Electrical conductor | physics

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The classifications can be understood in atomic terms. Electrons in an atom can have only certain well-defined energies, and, depending on their energies, the electrons are said to occupy particular energy levels. In a typical atom with many electrons, the lower energy levels…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/electricity/Conductors-insulators-and-semiconductors#ref307137">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>atoms</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/22474-050-FE855824/Shell-atomic-model-shell-shells-electrons-energy.jpg" alt="shell atomic model" data-width="1600" data-height="1052" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atom/Conductors-and-insulators#ref989961" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atom: Conductors and insulators</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph"> The way that atoms bond together affects the electrical properties of the materials they form. For example, in materials held together by the metallic bond, electrons float loosely between the metal ions. These electrons will be free to move if an electrical… </p><a class="read-more" href="/science/atom/Conductors-and-insulators#ref989961">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>charge carriers</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/251-050-B1959EF5/lines-magnetic-field-B-loop-i.jpg" alt="magnetic field from current loop" data-width="1600" data-height="1164" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/magnetism/Magnetic-forces#ref262377" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">magnetism: Lorentz force</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">charge carriers in a conductor. A current flowing from right to left in a conductor can be the result of positive charge carriers moving from right to left or negative charges moving from left to right, or some combination of each. When a conductor is placed in a <em><strong>B</strong></em>…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/magnetism/Magnetic-forces#ref262377">Read More</a></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Lorentz-force#ref1073053" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lorentz force</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…the charge carriers in a conductor. A current flowing from right to left in a conductor can be the result of positive charge carriers moving from right to left or negative charges moving from left to right, or some combination of each. When a conductor is placed in a <em><strong>B</strong></em>…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/Lorentz-force#ref1073053">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>comparison with inductors</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/00/2400-004-A10DEF96/structures-cluster-energy-order-argon-faces-tetrahedron.jpg" alt="Figure 1: The four stable geometric structures of the seven-atom cluster of argon, in order of increasing energy: (A) A pentagonal bipyramid. (B) A regular octahedron with one face capped by the seventh atom. (C) A regular tetrahedron with three of its faces capped by other atoms. (D) A trigonal bipyramid with two of its faces capped by other atoms; although this has the highest energy of the four structures, it is very close in energy to the tricapped tetrahedron." data-width="582" data-height="300" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cluster/Comparison-with-other-forms-of-matter#ref507183" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cluster: Comparison with bulk matter</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…electrons that differentiates insulators from electrical conductors. In even a very cold metal, only an infinitesimal amount of excess energy is required to promote a few electrons into the previously empty energy levels in which they can move freely throughout the material. If an electric field is applied to the…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/cluster/Comparison-with-other-forms-of-matter#ref507183">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>copper</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/35/197635-050-A672B4AD/copper-plates.jpg?w=300" alt="molten copper" data-width="1000" data-height="667" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/copper-processing/The-metal-and-its-alloys#ref623054" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">copper processing: Electrical conductors</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph"> Typical samples of electrolytic copper contain from 99.92 to 99.96 percent copper. About 0.03 percent oxygen is purposely left in the copper, since this amount slightly improves the density and conductivity of the metal. Copper in this condition has a conductivity of 100… </p><a class="read-more" href="/technology/copper-processing/The-metal-and-its-alloys#ref623054">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>electric machines</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/315-004-EA5BC015/Sine-wave.jpg" alt="Sine wave." data-width="344" data-height="168" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/electric-generator#ref517666" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">electric generator: Rotor</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…magnetic field is produced by conductors, or coils, wound into slots cut in the surface of the cylindrical iron rotor. This set of coils, connected in series, is thus known as the field winding. The position of the field coils is such that the outwardly directed or radial component of…</p><a class="read-more" href="/technology/electric-generator#ref517666">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>electrostatics</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/225-050-33E42D42/force-charges.jpg" alt="electric force between two charges" data-width="1600" data-height="1600" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/electricity/Deriving-electric-field-from-potential#ref195496" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">electricity: Deriving electric field from potential</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…located on the surface of conductors. Because there are no electric fields inside the conducting material, all parts of a given conductor are at the same potential; hence, a conductor is an equipotential in a static situation.</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/electricity/Deriving-electric-field-from-potential#ref195496">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>inductance</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/24/68924-050-82C0AF55/Joseph-Henry.jpg?w=300" alt="Joseph Henry" data-width="916" data-height="1077" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/inductance#ref72624" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">inductance</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">conductor (often in the shape of a coil) that is measured by the size of the electromotive force, or voltage, induced in it, compared with the rate of change of the electric current that produces the voltage. A steady current produces a stationary magnetic field;…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/inductance#ref72624">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>insulators</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/76/108476-050-BA0B9290/efficacy-insulation-materials-terms-R-value-resistance-diagram.jpg" alt="insulation" data-width="1600" data-height="1175" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/insulator#ref151778" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">insulator</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Although an electrical insulator is ordinarily thought of as a nonconducting material, it is in fact better described as a poor conductor or a substance of high resistance to the flow of electric current. Different insulating and conducting materials are compared with each other in this regard…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/insulator#ref151778">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>quantum mechanical model</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/93/3493-004-B74CF884/Data-table-experiment-Galileo-tangent-curve.jpg" alt="Galileo experiment" data-width="401" data-height="370" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/principles-of-physical-science/Gausss-theorem#ref366350" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">principles of physical science: Images</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…piece of metal or other electrical conductor and experiences a force. When an electric field is applied to a conductor, charge moves in it; so long as the field is maintained and charge can enter or leave, this movement of charge continues and is perceived as a steady electric current.…</p><a class="read-more" href="/science/principles-of-physical-science/Gausss-theorem#ref366350">Read More</a></li></ul></section><section><h3>semiconductor devices</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/07/207-004-2B66F205/range-conductivities-insulators-semiconductors-conductors.jpg" alt="conductivities" data-width="508" data-height="300" loading="lazy"></div> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/semiconductor-device#ref71181" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">semiconductor device: Semiconductor materials</a></span><p class="topic-paragraph">…three classes: insulators, semiconductors, and conductors. (At low temperatures some conductors, semiconductors, and insulators may become superconductors.) Figure 1 shows the conductivities σ (and the corresponding resistivities ρ = 1/σ) that are associated with some important materials in each of the three classes. Insulators, such as fused quartz and glass,…</p><a class="read-more" href="/technology/semiconductor-device#ref71181">Read More</a></li></ul></section></section></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320" data-page="1"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"INDEX","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":182829,"pageLength":0,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"INDEX","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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