seed_runs_as_a_helicopter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1153" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Samara_(fruit)" title="Samara (fruit)">samara</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Maple_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Maple tree">maple tree</a> with its distinctive "wings."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg/200px-Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg/300px-Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg/400px-Acaena_novae-zelandiae1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="/wiki/Acaena_novae-zelandiae" title="Acaena novae-zelandiae">Acaena novae-zelandiae</a></i> uses <i>epizoochory</i> to disperse its seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Following the pollination of a flower, fertilization, and finally the development of a seed and fruit, a mechanism is typically used to disperse the fruit away from the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016248_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016248-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Angiosperms (flowering plants) seeds are dispersed away from the plant so as to not force competition between the mother and the daughter plants,<sup id="cite_ref-Bowler_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowler-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as to enable the colonization of new areas. They are often divided into two categories, though many plants fall in between or in one or more of these:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPijl197271_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPijl197271-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allochory">Allochory</h3></div> <p>In allochory, plants use an external <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vector" class="extiw" title="wikt:vector">vector</a>, or carrier, to transport their seeds away from them. These can be either <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biotic" class="extiw" title="wikt:biotic">biotic</a> (living), such as by birds and ants, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abiotic" class="extiw" title="wikt:abiotic">abiotic</a> (non-living), such as by the wind or water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPijl197271_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPijl197271-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forget-2005_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forget-2005-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i><sup id="cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norsworthy-2014-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biotic_vectors">Biotic vectors</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal#Animals:_epi-_and_endozoochory" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal § Animals: epi- and endozoochory</a></div> <p>Many plants use biotic vectors to disperse their seeds away from them. This method falls under the umbrella term <i>zoochory</i>, while <i><a href="/wiki/Endozoochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endozoochory">endozoochory</a>,</i> also known as <i>fruigivory,</i> refers specifically to plants adapted to grow fruit in order to attract animals to eat them. Once eaten they go through typically go through animal's digestive system and are dispersed away from the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norsworthy-2014-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some seeds are specially adapted either to last in the <a href="/wiki/Gizzard" title="Gizzard">gizzard</a> of animals or even to germinate better after passing through them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can be eaten by birds (<i>ornithochory)</i>, bats (<i>chiropterochory)</i>, <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, primates, ants (<i><a href="/wiki/Myrmecochory" title="Myrmecochory">myrmecochory</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> non-bird sauropsids (<i>saurochory)</i>, mammals in general <i>(mammaliochory)</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically their fruit are fleshy, have a high nutritional value, and may have chemical attractants as an additional "reward" for dispersers. This is reflected <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologically</a> in the presence of more <a href="/wiki/Pulp_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulp (fruit)">pulp</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Aril" title="Aril">aril</a>, and sometimes an <a href="/wiki/Elaiosome" title="Elaiosome">elaiosome</a> (primarily for ants), which are other fleshy structures.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-1982-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Epizoochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Epizoochory">Epizoochory</a></i> occurs in plants whose seeds are adapted to cling on to animals and be dispersed that way, such as many species in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Acaena" title="Acaena">Acaena</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically these plants seed's have hooks or a <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> surface to easier grip to animals, which include birds and animals with <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a>. Some plants use <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">mimesis</a>, or imitation, to trick animals into dispersing the seeds and these often have specially adapted colors.<sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-1982-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i><sup id="cite_ref-sdd_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdd-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>The final type of <i>zoochory</i> is called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Synzoochory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Synzoochory (page does not exist)">synzoochory</a>,</i> which involves neither the digestion of the seeds, nor the unintentional carrying of the seed on the body, but the deliberate carrying of the seeds by the animals. This is usually in the mouth or <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">beak</a> of the animal (called <i>Stomatochory</i>), which is what is used for many birds and all ants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPijl197224–25_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPijl197224–25-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg/173px-Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg/260px-Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg/346px-Usnea_angulata_91023873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The lichen <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Usnea_angulata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Usnea angulata (page does not exist)">Usnea angulata</a></i>, which uses <i>hydrochory</i>, is a weed in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyslop-Trows-2012_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyslop-Trows-2012-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:129px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hura_crepitans_(fruit).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg/173px-Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg/260px-Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg/346px-Hura_crepitans_%28fruit%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3535" data-file-height="2652" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i><a href="/wiki/Hura_crepitans" title="Hura crepitans">Hura crepitans</a></i> disperses its seeds ballistically and is hence commonly called the "dynamite tree".<sup id="cite_ref-Feldkamp-2006_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldkamp-2006-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abiotic_vectors">Abiotic vectors</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anemochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Anemochory">Anemochory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal#Water" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal § Water</a></div> <p>In abiotic dispersal plants use the vectors of the wind, water, or a mechanism of their own to transport their seeds away from them.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norsworthy-2014-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup id="cite_ref-Forget-2005_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forget-2005-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Anemochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Anemochory">Anemochory</a></i> involves using the wind as a vector to disperse plant's seeds. Because these seeds have to travel in the wind, they are almost always small — sometimes even dust-like, have a high <a href="/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio" title="Surface-area-to-volume ratio">surface-area-to-volume ratio</a>, and are produced in a large number — sometimes up to a million. Plants such as <a href="/wiki/Tumbleweed" title="Tumbleweed">tumbleweeds</a> detach the entire shoot to let the seeds roll away with the wind. Another common adaptation are wings, plumes or balloon-like structures that let the seeds stay in the air for longer and hence travel farther. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Hydrochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrochory">hydrochory</a></i> plants are adapted to disperse their seeds through bodies of water and so typically are buoyant and have a low <a href="/wiki/Relative_density" title="Relative density">relative density</a> with regards to the water. Commonly seeds are adapted morphologically with hydrophobic surfaces, small size, hairs, slime, <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, and sometimes air spaces within the seeds.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-1982-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> These plants fall into three categories: ones where seeds are dispersed on the surface of water currents, under the surface of water currents, and by rain landing on a plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyslop-Trows-2012_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyslop-Trows-2012-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autochory">Autochory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Autochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Autochory">Autochory</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Autochory" class="mw-redirect" title="Autochory">autochory</a>, plants create their own vectors to transport the seeds away from them. Adaptations for this usually involve the fruits exploding and forcing the seeds away <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistically</a>, such as in <i><a href="/wiki/Hura_crepitans" title="Hura crepitans">Hura crepitans</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-Feldkamp-2006_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldkamp-2006-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or sometimes in the creation of creeping <a href="/wiki/Diaspore_(botany)" title="Diaspore (botany)">diaspores</a>.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-1982-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> Because of the relatively small distances that these methods can disperse their seeds, they are often paired with an external vector.<i><sup id="cite_ref-sdd_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdd-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#Flowers" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolution of flowers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floral_biology" title="Floral biology">Floral biology</a></div> <p>While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones <a href="/wiki/Plant_sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant sexuality">reproduced</a> by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. In the sea, plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a> of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other damage which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a>, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the <a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">ginkgo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/220px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/330px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg/440px-Archaefructus_liaoningensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Archaefructus" title="Archaefructus">Archaefructus</a> liaoningensis</i>, one of the earliest known flowering plants</figcaption></figure> <p>Several groups of extinct <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Seed_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed fern">seed ferns</a>, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>. </p><p>Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as <i>Archaefructus</i>, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. An early fossil of a flowering plant, <i><a href="/wiki/Archaefructus" title="Archaefructus">Archaefructus</a> liaoningensis</i> from China, is dated about 125 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even earlier from China is the 125–130 million years old <i><a href="/wiki/Archaefructus" title="Archaefructus">Archaefructus</a> sinensis</i>. In 2015 a plant (130 million-year-old <i><a href="/wiki/Montsechia_vidalii" class="mw-redirect" title="Montsechia vidalii">Montsechia vidalii</a></i>, discovered in Spain) was claimed to be 130 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, scientists reported that the earliest flowers began about 180 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20181218_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20181218-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amborella_trichopoda_(3065968016)_fragment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg/220px-Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg/330px-Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg/440px-Amborella_trichopoda_%283065968016%29_fragment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="697" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amborella" title="Amborella"><i>Amborella trichopoda</i></a> may have characteristic features of the earliest flowering plants</figcaption></figure> <p>Recent <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> analysis (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_systematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular systematics">molecular systematics</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shows that <a href="/wiki/Amborella" title="Amborella"><i>Amborella trichopoda</i></a>, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the only species in the <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a> to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the hard proof of flowers in or shortly before the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-20170801_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20170801-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NC-20170801_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC-20170801-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is some circumstantial evidence of flowers as much as 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, <a href="/wiki/Oleanane" title="Oleanane">oleanane</a>, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including <a href="/wiki/Gigantopterid" title="Gigantopterid">gigantopterids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of <a href="/wiki/Petrified_wood" title="Petrified wood">petrification</a>. </p><p>The similarity in <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stem</a> structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology#Bisexual" title="Plant reproductive morphology">bisexual</a> (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(plants)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovary (plants)">ovary</a> (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". </p><p>The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way <a href="/wiki/Fig_wasp" title="Fig wasp">fig wasps</a> do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. <a href="/wiki/Island_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Island genetics">Island genetics</a> is believed to be a common source of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. </p><p>Likewise, most <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains. </p><p>While many such <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic relationship">symbiotic relationships</a> remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. </p><p>Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colour">Colour</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Flower" title="Special:EditPage/Flower">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Color_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="Color garden">Color garden</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrum_of_Flowers(Rosa)_en.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf/page1-220px-Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf/page1-330px-Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf/page1-440px-Spectrum_of_Flowers%28Rosa%29_en.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption>Reflectance spectra for the flowers of several varieties of <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a>. A red rose absorbs about 99.7% of light across a broad area below the red wavelengths of the spectrum, leading to an exceptionally <i>pure</i> red. A yellow rose will reflect about 5% of blue light, producing an unsaturated yellow (a yellow with a degree of white in it).</figcaption></figure> <p>Many flowering plants reflect as much <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> as possible within the range of visible <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> of the pollinator the plant intends to attract. Flowers that reflect the full range of visible light are generally perceived as <i><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a></i> by a human observer. An important feature of white flowers is that they reflect equally across the visible spectrum. While many flowering plants use white to attract pollinators, the use of color is also widespread (even within the same species). Color allows a flowering plant to be more specific about the pollinator it seeks to attract.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The color model used by human color reproduction technology (<a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK</a>) relies on the modulation of pigments that divide the spectrum into broad areas of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast are able to shift the transition point wavelength between absorption and reflection. If it is assumed that the visual systems of most pollinators view the visible spectrum as <a href="/wiki/Color_wheel" title="Color wheel">circular</a> then it may be said that flowering plants produce color by absorbing the light in one region of the spectrum and reflecting the light in the other region. With CMYK, color is produced as a function of the amplitude of the broad regions of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast produce color by modifying the frequency (or rather wavelength) of the light reflected. Most flowers absorb light in the blue to yellow region of the spectrum and reflect light from the green to red region of the spectrum. For many species of flowering plant, it is the transition point that characterizes the color that they produce. Color may be modulated by shifting the transition point between absorption and reflection and in this way a flowering plant may specify which pollinator it seeks to attract.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some flowering plants also have a limited ability to modulate areas of absorption. This is typically not as precise as control over wavelength. Humans observers will perceive this as degrees of <a href="/wiki/Saturation_(color_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation (color theory)">saturation</a> (the amount of <i>white</i> in the color). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_taxonomy">Classical taxonomy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png/211px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="211" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png/316px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png/422px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>'s method for classifying plants focused solely on the structure and nature of the flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200921_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200921-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">plant taxonomy</a>, which is the study of the classification and identification of plants, the <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> of plant's flowers are used extensively – and have been for thousands of years. Although the history of plant taxonomy extends back to at least around 300 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">B.C.</a> with the writings of <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma20098_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma20098-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the foundation of the modern science is based on works in the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200910_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200910-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (1707–1778), was a Swedish botanist who spent most of his working life as a professor of natural history. His landmark 1757 book <i><a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> lays out his system of classification as well as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a>, the latter of which is still used around the world today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200910_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200910-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma_2009_21_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma_2009_21-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He identified 24 classes, based mainly on the number, length and union of the <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a>. </p><p>The first ten classes follow the number of stamens directly (<i>Octandria</i> have 8 stamens etc.),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200921_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200921-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while class eleven has 11–20 stamens and classes twelve and thirteen have 20 stamens; differing only in their point of attachment. The next five classes deal with the length of the stamens and the final five with the nature of the reproductive capability of the plant; where the stamen grows; and if the flower is concealed or exists at all (such as in <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>). This method of classification, despite being artificial,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200921_119-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200921-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was used extensively for the following seven decades, before being replaced by the system of another botanist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200922_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200922-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Laurent_de_Jussieu" title="Antoine Laurent de Jussieu">Antoine Laurent de Jussieu</a> (1748–1836) was a French botanist whose 1787 work <i>Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita</i> set out a new method for classifying plants; based instead on natural characteristics. Plants were divided by the number, if any, of <a href="/wiki/Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledons</a>, and the location of the stamens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200922_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200922-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next most major system of classification came in the late 19th century from the botanists <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1817–1911) and <a href="/wiki/George_Bentham" title="George Bentham">George Bentham</a> (1800–1884). They built on the earlier works of de Jussieu and <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">Augustin Pyramus de Candolle</a> and devised a system which is still used in many of the world's <a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">herbaria</a>. </p><p>Plants were divided at the highest level by the number of cotyledons and the nature of the flowers, before falling into orders (<a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>), <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. This system of classification was published in their <i><a href="/wiki/Bentham_%26_Hooker_system" title="Bentham & Hooker system">Genera plantarum</a></i> in three volumes between 1862 and 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200924–27_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200924–27-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the most highly regarded and deemed the "best system of classification," in some settings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200911_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200911-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the development in scientific thought after Darwin's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, many botanists have used more <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> methods and the use of <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">genetic sequencing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">cytology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a> has become increasingly common. Despite this, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> characteristics such as the nature of the flower and <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> still make up the bedrock of plant taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200911_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200911-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200996_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200996-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbolism">Symbolism</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg/220px-Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg/330px-Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg/440px-Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Lily">Lilies</a> are often used to denote life or resurrection</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Language_of_flowers" title="Language of flowers">Language of flowers</a></div> <p>Many flowers have important <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> meanings in Western culture.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as <a href="/wiki/Floriography" class="mw-redirect" title="Floriography">floriography</a>. Some of the more common examples include: </p> <ul><li>Red <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a> are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppy" title="Poppy">Poppies</a> are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, <a href="/wiki/Remembrance_poppy" title="Remembrance poppy">red poppies</a> are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(plant)" title="Iris (plant)">Irises</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Lily">Lily</a> are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Daisies</a> are a symbol of innocence.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_(Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder_%28Dutch_-_Flower_Still_Life_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4201" data-file-height="3281" /></a><figcaption>Flowers are common subjects of <a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">still life</a> paintings, such as this one by <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius_Bosschaert_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder">Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Van Gogh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sunflowers_(series_of_paintings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflowers (series of paintings)">sunflowers</a> series or <a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Monet</a>'s water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of <a href="/wiki/Floral_design" title="Floral design">floral art</a>. </p><p>Flowers within art are also representative of the <a href="/wiki/Female_genitalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Female genitalia">female genitalia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as seen in the works of artists such as <a href="/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe" title="Georgia O'Keeffe">Georgia O'Keeffe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imogen_Cunningham" title="Imogen Cunningham">Imogen Cunningham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veronica_Ruiz_de_Velasco" class="mw-redirect" title="Veronica Ruiz de Velasco">Veronica Ruiz de Velasco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judy_Chicago" title="Judy Chicago">Judy Chicago</a>, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a>. </p><p>The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th–19th century <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic</a> era. Famous examples include <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/I_Wandered_Lonely_as_a_Cloud" title="I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud">I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ah!_Sun-Flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Ah! Sun-Flower">Ah! Sun-Flower</a></i>. </p><p>Their symbolism in dreams has also been discussed, with possible interpretations including "blossoming potential".<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is <a href="/wiki/Flora_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (goddess)">Flora</a>. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is <a href="/wiki/Chloris" title="Chloris">Chloris</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_lotus_in_religious_art" title="Sacred lotus in religious art">lotus flower</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_use">Human use</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Flower" title="Special:EditPage/Flower">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plants_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants in culture">Plants in culture</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg/250px-Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg/375px-Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg/500px-Ilmmuenster_Kirche_Altar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chancel_flowers" title="Chancel flowers">Chancel flowers</a>, placed upon the <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a> of St. Arsatius's Church in <a href="/wiki/Ilmm%C3%BCnster" title="Ilmmünster">Ilmmünster</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>History shows that flowers have been used by humans for thousands of years, to serve a variety of purposes. An early example of this is from about 4,500 years ago in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, where flowers would be used to decorate women's hair. Flowers have also inspired art time and time again, such as in <a href="/wiki/Water_Lilies_(Monet_series)" title="Water Lilies (Monet series)">Monet's <i>Water Lilies</i></a> or <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth's</a> poem about <a href="/wiki/Narcissus_(plant)" title="Narcissus (plant)">daffodils</a> entitled: "<a href="/wiki/I_Wandered_Lonely_as_a_Cloud" title="I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud">I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg/220px-CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg/330px-CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg/440px-CynhebrwngCochrane1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4234" data-file-height="3176" /></a><figcaption>Brazilian sailors pay floral tribute to British naval flag officer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" title="Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald">Thomas Cochrane</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, 1901</figcaption></figure> <p>In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and <a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">smell</a>. Around the world, people use flowers to mark important events in their lives: </p> <ul><li>For new births or <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">christenings</a></li> <li>As a <a href="/wiki/Corsage" title="Corsage">corsage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Boutonniere" class="mw-redirect" title="Boutonniere">boutonniere</a> worn at social functions or for holidays</li> <li>As tokens of love or esteem</li> <li>For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and as decorations for <a href="/wiki/Wedding_venue" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedding venue">wedding venues</a></li> <li>As brightening decorations within the home</li> <li>As a gift of remembrance for <i>bon voyage</i> parties, welcome-home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts</li> <li>For <a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">funeral</a> flowers and expressions of <a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">sympathy</a> for the grieving</li> <li>For worship. In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chancel_flowers" title="Chancel flowers">chancel flowers</a> often adorn churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson1967_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson1967-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> culture, adherents commonly bring flowers as a gift to <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg/170px-Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg/255px-Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg/340px-Aikya_Linga_in_Varanasi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>A woman spreading flowers over a <a href="/wiki/Lingam" title="Lingam">lingam</a> in a temple in <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Various_flowers_from_India,_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg/220px-Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg/330px-Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg/440px-Various_flowers_from_India%2C_collected_for_worship_of_Hindu_deities_in_morning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2588" /></a><figcaption>Flowers collected for worship of Hindu deities in morning, in <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Flowers like <a href="/wiki/Jasmine" title="Jasmine">jasmine</a> have been used as a replacement for traditional tea in China for centuries. Most recently many other herbs and flowers used traditionally across the world are gaining importance to preapare a range of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Floral_tea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Floral tea (page does not exist)">floral tea</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate parts of their living space to <a href="/wiki/Flower_garden" title="Flower garden">flower gardens</a>, pick wildflowers, or buy <a href="/wiki/Horticulture_industry" title="Horticulture industry">commercially-grown</a> flowers from <a href="/wiki/Florist" class="mw-redirect" title="Florist">florists</a>. Flower production and trade supports <a href="/wiki/Developing_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing economies">developing economies</a> through their availability as a <a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">fair trade</a> product.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tamperefloral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Tamperefloral.jpg/170px-Tamperefloral.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Tamperefloral.jpg/255px-Tamperefloral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Tamperefloral.jpg/340px-Tamperefloral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Tampere_Central_Square" title="Tampere Central Square">Tampere Central Square</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tampere_Floral_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Tampere Floral Festival">Tampere Floral Festival</a> in July 2007.</figcaption></figure> <p>Flowers provide less food than other major plant parts (<a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>), but still provide several important <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>. Flower vegetables include <a href="/wiki/Broccoli" title="Broccoli">broccoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cauliflower" title="Cauliflower">cauliflower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artichoke" title="Artichoke">artichoke</a>. The most expensive spice, <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, consists of dried stigmas of a <a href="/wiki/Crocus" title="Crocus">crocus</a>. Other flower spices are <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">cloves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caper" title="Caper">capers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">Hops</a> flowers are used to flavor <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Calendula" title="Calendula">Marigold</a> flowers are fed to <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chickens</a> to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable; dried and ground marigold flowers are also used as a spice and coloring agent in <a href="/wiki/Georgian_cuisine" title="Georgian cuisine">Georgian cuisine</a>. Flowers of the <a href="/wiki/Dandelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dandelion">dandelion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sambucus" title="Sambucus">elder</a> are often made into wine. Bee <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a> consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">orange</a> blossom honey, <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a> honey and <a href="/wiki/Tupelo_(tree)" title="Tupelo (tree)">tupelo</a> honey. </p><p><a href="/wiki/List_of_edible_flowers" title="List of edible flowers">Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible</a>, but only few are widely marketed as food. They are often added to <a href="/wiki/Salad" title="Salad">salads</a> as <a href="/wiki/Garnish_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Garnish (food)">garnishes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Squash_blossom" title="Squash blossom">Squash blossoms</a> are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Some <a href="/wiki/Edible_flower" title="Edible flower">edible flowers</a> include <a href="/wiki/Nasturtium_(common_name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasturtium (common name)">nasturtium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysanthemum" title="Chrysanthemum">chrysanthemum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnation">carnation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cattail" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattail">cattail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_honeysuckle" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese honeysuckle">Japanese honeysuckle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicory" title="Chicory">chicory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornflower">cornflower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canna_(plant)" title="Canna (plant)">canna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflower</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edible flowers such as <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">daisy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viola_(plant)" title="Viola (plant)">violet</a> are sometimes candied.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, Japanese honeysuckle, and <a href="/wiki/Chamomile" title="Chamomile">chamomile</a>, chosen for their fragrance and medicinal properties, are used as <a href="/wiki/Tisane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tisane">tisanes</a>, either mixed with <a href="/wiki/Camellia_sinensis" title="Camellia sinensis">tea</a> or on their own.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers have been used since prehistoric times in funeral rituals: traces of pollen have been found on a woman's tomb in the <a href="/wiki/El_Miron_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="El Miron Cave">El Miron Cave</a> in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many cultures draw a connection between flowers and life and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest rebirth, which may explain why many people place flowers upon graves. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a>, as recorded in <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/The_Phoenician_Women" title="The Phoenician Women">The Phoenician Women</a></i>, placed a crown of flowers on the head of the deceased;<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they also covered tombs with wreaths and flower petals. Flowers were widely used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> burials,<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexicans</a> to this day use flowers prominently in their <a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead" title="Day of the Dead">Day of the Dead</a> celebrations<sup id="cite_ref-Latina-p72_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Latina-p72-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the same way that their <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> ancestors did. </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1008px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Eight Flowers, a painting by artist Qian Xuan, 13th century, Palace Museum, Beijing."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG/1000px-15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG" decoding="async" width="1000" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG/1500px-15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG/2000px-15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6920" data-file-height="835" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:15_Qian_Xuan_Eight_Flowers_National_Palace_Museum_Beijing.JPG" title="File:15 Qian Xuan Eight Flowers National Palace Museum Beijing.JPG"> </a></div><i>Eight Flowers</i>, a painting by artist <a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuan" title="Qian Xuan">Qian Xuan</a>, 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Palace_Museum" title="Palace Museum">Palace Museum</a>, Beijing.</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giving">Giving</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG/170px-Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG/255px-Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG/340px-Eastern_Market_Detroit_flower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Flower market – <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Market_Historic_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Market Historic District">Eastern Market</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The flower-giving tradition goes back to prehistoric times when flowers often had a medicinal and herbal attributes. Archaeologists found in several grave sites remnants of flower petals. Flowers were first used as sacrificial and burial objects. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a> and later Greeks and Romans used flowers. In Egypt, burial objects from the time around 1540 BC<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> were found, which depicted <a href="/wiki/Red_poppy" class="mw-redirect" title="Red poppy">red poppy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_Araun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yellow Araun (page does not exist)">yellow Araun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centaurea_cyanus" title="Centaurea cyanus">cornflower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lilium" title="Lilium">lilies</a>. Records of flower giving appear in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese writings</a> and Egyptian hieroglyphics, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>. The practice of giving a flower flourished in the Middle Ages when couples showed affection through flowers. </p><p>The tradition of flower-giving exists in many forms. It is an important part of <a href="/wiki/Russian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian culture">Russian culture</a> and folklore. It is common for students to give flowers to their teachers. To give yellow flowers in a romantic relationship means breakup in Russia. Nowadays, flowers are often given away in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Flower_bouquet" title="Flower bouquet">flower bouquet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floral_color_change" title="Floral color change">Floral color change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower_preservation" title="Flower preservation">Flower preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden" title="Garden">Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_garden_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="List of garden plants">List of garden plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Plant evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sowing" title="Sowing">Sowing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Sharma_2009_21-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma_2009_21_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">His earlier works: <i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i> (1735) and <i><a href="/wiki/Genera_plantarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera plantarum">Genera plantarum</a></i> (1737) were also influential in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200921_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200921-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+Forest+Service&rft.atitle=Plant+Pollination+Strategies&rft.date=2022-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fs.usda.gov%2Fwildflowers%2Fpollinators%2FPlant_Strategies%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayer2015" class="citation web cs1">Bayer, Mandy (9 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ag.umass.edu/landscape/fact-sheets/pollinators-in-landscape-ii-plants-pollinators">"Pollinators in the Landscape II: Plants and Pollinators"</a>. 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Internet Archive. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 165 & 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954793-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954793-7"><bdi>978-0-19-954793-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+dictionary+of+word+origins&rft.pages=165+%26+172&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954793-7&rft.aulast=Cresswell&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxforddictionary0000unse_p6k3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blossom">"Definition of BLOSSOM"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195309/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blossom">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Mauseth 2016</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_CraeneP.2010">De Craene & P. 2010</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxRREAAAQBAJ&dq=%22flowers+with+two+kinds+of+stamen%22&pg=PA320">Insect-Plant Biology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016229-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016229_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD._Mauseth2016">D. 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(2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edoc.mpg.de/359549">"Regulation and Identity of Florigen: Flowering Locus T Moves Centre Stage"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Plant Biology</i>. <b>59</b>: 573–594. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.59.032607.092755">10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092755</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0012-374F-8">11858/00-001M-0000-0012-374F-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18444908">18444908</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39798675">39798675</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191215213503/http://edoc.mpg.de/359549">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Plant+Biology&rft.atitle=Regulation+and+Identity+of+Florigen%3A+Flowering+Locus+T+Moves+Centre+Stage&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=573-594&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0012-374F-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39798675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18444908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.arplant.59.032607.092755&rft.au=Turck%2C+F.&rft.au=Fornara%2C+F.&rft.au=Coupland%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedoc.mpg.de%2F359549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle2006-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Searle2006_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearle,_I.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Searle, I.; et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472290">"The transcription factor FLC confers a flowering response to vernalization by repressing meristem competence and systemic signalling in Arabidopsis"</a>. <i>Genes Dev</i>. <b>20</b> (7): 898–912. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fgad.373506">10.1101/gad.373506</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472290">1472290</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16600915">16600915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genes+Dev.&rft.atitle=The+transcription+factor+FLC+confers+a+flowering+response+to+vernalization+by+repressing+meristem+competence+and+systemic+signalling+in+Arabidopsis&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=898-912&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472290%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16600915&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fgad.373506&rft.au=Searle%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016392–395-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016392–395_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD._Mauseth2016">D. Mauseth 2016</a>, pp. 392–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekmanNieuwenhuisOrtiz-BarrientosEvans2016" class="citation journal cs1">Beekman, Madeleine; Nieuwenhuis, Bart; Ortiz-Barrientos, Daniel; Evans, Jonathan P. 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Mauseth 2016</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1984" class="citation journal cs1">Turner, Vivienne (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544245">"Banksia Pollen as a Source of Protein in the Diet of Two Australian Marsupials Cercartetus nanus and Tarsipes rostratus"</a>. <i>Oikos</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 53–61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984Oikos..43...53T">1984Oikos..43...53T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3544245">10.2307/3544245</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-1299">0030-1299</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544245">3544245</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624215040/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544245">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-20</span></span>. <q>[T]he honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus (Turner 1983). This marsupial is highly specialized for feeding at flowers and known to visit several species of Banksia</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Banksia+Pollen+as+a+Source+of+Protein+in+the+Diet+of+Two+Australian+Marsupials+Cercartetus+nanus+and+Tarsipes+rostratus&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-61&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3544245&rft.issn=0030-1299&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3544245%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984Oikos..43...53T&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Vivienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3544245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202065-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202065_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker2020">Walker 2020</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker202069–83_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker2020">Walker 2020</a>, pp. 69–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2020120-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2020120_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker2020">Walker 2020</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1983" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Herbert G. 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Mauseth 2016</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowler-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bowler_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerBenton2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bowler DE, Benton TG (May 2005). 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Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Pub. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85199-806-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85199-806-2"><bdi>0-85199-806-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54803650">54803650</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221171457/https://www.worldcat.org/title/seed-fate-predation-dispersal-and-seedling-establishment/oclc/54803650">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-01</span></span>. <q>Seeds on plants can be dispersed via a variety of primary dispersal mechanisms, including abiotic factors, like wind or ballistic projection, or biotic factors, like fruit-eating birds.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seed+fate+%3A+predation%2C+dispersal%2C+and+seedling+establishment&rft.place=Wallingford%2C+Oxfordshire%2C+UK&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=CABI+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54803650&rft.isbn=0-85199-806-2&rft.aulast=Forget&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F54803650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norsworthy-2014-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norsworthy-2014_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorsworthyGriffithGriffinBagavathiannan2014" class="citation journal cs1">Norsworthy, Jason K.; Griffith, Griff; Griffin, Terry; Bagavathiannan, Muthukumar; Gbur, Edward E. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43700653">"In-Field Movement of Glyphosate-Resistant Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmen) and Its Impact on Cotton Lint Yield: Evidence Supporting a Zero-Threshold Strategy"</a>. <i>Weed Science</i>. <b>62</b> (2): 237–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1614%2FWS-D-13-00145.1">10.1614/WS-D-13-00145.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-1745">0043-1745</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43700653">43700653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86013249">86013249</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709205248/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43700653">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-01</span></span>. <q>Wind and water are common abiotic seed dispersal mechanisms, but there are several biotic dispersal mechanisms, such as movement via animals by adhesion (epizoochory) or ingestion (endozoochory), and even movement resulting from human activities (anthropochory).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weed+Science&rft.atitle=In-Field+Movement+of+Glyphosate-Resistant+Palmer+Amaranth+%28Amaranthus+palmen%29+and+Its+Impact+on+Cotton+Lint+Yield%3A+Evidence+Supporting+a+Zero-Threshold+Strategy&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=237-249&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0043-1745&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86013249%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43700653%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1614%2FWS-D-13-00145.1&rft.aulast=Norsworthy&rft.aufirst=Jason+K.&rft.au=Griffith%2C+Griff&rft.au=Griffin%2C+Terry&rft.au=Bagavathiannan%2C+Muthukumar&rft.au=Gbur%2C+Edward+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43700653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016244–247_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD._Mauseth2016">D. Mauseth 2016</a>, pp. 244–247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTravesetRieraMas2001" class="citation journal cs1">Traveset, A.; Riera, N.; Mas, R. E. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00561.x">"Passage through bird guts causes interspecific differences in seed germination characteristics"</a>. <i>Functional Ecology</i>. <b>15</b> (5): 669–675. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001FuEco..15..669T">2001FuEco..15..669T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.0269-8463.2001.00561.x">10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00561.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1365-2435">1365-2435</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182027/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00561.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-01</span></span>. <q>Many studies show that germination is more successful after seeds pass through the digestive tract of frugivores</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecology&rft.atitle=Passage+through+bird+guts+causes+interspecific+differences+in+seed+germination+characteristics&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=669-675&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=1365-2435&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.0269-8463.2001.00561.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001FuEco..15..669T&rft.aulast=Traveset&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Riera%2C+N.&rft.au=Mas%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbesjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1046%2Fj.0269-8463.2001.00561.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLengyelGoveLatimerMajer2010" class="citation journal cs1">Lengyel, Szabolcs; Gove, Aaron D.; Latimer, Andrew M.; Majer, Jonathan D.; Dunn, Robert R. (2010-02-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1433831909000365">"Convergent evolution of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biogeography in flowering plants: A global survey"</a>. <i>Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 43–55. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PPEES..12...43L">2010PPEES..12...43L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ppees.2009.08.001">10.1016/j.ppees.2009.08.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1433-8319">1433-8319</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702154118/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1433831909000365">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+in+Plant+Ecology%2C+Evolution+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=Convergent+evolution+of+seed+dispersal+by+ants%2C+and+phylogeny+and+biogeography+in+flowering+plants%3A+A+global+survey&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-55&rft.date=2010-02-20&rft.issn=1433-8319&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ppees.2009.08.001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PPEES..12...43L&rft.aulast=Lengyel&rft.aufirst=Szabolcs&rft.au=Gove%2C+Aaron+D.&rft.au=Latimer%2C+Andrew+M.&rft.au=Majer%2C+Jonathan+D.&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Robert+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1433831909000365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHämäläinenBroadleyDroghiniHaines2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hämäläinen, Anni; Broadley, Kate; Droghini, Amanda; Haines, Jessica A.; Lamb, Clayton T.; Boutin, Stan; Gilbert, Sophie (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.1685">"The ecological significance of secondary seed dispersal by carnivores"</a>. <i>Ecosphere</i>. <b>8</b> (2): e01685. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Ecosp...8E1685H">2017Ecosp...8E1685H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.1685">10.1002/ecs2.1685</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2150-8925">2150-8925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecosphere&rft.atitle=The+ecological+significance+of+secondary+seed+dispersal+by+carnivores&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e01685&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=2150-8925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fecs2.1685&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Ecosp...8E1685H&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4m%C3%A4l%C3%A4inen&rft.aufirst=Anni&rft.au=Broadley%2C+Kate&rft.au=Droghini%2C+Amanda&rft.au=Haines%2C+Jessica+A.&rft.au=Lamb%2C+Clayton+T.&rft.au=Boutin%2C+Stan&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fecs2.1685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smallwood-1982-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood-1982_102-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe,_H._F.Smallwood_J.1982" class="citation journal cs1">Howe, H. F. & Smallwood J. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060513013354/http://artifex.org/~ecoreaders/lit/Howe1982.pdf">"Ecology of Seed Dispersal"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</i>. <b>13</b>: 201–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.13.110182.001221">10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001221</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=South+Pacific+plant+may+be+missing+link+in+evolution+of+flowering+plants&rft.pub=Eurekalert.org&rft.date=2006-05-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2006-05%2Fuoca-spp051506.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-20170801-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC-20170801_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbott2017" class="citation news cs1">Gabbott, Sarah (1 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40780491">"Did the first flower look like this?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801235428/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40780491">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Grow+your+own+herbal+teas&rft.date=2017-05-07&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2017%2Fmay%2F07%2Fgrow-your-own-herbal-teas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/11596312/Stone-Age-mourners-placed-flowers-on-graves.html">"Stone Age mourners 'placed flowers on graves'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Telegraph</a></i>. 10 May 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/11596312/Stone-Age-mourners-placed-flowers-on-graves.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Stone+Age+mourners+%27placed+flowers+on+graves%27&rft.date=2015-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2F11596312%2FStone-Age-mourners-placed-flowers-on-graves.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hellenicaworld.com/Greece/Ancient/en/BurialRites.html">"Burial Rites"</a>. Hellenica World. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181129054310/http://www.hellenicaworld.com/Greece/Ancient/en/BurialRites.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Burial+Rites&rft.pub=Hellenica+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hellenicaworld.com%2FGreece%2FAncient%2Fen%2FBurialRites.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHays2011" class="citation book cs1">Hays, Christopher B. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IcpdmHW87EAC&pg=PA302"><i>Death in the Iron Age II and in First Isaiah</i></a>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150785-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150785-4"><bdi>978-3-16-150785-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191228235720/https://books.google.com/books?id=IcpdmHW87EAC&pg=PA302">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+in+the+Iron+Age+II+and+in+First+Isaiah&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-16-150785-4&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=Christopher+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIcpdmHW87EAC%26pg%3DPA302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Latina-p72-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Latina-p72_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay2003" class="citation book cs1">Day, Frances Ann (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/latinalatinovoic0000dayf/page/72"><i>Latina and Latino Voices in Literature</i></a>. Greenwood. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/latinalatinovoic0000dayf/page/72">72</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32394-2"><bdi>978-0-313-32394-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latina+and+Latino+Voices+in+Literature&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32394-2&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Frances+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flatinalatinovoic0000dayf%2Fpage%2F72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBy2015" class="citation web cs1">By (2015-08-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flowersofthefieldlv.com/the-fascinating-tradition-of-giving-flowers/">"The Fascinating Tradition of Giving Flowers"</a>. <i>Flowers of the Field Las Vegas</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190316064821/http://www.flowersofthefieldlv.com/the-fascinating-tradition-of-giving-flowers/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flowers+of+the+Field+Las+Vegas&rft.atitle=The+Fascinating+Tradition+of+Giving+Flowers&rft.date=2015-08-11&rft.au=By&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flowersofthefieldlv.com%2Fthe-fascinating-tradition-of-giving-flowers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190413030650/http://web.stanford.edu/group/ccr/ccrblog/2010/03/flowers_in_russia.html">"The Cross-Cultural Rhetoric Blog: Flowers in Russia"</a>. <i>web.stanford.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/ccr/ccrblog/2010/03/flowers_in_russia.html">the original</a> on 2019-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=The+Cross-Cultural+Rhetoric+Blog%3A+Flowers+in+Russia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fccr%2Fccrblog%2F2010%2F03%2Fflowers_in_russia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kurochkaclothing.com/news/folk-art-in-russia-and-ukraine/">"Folk Art in Russia and Ukraine | News & Info"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190324190043/http://kurochkaclothing.com/news/folk-art-in-russia-and-ukraine/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Folk+Art+in+Russia+and+Ukraine+%7C+News+%26+Info&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkurochkaclothing.com%2Fnews%2Ffolk-art-in-russia-and-ukraine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_CraeneP.2010" class="citation book cs1">De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511806711"><i>Floral Diagrams</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511806711">10.1017/cbo9780511806711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80671-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80671-1"><bdi>978-0-511-80671-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Floral+Diagrams&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511806711&rft.isbn=978-0-511-80671-1&rft.aulast=De+Craene&rft.aufirst=Ronse&rft.au=P.%2C+Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511806711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnuthMüllerAinsworth_Davis1906" class="citation book cs1">Knuth, Paul; Müller, Hermann; Ainsworth Davis, J. R. (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.54973"><i>Handbook of flower pollination: based upon Hermann Müller's work 'The fertilization of flowers by insects'<span></span></i></a>. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.54973">10.5962/bhl.title.54973</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1841036">1841036</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221171547/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/54973">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+flower+pollination%3A+based+upon+Hermann+M%C3%BCller%27s+work+%27The+fertilization+of+flowers+by+insects%27&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1841036&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5962%2Fbhl.title.54973&rft.aulast=Knuth&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Hermann&rft.au=Ainsworth+Davis%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5962%2Fbhl.title.54973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritschSalisbury1920" class="citation book cs1">Fritsch, Felix Eugene; Salisbury, E. J. (Edward James) (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/cu31924001698905"><i>An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants</i></a>. Cornell University Library. London: G. Bell and Sons Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+structure+and+reproduction+of+plants&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+Bell+and+Sons+Ltd.&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Fritsch&rft.aufirst=Felix+Eugene&rft.au=Salisbury%2C+E.+J.+%28Edward+James%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924001698905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2020" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Timothy (2020). <i>Pollination: The Enduring Relationship Between Plant and Pollinator</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20375-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20375-1"><bdi>978-0-691-20375-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pollination%3A+The+Enduring+Relationship+Between+Plant+and+Pollinator&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-691-20375-1&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Mauseth2016" class="citation book cs1">D. Mauseth, James (2016). <i>Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology</i> (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-284-07753-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-284-07753-7"><bdi>978-1-284-07753-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botany%3A+An+Introduction+to+Plant+Biology&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-284-07753-7&rft.aulast=D.+Mauseth&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPijl1972" class="citation book cs1">Pijl, L. van der (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642961083"><i>Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants</i></a> (2nf ed.). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-96108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-96108-3"><bdi>978-3-642-96108-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181814/https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642961083">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Dispersal+in+Higher+Plants&rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.edition=2nf&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-3-642-96108-3&rft.aulast=Pijl&rft.aufirst=L.+van+der&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fgp%2Fbook%2F9783642961083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2009" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, O. P. (2009). <i>Plant Taxonomy</i> (2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education" title="McGraw Hill Education">Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070141599" title="Special:BookSources/978-0070141599"><bdi>978-0070141599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Taxonomy&rft.place=New+Delhi%2C+India&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw+Hill+Education+Private+Limited&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0070141599&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=O.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchmann2016" class="citation book cs1">Buchmann, Stephen (2016). <i>The Reason for Flowers: Their History, Culture, Biology, and How They Change Our Lives</i>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-5553-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-5553-3"><bdi>978-1-4767-5553-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reason+for+Flowers%3A+Their+History%2C+Culture%2C+Biology%2C+and+How+They+Change+Our+Lives&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4767-5553-3&rft.aulast=Buchmann&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsau1965" class="citation book cs1">Esau, Katherine (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plantanatomy00esau_0"><i>Plant Anatomy</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24455-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24455-4"><bdi>978-0-471-24455-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Anatomy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-471-24455-4&rft.aulast=Esau&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplantanatomy00esau_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreyson1994" class="citation book cs1">Greyson, R.I. (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofflo0000grey"><i>The Development of Flowers</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506688-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506688-3"><bdi>978-0-19-506688-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Flowers&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506688-3&rft.aulast=Greyson&rft.aufirst=R.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofflo0000grey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeinsErbar2010" class="citation book cs1">Leins, P. & Erbar, C. (2010). <i>Flower and Fruit</i>. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart Science Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-510-65261-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-510-65261-7"><bdi>978-3-510-65261-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flower+and+Fruit&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Schweizerbart+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-510-65261-7&rft.aulast=Leins&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Erbar%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler1973" class="citation book cs1">Sattler, R. (1973). <i>Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas</i>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1864-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-1864-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organogenesis+of+Flowers.+A+Photographic+Text-Atlas&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-1864-9&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlower" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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/></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flower" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:flower">flower</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" 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