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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_Hitler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Relationship with Hitler </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_Hitler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deputy_Führer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deputy_Führer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Deputy Führer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deputy_Führer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attempted_peace_mission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attempted_peace_mission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Attempted peace mission </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attempted_peace_mission-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Attempted peace mission subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Attempted_peace_mission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flight_to_Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_to_Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Flight to Scotland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_to_Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Capture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trial_and_imprisonment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trial_and_imprisonment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Trial and imprisonment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trial_and_imprisonment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Trial and imprisonment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Trial_and_imprisonment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prisoner_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prisoner_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Prisoner of war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prisoner_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuremberg_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuremberg_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Nuremberg trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuremberg_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spandau_Prison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spandau_Prison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Spandau Prison </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spandau_Prison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Death and aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Informational_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informational_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Informational notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informational_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Rudolf Hess</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" > 67 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%87%D8%B3" title="رودلف هس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رودلف هس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Рудольф Гес – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рудольф Гес" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%84_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Рудолф Хес – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рудолф Хес" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Гесс Рудольф – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гесс Рудольф" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%86_%CE%95%CF%82_(%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82)" title="Ρούντολφ Ες (πολιτικός) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρούντολφ Ες (πολιτικός)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Hess" title="Rudolph Hess – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rudolph Hess" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%87%D8%B3" title="رودلف هس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رودلف هس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A3%A8%EB%8F%8C%ED%94%84_%ED%97%A4%EC%8A%A4" title="루돌프 헤스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="루돌프 헤스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4%D5%B8%D5%AC%D6%86_%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%BD" title="Ռուդոլֆ Հեսս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուդոլֆ Հեսս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A3_%D7%94%D7%A1" title="רודולף הס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רודולף הס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="რუდოლფ ჰესი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუდოლფ ჰესი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolphus_Hess" title="Rudolphus Hess – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rudolphus Hess" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABdolfs_Hess" title="Rūdolfs Hess – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rūdolfs Hess" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%84_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Рудолф Хес – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рудолф Хес" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="റുഡോൾഫ് ഹെസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റുഡോൾഫ് ഹെസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="რუდოლფ ჰესი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუდოლფ ჰესი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%87%D8%B3" title="رودلف هس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رودلف هس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%83%BB%E3%83%98%E3%82%B9" title="ルドルフ・ヘス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ルドルフ・ヘス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81,_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Гесс, Рудольф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гесс, Рудольф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_He%C3%9F" title="Rudolf Heß – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rudolf Heß" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%84_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Рудолф Хес – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рудолф Хес" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9F_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AA" title="รูด็อล์ฟ เฮ็ส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รูด็อล์ฟ เฮ็ส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81" title="Рудольф Гесс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рудольф Гесс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%81_%DB%81%D8%B3" title="رودلف ہس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رودلف ہس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rudolf Hess" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E6%96%AF" title="鲁道夫·赫斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="鲁道夫·赫斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Rudolf_Hess">reviewed</a> on 25 February 2025.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German Nazi politician (1894–1987)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Deputy Führer to Adolf Hitler. For the commandant of the Auschwitz concentration camp, see <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_H%C3%B6ss" title="Rudolf Höss">Rudolf Höss</a>. For the Californian artist, see <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hess_(artist)" title="Rudolf Hess (artist)">Rudolf Hess (artist)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Reichsleiter" title="Reichsleiter">Reichsleiter</a></div><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Rudolf Hess</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507,_Rudolf_Hess_(cropped)(b).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507%2C_Rudolf_Hess_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507%2C_Rudolf_Hess_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507%2C_Rudolf_Hess_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507%2C_Rudolf_Hess_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0313-507%2C_Rudolf_Hess_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="574" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Hess in 1935</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Deputy Führer of the Nazi Party</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 21 April 1933 – 12 May 1941</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Führer</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a> (Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party_Chancellery" title="Nazi Party Chancellery">Party Chancellery</a>)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Reichsminister" title="Reichsminister">Reichsminister</a> without portfolio</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1 December 1933 – 12 May 1941</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Chancellor</th><td class="infobox-data">Adolf Hitler</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party_Chancellery" title="Nazi Party Chancellery">Chief of the Nazi Party Liaison Office</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrlow2010261-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELang197969-2">[2]</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 20 March 1933<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrlow2010261-1">[1]</a> – 12 May 1941</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Martin Bormann</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Private Secretary to the Führer of the Nazi Party<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">[3]</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1925<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">[3]</a>–1935<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollierPedley200068-4">[4]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Martin Bormann</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Additional positions</th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>1939–1941</th><td class="infobox-data">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_for_the_Defense_of_the_Reich" title="Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich">Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroszat1981308–309-5">[5]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">June–September 1933</th><td class="infobox-data">Reichsleiter of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">1933–1941</th><td class="infobox-data">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Reichstag (Nazi Germany)">Greater German Reichstag</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946466-6">[6]</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">1932–1941</th><td class="infobox-data">Chairman of the Nazi Party's Central Political Committee<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946466-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Rudolf Walter Richard Hess</div> (1894-04-26)26 April 1894 <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">17 August 1987(1987-08-17) (aged 93) <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Prison" title="Spandau Prison">Spandau Prison</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Suicide_by_hanging" title="Suicide by hanging">Suicide by hanging</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data">German</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (1920–1941)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ilse_Hess" title="Ilse Hess">Ilse Pröhl</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1927)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_R%C3%BCdiger_Hess" title="Wolf Rüdiger Hess">Wolf Rüdiger Hess</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rudolf Hess's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg/128px-Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg/192px-Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg/256px-Rudolf_Hess_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="124" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">Imperial German Army</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years of service</th><td class="infobox-data">1914–1918</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data">Leutnant der Reserve</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>7th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment</li> <li>1st Infantry Regiment</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles/wars</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romanian Front</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a>, 2nd Class</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Criminal conviction<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criminal status</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Deceased" class="mw-redirect" title="Deceased">Deceased</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Conviction" title="Conviction">Conviction(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Crimes_of_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes of aggression">Conspiracy to commit crimes against peace</a> <a href="/wiki/Crimes_of_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes of aggression">Crimes of aggression</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Trial</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criminal penalty</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">Life imprisonment</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Rudolf Walter Richard Hess (Heß in German; 26 April 1894 – 17 August 1987) was a German politician, <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">convicted war criminal</a> and a leading member of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>. Appointed Deputy <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrer" title="Führer">Führer</a> (Stellvertreter des Führers) to <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in 1933, Hess held that position until 1941, when he flew solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate the United Kingdom's exit from the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. He was taken prisoner and eventually convicted of crimes against peace. He was still serving his life sentence at the time of his suicide in 1987. Hess enlisted as an infantryman in the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">Imperial German Army</a> at the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. He was wounded several times during the war and was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a>, 2nd Class, in 1915. Shortly before the war ended, He enrolled to train as an aviator, but he saw no action in that role. He left the armed forces in December 1918 with the rank of Leutnant der Reserve. In 1919, He enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a>, where he studied <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> under <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a>, a proponent of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> ('living space'), which became one of the pillars of Nazi ideology. He joined the Nazi Party on 1 July 1920 and was at Hitler's side on 8 November 1923 for the <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a>, a failed Nazi attempt to seize control of the government of Bavaria. While serving a prison sentence for this attempted coup, he assisted Hitler with <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>, which became a foundation of the political platform of the Nazi Party. After <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power#Seizure_of_control_(1931–1933)" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Hitler became Chancellor</a> in January 1933, Hess was appointed Deputy Führer of the Nazi Party in April. He was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Reichstag (Nazi Germany)">Reichstag</a> in the March elections, was made a <a href="/wiki/Reichsleiter" title="Reichsleiter">Reichsleiter</a> of the Nazi Party in June, and in December 1933, He became <a href="/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio" title="Minister without portfolio">Minister without Portfolio</a> in Hitler's cabinet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497–498-7">[7]</a> He was also appointed in 1938 to the Cabinet Council and to the Council of Ministers for Defence of the Reich in August 1939. Hitler decreed on the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939 that <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> was his official successor, and named Hess as next in line.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497-8">[8]</a> In addition to appearing on Hitler's behalf at speaking engagements and rallies, Hess signed into law much of the government's legislation, including the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a> of 1935, which stripped the Jews of Germany of their rights in the lead-up to <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. By the start of the war, Hess was sidelined from most important decisions, and many in Hitler's inner circle thought him to be mad. On 10 May 1941, Hess made a solo flight to <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, where he hoped to arrange peace talks with the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Douglas-Hamilton,_14th_Duke_of_Hamilton" title="Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton">Duke of Hamilton</a>, whom he believed to be a prominent opponent of the British government's war policy. The British authorities arrested Hess immediately on his arrival and held him in custody until the end of the war, when he was returned to Germany to stand trial at the 1946 <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> of major war criminals. During much of his trial, He claimed to be suffering from amnesia, but he later admitted to the tribunal that this had been a ruse. The tribunal convicted him of crimes against peace and of conspiracy with other German leaders to commit crimes. He served a life sentence in <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Prison" title="Spandau Prison">Spandau Prison</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> blocked repeated attempts by family members and prominent politicians to procure his early release. While still in custody as the only prisoner in Spandau, he hanged himself in 1987 at the age of 93. After his death, the prison was demolished to prevent it from becoming a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> shrine. His grave, bearing the inscription "Ich hab's gewagt" (I dared it), became a site of regular pilgrimage and demonstrations by Neo-Nazis. In 2011, authorities refused to renew the lease on the gravesite, and his remains were exhumed and cremated and the gravestone was destroyed. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_family">Early life and family</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and family">edit</a>]</div> Hess, the eldest of three children, was born on 26 April 1894 in <a href="/wiki/El_Ibrahimiyya_(neighborhood)" title="El Ibrahimiyya (neighborhood)">al-Ibrahimiyya</a>, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Egypt</a> (then under British occupation, though formally a part of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>), into a wealthy German family. Originally from <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, the family settled in <a href="/wiki/Wunsiedel" title="Wunsiedel">Wunsiedel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Franconia" title="Upper Franconia">Upper Franconia</a>, in the 1760s. His grandfather, Johann Christian Hess, married Margaretha Bühler, the daughter of a Swiss consul, in 1861 in <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>. After the birth of his father, Johann Fritz Hess, the family moved to Alexandria, where Johann Christian Hess founded the import company Hess & Co. which his son, Johann Fritz Hess, took over in 1888. Hess's mother, Klara, was the daughter of Rudolf Münch, a textile industrialist and councillor of commerce from <a href="/wiki/Hof,_Bavaria" title="Hof, Bavaria">Hof</a>, Upper Franconia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel19712-9">[9]</a> His brother, Alfred, was born in 1897 and his sister, Margarete, was born in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel19712-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt199737–38-10">[10]</a> The family lived in a villa on the Egyptian coast near Alexandria, and visited Germany often from 1900, staying at their summer home in Reicholdsgrün (now part of <a href="/wiki/Kirchenlamitz" title="Kirchenlamitz">Kirchenlamitz</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Fichtel_Mountains" title="Fichtel Mountains">Fichtel Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198726–27-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20112–3-12">[12]</a> Hess' youth in Egypt left him with a strong admiration for the British Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinstein2007140-13">[13]</a> His youth growing up under the "<a href="/wiki/Veiled_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Veiled Protectorate">Veiled Protectorate</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Baring,_1st_Earl_of_Cromer" title="Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer">Sir Evelyn Baring</a> made him unique among the Nazi leaders in that he grew up under British rule, which he saw in very positive terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinstein2007140-13">[13]</a> Hess attended a German-language Protestant school in Alexandria from 1900 to 1908, when he was sent back to Germany to study at a boarding school in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Godesberg" title="Bad Godesberg">Bad Godesberg</a>. He demonstrated aptitudes for science and mathematics, but his father wished him to join the family business, Hess & Co., so he sent Hess in 1911 to study at the École supérieure de commerce in <a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a>, Switzerland. After a year there, He took an <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship#Germany" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> at a trading company in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198726–27-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20112–3-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</a>]</div> Within weeks of the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Hess enlisted in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment, part of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Royal_Bavarian_Division" title="1st Royal Bavarian Division">1st Royal Bavarian Division</a>. His initial posting was against the British on the <a href="/wiki/Somme_(department)" title="Somme (department)">Somme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114-14">[14]</a> He was present at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a>. On 9 November 1914, he transferred to the 1st Infantry Regiment, stationed near <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a>. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a>, second class, and promoted to <a href="/wiki/Gefreiter" title="Gefreiter">Gefreiter</a> (corporal) in April 1915. After additional training at the <a href="/wiki/Munster_Training_Area" title="Munster Training Area">Munster Training Area</a>, he was promoted to <a href="/wiki/Vizefeldwebel" class="mw-redirect" title="Vizefeldwebel">Vizefeldwebel</a> (senior non-commissioned officer) and received the Bavarian <a href="/wiki/Military_Merit_Cross_(Bavaria)" title="Military Merit Cross (Bavaria)">Military Merit Cross</a>. Returning to the front lines in November, Hess fought in <a href="/wiki/Artois" title="Artois">Artois</a>, participating in the battle for the town of <a href="/wiki/Neuville-Saint-Vaast" title="Neuville-Saint-Vaast">Neuville-Saint-Vaast</a>. After two months out of action with a throat infection, he served in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a> in May, and was hit by <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(weaponry)" title="Fragmentation (weaponry)">shrapnel</a> in the left hand and arm on 12 June 1916 while fighting near the village of Thiaumont. After a month off to recover, he was sent back to the Verdun area, where he remained until December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114–6-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198727-16">[16]</a> Hess was promoted to platoon leader of the 10th Company of the 18th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment, which was serving in <a href="/wiki/Romania_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Romania during World War I">Romania</a>. He was wounded on 23 July and again on 8 August 1917; the first injury was a shell splinter to the left arm, which was dressed in the field, but the second was a bullet wound that entered the upper chest near the armpit and exited near his spinal column, leaving a pea-sized entry wound and a cherry stone-sized exit wound on his back.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20117-17">[17]</a> By 20 August, Hess was well enough to travel, so he was sent to hospital in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and eventually back to Germany, where he recovered in hospital in <a href="/wiki/Meissen" title="Meissen">Meissen</a>. In October, he was promoted to Leutnant der Reserve and was recommended for, but did not receive, the Iron Cross, first class. At his father's request, Hess was transferred to a hospital closer to home, arriving at <a href="/wiki/Alexandersbad" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandersbad">Alexandersbad</a> on 25 October.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20118–9-18">[18]</a> While still convalescing, Hess had requested that he be allowed to enrol to train as a pilot, so after Christmas leave with his family, he reported to <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>. He received basic flight training at <a href="/wiki/Oberschleissheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Oberschleissheim">Oberschleissheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lechfeld_Air_Base" title="Lechfeld Air Base">Lechfeld Air Base</a> from March to June 1918, and advanced training at <a href="/wiki/Valenciennes" title="Valenciennes">Valenciennes</a> in France in October. On 14 October, he was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Jagdstaffel_35" title="Jagdstaffel 35">Jagdstaffel 35b</a>, a Bavarian fighter squadron equipped with <a href="/wiki/Fokker_D.VII" title="Fokker D.VII">Fokker D.VII</a> biplanes. He saw no action with Jagdstaffel 35b, as the war ended on 11 November 1918, before he had the opportunity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20119–12-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg/250px-KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg/375px-KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg/500px-KarlHaushofer_RudolfHess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Hess (right) with his geopolitics professor, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1920</figcaption></figure> Hess was discharged from the armed forces in December 1918. The family fortunes had taken a serious downturn, as their business interests in Egypt had been expropriated by the British.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198727–28-20">[20]</a> He joined the <a href="/wiki/Thule_Society" title="Thule Society">Thule Society</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic">antisemitic</a> right-wing <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch</a> group, and the <a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a> of Colonel Ritter von Epp,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadfield200113-21">[21]</a> one of many such volunteer paramilitary organisations active in Germany at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201113–14-22">[22]</a> Bavaria witnessed frequent and often bloody conflicts between right-wing groups, the Freikorps, and left-wing forces as they fought for control of the state during this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003156–159-23">[23]</a> Hess was a participant in street battles in early 1919 and led a group that distributed thousands of antisemitic pamphlets in Munich.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177-25">[25]</a> He later said that Egypt made him a nationalist, the war made him a socialist, and Munich made him an antisemite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther194073-26">[26]</a> In 1919, Hess enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a>, where he studied history and economics. His <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> professor was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a>, a former general in the German Army who was a proponent of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> ("living space"), which Haushofer cited to justify the proposal that Germany should forcefully conquer additional territory in Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird19747-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114-24">[24]</a> He later introduced this concept to <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, and it became one of the pillars of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2005345-28">[28]</a> He became friends with Haushofer and his son <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Haushofer" title="Albrecht Haushofer">Albrecht</a>, a social theorist and lecturer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilse_Hess" title="Ilse Hess">Ilse Pröhl</a>, a fellow student at the university, met Hess in April 1920 when they by chance rented rooms in the same boarding house. They married on 20 December 1927 and their only child, <a href="/wiki/Wolf_R%C3%BCdiger_Hess" title="Wolf Rüdiger Hess">Wolf Rüdiger Hess</a>, was born 10 years later, on 18 November 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115,_20-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163-30">[30]</a> His name was, at least in part, to honour Hitler, who often used "Wolf" as a code name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPick201236-31">[31]</a> Hess nicknamed the boy "Buz".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971146-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_Hitler">Relationship with Hitler</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Relationship with Hitler">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hitler,_Maurice,_Kriebel,_Hess,_Weber,_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg/220px-Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg/330px-Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg/440px-Hitler%2C_Maurice%2C_Kriebel%2C_Hess%2C_Weber%2C_prison_de_Landsberg_en_1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption>Hitler, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Maurice" title="Emil Maurice">Emil Maurice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kriebel" title="Hermann Kriebel">Hermann Kriebel</a>, Hess, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Weber_(veterinarian)" title="Friedrich Weber (veterinarian)">Friedrich Weber</a> at <a href="/wiki/Landsberg_Prison" title="Landsberg Prison">Landsberg Prison</a> in 1924</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A,_N%C3%BCrnberg,_Reichsparteitag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-53A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Hess (2nd from left, behind <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>) was an early supporter of the Nazi Party.</figcaption></figure> After hearing the Nazi Party leader Hitler speak for the first time in 1920 at a Munich rally, Hess became completely devoted to him. They held a shared belief in the <a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">stab-in-the-back myth</a>, the notion that Germany's loss in World War I was caused by a conspiracy of Jews and <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolsheviks</a> rather than a military defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115-33">[33]</a> He joined the Nazi Party on 1 July as member number 16.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198734-34">[34]</a> As the party continued to grow, holding rallies and meetings in ever larger <a href="/wiki/Beer_hall" title="Beer hall">beer halls</a> in Munich, he focused his attention on fundraising and organisational activities. On 4 November 1921, he was injured while protecting Hitler when a bomb planted by a Marxist group exploded at the <a href="/wiki/Staatliches_Hofbr%C3%A4uhaus_in_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Staatliches Hofbräuhaus in München">Hofbräuhaus</a> during a party event. Hess joined the <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">Sturmabteilung</a> (SA) by 1922 and helped organise and recruit its early membership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201117-35">[35]</a> Meanwhile, problems continued with the economy; <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">hyperinflation</a> caused many personal fortunes to be rendered worthless. When the German government failed to meet its reparations payments and French troops marched in to occupy the industrial areas along the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a> in January 1923, widespread civil unrest was the result.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186–187-36">[36]</a> Hitler decided the time was ripe to attempt to seize control of the government with a coup d'état modelled on <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>'s 1922 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186-37">[37]</a> Hess was with Hitler on the night of 8 November 1923 when he and the SA stormed a public meeting organised by Bavaria's de facto ruler, Staatskommissar (state commissioner) <a href="/wiki/Gustav_von_Kahr" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav von Kahr">Gustav von Kahr</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerbr%C3%A4ukeller" title="Bürgerbräukeller">Bürgerbräukeller</a>, a large beer hall in Munich. Brandishing a pistol, Hitler interrupted Kahr's speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with World War I General <a href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Erich Ludendorff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193-38">[38]</a> The next day, Hitler and several thousand supporters attempted to march to the Ministry of War in the city centre. Gunfire broke out between the Nazis and the police; sixteen marchers and four police officers were killed. Hitler was arrested on 11 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193–194-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer196073–74-40">[40]</a> Hess and some SA men had taken a few of the dignitaries hostage on the night of the 8th, driving them to a house about 50 kilometres (31 mi) from Munich. When Hess left briefly to make a phone call the next day, the hostages convinced the driver to help them escape. Hess, stranded, called Ilse Pröhl, who brought him a bicycle so he could return to Munich. He went to stay with the Haushofers and then fled to Austria, but they convinced him to return. He was arrested and sentenced to 18 months in prison for his role in the attempted coup, which later became known as the <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a>. Hitler was sentenced to five years imprisonment, and the Nazi Party and SA were both outlawed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201118–19-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer196070,_73-42">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07,_M%C3%BCnchen,_Zirkus_Krone,_Rede_Hitler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-001-07%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Zirkus_Krone%2C_Rede_Hitler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>Hitler speaking at a party rally in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> in 1925</figcaption></figure> Both men were incarcerated in <a href="/wiki/Landsberg_Prison" title="Landsberg Prison">Landsberg Prison</a>, where Hitler soon began work on his memoir, <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a> ("My Struggle"), which he dictated to fellow prisoners Hess and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Maurice" title="Emil Maurice">Emil Maurice</a>. Edited by publisher <a href="/wiki/Max_Amann" title="Max Amann">Max Amann</a>, Hess and others, the work was published in two parts in 1925 and 1926. It was later released in a single volume, which became a best-seller after 1930.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003196-43">[43]</a> This book, with its message of violent antisemitism, became the foundation of the political platform of the Nazi Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003197-44">[44]</a> Hitler was released on parole on 20 December 1924 and Hess was released ten days later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">[3]</a> The ban on the Nazi Party and SA was lifted in February 1925, and the party grew to 100,000 members in 1928 and 150,000 in 1929.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003201,_211-45">[45]</a> They received only 2.6 per cent of the vote in the 1928 election, but support increased steadily up until the <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power#Seizure_of_control_(1931–1933)" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">seizure of power</a> in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003209,_282-46">[46]</a> Hitler named Hess his private secretary in April 1925 at a salary of 500 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">Reichsmarks</a> per month, and named him as personal adjutant on 20 July 1929.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198734-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird19748-47">[47]</a> Hess accompanied Hitler to speaking engagements around the country and became his friend and confidante.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">[3]</a> Hess was one of the few people who could meet with Hitler at any time without an appointment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther19406-48">[48]</a> His influence in the Party continued to grow. On 15 December 1932, Hess was named head of the Party Liaison Staff and Chairman of the Party Central Political Commission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497-8">[8]</a> Retaining his interest in flying after the end of his active military career, Hess obtained his private pilot's licence on 4 April 1929. His instructor was World War I flying ace <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Croneiss" title="Theodor Croneiss">Theodor Croneiss</a>. In 1930, Hess became the owner of a <a href="/wiki/BFW_M.23" title="BFW M.23">BFW M.23b</a> monoplane sponsored by the party newspaper, the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter" title="Völkischer Beobachter">Völkischer Beobachter</a>. He acquired two more <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt" title="Messerschmitt">Messerschmitt</a> aircraft in the early 1930s, logging many flying hours and becoming proficient in the operation of light single-engine aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201120–21-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deputy_Führer">Deputy Führer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Deputy Führer">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg/170px-Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg/255px-Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg/340px-Kfz-Standarte_Rudolf_He%C3%9F.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="385" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Vehicle standard for Hess while serving as Deputy Führer</figcaption></figure> On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed <a href="/wiki/Reich_Chancellor" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Chancellor">Reich Chancellor</a>, his first step in gaining dictatorial control of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003307-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960226–227-52">[52]</a> Hess was named Deputy Führer (Stellvertreter des Führers) of the Nazi Party on 21 April. On 2 June 1933, he was made one of 16 <a href="/wiki/Reichsleiter" title="Reichsleiter">Reichsleiters</a> in the Party hierarchy. On 1 July, Hess was raised to the rank of <a href="/wiki/Obergruppenf%C3%BChrer" title="Obergruppenführer">Obergruppenführer</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> (SS). However, by 20 September, Hitler decreed that he stop using the titles of <a href="/wiki/Reichsleiter" title="Reichsleiter">Reichsleiter</a> and Obergruppenführer, and use only the title of "Deputy Fuhrer". This was an acknowledgement of his <a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">primus inter pares</a> status in the Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELang197979-53">[53]</a> Hess was appointed to the cabinet as a Reich Minister without Portfolio on 1 December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198739-54">[54]</a> With offices in the <a href="/wiki/Brown_House,_Munich" title="Brown House, Munich">Brown House</a> in Munich and another in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Hess was responsible for several departments, including foreign affairs, finance, health, education and law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121–22-55">[55]</a> Hess also was named as a member of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Academy_for_German_Law" title="Academy for German Law">Academy for German Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015498-56">[56]</a> All legislation passed through his office for approval, except that concerning the army, the police and foreign policy, and he wrote and co-signed many of Hitler's decrees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197147–48-57">[57]</a> An organiser of the annual <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Rally" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Rally">Nuremberg Rallies</a>, Hess usually gave the opening speech and introduced Hitler. Hess also spoke over the radio and at rallies around the country, so frequently that the speeches were collected into book form in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197137,_60,_62-58">[58]</a> Hess acted as Hitler's delegate in negotiations with industrialists and members of the wealthier classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197139-59">[59]</a> As Hess had been born abroad, Hitler had him oversee the Nazi Party groups such as the <a href="/wiki/NSDAP/AO" class="mw-redirect" title="NSDAP/AO">NSDAP/AO</a> that were in charge of party members living in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197167-60">[60]</a> Hitler instructed Hess to review all court decisions that related to persons deemed enemies of the Party. He was authorised to increase the sentences of anyone he felt got off too lightly in these cases, and was also empowered to take "merciless action" if he saw fit to do so. This often entailed sending the person to a concentration camp or simply ordering the person killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197151-61">[61]</a> In 1933, Hess founded the Volksdeutscher Rat (Council of Ethnic Germans) to handle the Nazi Party's relations with ethnic German minorities around the world, with a particular focus on Eastern Europe. The purpose of the council was to protect the Nazi Party from criticism that it was attempting to extend the process of <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a> to international ethnic German communities. Despite Hess's claims to the contrary, the council members were primarily loyal to Germany rather than their current nations. The eight council members, only one of whom was a member of the Nazi Party, were responsible only to Hess. All had long been known to either Hess or Haushofer, who was also involved with the council. Members publicly claimed to be uninvolved in the council, which Hess used as proof that the Nazi Party was not trying to interfere in the domestic affairs of other nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199968-62">[62]</a> As the council had considerable funds and appeared to be sufficiently independent of the German government to satisfy foreign governments, its activities had some impact on international German communities in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199969-63">[63]</a> Its most notable impact was in the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>, where in 1933 it promoted <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Henlein" title="Konrad Henlein">Konrad Henlein</a> as the politician with the best hope of building a Nazi-friendly party that would win mass support without being banned by the Czechoslovak government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199970-64">[64]</a> The Nazi regime began to persecute Jews soon after the seizure of power. Hess's office was partly responsible for drafting Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a> of 1935. These laws had far-reaching implications for the Jews of Germany, banning marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans and depriving non-<a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryans</a> of their German citizenship. Hess's friend Karl Haushofer and his family were subject to these laws, as Haushofer had married a half-Jewish woman, so Hess issued documents exempting them from this legislation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201122-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2005543–544-66">[66]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718,_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B01718%2C_Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Hess, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Bouhler" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip Bouhler">Phillip Bouhler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Todt" title="Fritz Todt">Fritz Todt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a>, and others listening to <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Meyer" title="Konrad Meyer">Konrad Meyer</a> at a <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> exhibition, 20 March 1941</figcaption></figure> Hess did not build a power base or develop a coterie of followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans200347-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198736-68">[68]</a> He was motivated by his loyalty to Hitler and a desire to be useful to him; he did not seek power or prestige<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198739-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201122-65">[65]</a> or take advantage of his position to accumulate personal wealth. He lived in a modest house in Munich.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163-30">[30]</a> Hess was devoted to the völkisch ideology and viewed many issues in terms of an alleged Jewish conspiracy against Germany. For example, he said in a speech that "Today's League of Nations is really only a farce which functions primarily as the basis for the Jews to reach their own aims. You need only to note how many Jews sit in the League."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">[69]</a> In a speech in 1937, Hess blamed the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> on "international Jewry", called the Soviet Foreign Commissar <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a> a "dirty Jew", and claimed that without Hitler or Mussolini, "Jewish Asiatic Bolshevism would dominate European culture".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">[69]</a> On 30 August 1939, immediately prior to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, Hess was appointed by Hitler to the six-person <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_for_Defense_of_the_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers for Defense of the Reich">Council of Ministers for Defense of the Reich</a> which was set up to operate as a war cabinet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroszat1981308–309-5">[5]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> and the start of the war on 1 September, Hitler made Hess second in line to succeed him, after <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960599-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197147-71">[71]</a> Around the same time, Hitler appointed Hess's chief of staff, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a>, as his personal secretary, a post formerly held by Hess.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201128-72">[72]</a> On 8 October, Hess co-signed the law that annexed the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Corridor" title="Polish Corridor">Polish Corridor</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia_plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Silesia plebiscite">part of Upper Silesia lost in 1921</a> to Germany. That same day, Hess and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> ordered that a racial registry be established in these areas and stated that Poles and Jews living in these areas were not to be treated as equals of Germans. A separate legal code for Poles and Jews in the annexed areas was created, imposing draconian punishments. Hess argued that a separate legal code was necessary because "the Pole is less susceptible to the infliction of ordinary punishment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">[69]</a> In another decree, Hess ordered that none of the buildings destroyed in Warsaw during the siege were to be rebuilt as a reminder to the Poles of their "war guilt".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">[69]</a> Hess's antisemitism markedly increased after the war started, as he was convinced that the war had been caused by Jews. This became a major theme of his wartime speeches. In a speech given on 20 April 1940 to mark Hitler's 51st birthday, Hess accused "Jews and their fellow travellers" of Germany's capitulation in November 1918, which he called the most calamitous event in world history. In that same speech, Hess, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Horror_on_the_Rhine" title="Black Horror on the Rhine">Black Horror on the Rhine</a> story, stated the defeat of 1918 was followed by an occupation of the Rhineland by "niggers", which he again blamed on the Jews. Hess concluded his speech by saying that with Hitler in charge, there was no possibility of the current war ending similarly. "How the Jewish hounds will howl when Adolf Hitler stands before them," he concluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">[69]</a> Hess was obsessed with his health to the point of <a href="/wiki/Hypochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochondria">hypochondria</a>, consulting many doctors and other practitioners for what he described to his captors in Britain as a long list of ailments involving the kidneys, colon, gall bladder, bowels and heart. Hess was a vegetarian, and he did not smoke or drink. He brought his own food to the <a href="/wiki/Berghof_(residence)" title="Berghof (residence)">Berghof</a>, claiming it was <a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">biologically dynamic</a>, but Hitler did not approve of this practice, so he discontinued taking meals with the Führer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163–67-73">[73]</a> Hess was interested in music, enjoyed reading and loved to spend time hiking and climbing in the mountains with his wife, Ilse. He and his friend Albrecht Haushofer shared an interest in <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, and Hess also was keen on clairvoyance and the occult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197194-74">[74]</a> Hess continued to be interested in aviation. He won an air race in 1934, flying a <a href="/wiki/BFW_M.35" title="BFW M.35">BFW M.35</a> in a circuit around <a href="/wiki/Zugspitze" title="Zugspitze">Zugspitze</a> Mountain and returning to the airfield at Munich with a time of 29 minutes. Hess placed sixth of 29 participants in a similar race held the following year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201124-75">[75]</a> With the outbreak of World War II, Hess asked Hitler to be allowed to join the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> as a pilot, but Hitler forbade it, and ordered him to stop flying for the duration of the war. Hess convinced him to reduce the ban to one year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201128-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attempted_peace_mission">Attempted peace mission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Attempted peace mission">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border: 4px double #dd0000; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; font-size:200%; font-weight:medium;"><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.8em 0 1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_(1933%E2%80%931945).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/90px-Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/135px-Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg/180px-Parteiadler_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="846" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahnenerbe" title="Ahnenerbe">Ahnenerbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaman_League" title="Artaman League">Artaman League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Geheime Staatspolizei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Fichte-Bund" title="Deutscher Fichte-Bund">Deutscher Fichte-Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Jungvolk" title="Deutsches Jungvolk">Deutsches Jungvolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Eher_Nachfolger" title="Franz Eher Nachfolger">Franz Eher Nachfolger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_German_Girls" title="League of German Girls">League of German Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_Todt" title="Organisation Todt">Organisation Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Doctors%27_League" title="National Socialist German Doctors' League">NSDÄB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Students%27_League" title="National Socialist German Students' League">NSDStB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_League_of_the_Reich_for_Physical_Exercise" title="National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise">NSRL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Flyers_Corps" title="National Socialist Flyers Corps">NSFK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Motor_Corps" title="National Socialist Motor Corps">NSKK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Women%27s_League" title="National Socialist Women's League">NSF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Nazi media organizations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalsozialistische_Monatshefte" title="Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte">Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Volk" title="Neues Volk">Neues Volk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS-Frauen-Warte" title="NS-Frauen-Warte">NS-Frauen-Warte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Reich_(newspaper)" title="Das Reich (newspaper)">Das Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Schwarze_Korps" title="Das Schwarze Korps">Das Schwarze Korps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">Sturmabteilung</a> (SA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> (SS) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Gefolge_(Women%27s_SS_Division)" title="SS-Gefolge (Women's SS Division)">SS Gefolge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_timeline_of_Nazism" title="Early timeline of Nazism">Early timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Program" title="National Socialist Program">National Socialist Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Hitler's rise to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power#Seizure_of_control_(1931–1933)" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Machtergreifung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_rearmament" title="German rearmament">German rearmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Kirchenkampf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Adolf Hitler's cult of personality">Adolf Hitler's cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">Night of the Long Knives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_rallies" title="Nuremberg rallies">Nuremberg rallies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938%E2%80%931939_German_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet">1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Final_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Final solution">Final solution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">Deportations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_Trial" title="Doctors' Trial">Doctors' Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Labour camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Germany" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology#Socialism_and_communism" title="Fascism and ideology">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism#Fascism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology#Liberalism" title="Fascism and ideology">Anti-liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism#Criticism" title="Pacifism">Anti-pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_and_soil" title="Blood and soil">Blood and soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolchsto%C3%9Flegende" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolchstoßlegende">Dolchstoßlegende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Judeo-Bolshevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">Führerprinzip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik">Geopolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimat" title="Heimat">Heimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="German imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Germanic_Reich" title="Greater Germanic Reich">Greater Germanic Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich" title="Heim ins Reich">Heim ins Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_militarism" title="German militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palingenetic_ultranationalism" title="Palingenetic ultranationalism">Palingenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_nationalism" title="Revolutionary nationalism">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Man_(utopian_concept)#Fascist" title="New Man (utopian concept)">New Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Nazism)" title="New Order (Nazism)">New Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">One-party state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussianism" title="Prussianism">Prussianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Anti-Slavic sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race#Nazism_and_Neo-Nazism" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Master race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Indo-Germanic_People#The_Third_Reich,_successor_of_the_Indogermans" title="Nordic Indo-Germanic People">Nordic Indo-Germanic people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renordification" title="Renordification">Renordification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassenschande" title="Rassenschande">Rassenschande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermenschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Untermenschen">Untermenschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_equality" title="Völkisch equality">Völkisch equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism#Nazism,_eugenics,_fascism,_imperialism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_interventionism" title="Social interventionism">Social interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgemeinschaft" title="Volksgemeinschaft">Volksgemeinschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volk_ohne_Raum" title="Volk ohne Raum">Volk ohne Raum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksk%C3%B6rper" title="Volkskörper">Volkskörper</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A4the_Bierbaumer" title="Käthe Bierbaumer">Bierbaumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Julius_Bloem" title="Walter Julius Bloem">Bloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Bormann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Daluege" title="Kurt Daluege">Daluege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Dönitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Drexler" title="Anton Drexler">Drexler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Eichmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Esser" title="Hermann Esser">Esser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fischer" title="Eugen Fischer">Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Frick</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Heydrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Goebbels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Göring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Keller" title="Carlos Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Lammers" title="Hans Lammers">Lammers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Lutze" title="Viktor Lutze">Lutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Mitford" title="Unity Mitford">Mitford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">von Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidkun_Quisling#Head_of_the_government" title="Vidkun Quisling">Quisling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">von Ribbentrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Röhm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht#Involvement_with_the_NSDAP_(Nazi_Party)_and_government" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Schacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">von Schirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrud_Scholtz-Klink" title="Gertrud Scholtz-Klink">Scholtz-Klink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Seldte" title="Franz Seldte">Seldte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Seyss-Inquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Speer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Strasser" title="Gregor Strasser">Strasser (Gregor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Strasser" title="Otto Strasser">Strasser (Otto)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Streicher</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> Pre-Machtergreifung <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Moritz_Arndt" title="Ernst Moritz Arndt">Arndt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile-Louis_Burnouf" title="Émile-Louis Burnouf">Burnouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Drumont" title="Édouard Drumont">Drumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Eckart" title="Dietrich Eckart">Eckart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Fritsch" title="Theodor Fritsch">Fritsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">de Gobineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Lanz_von_Liebenfels" title="Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels">von Liebenfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_von_List" title="Guido von List">von List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_L%C3%B6ns#Reception_in_National_Socialist_Germany" title="Hermann Löns">Löns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Lueger" title="Karl Lueger">Lueger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marr" title="Wilhelm Marr">Marr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche#Nietzsche_and_fascism" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ratzel#Writings" title="Friedrich Ratzel">Ratzel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Riehl" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl">Riehl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin#Politics_and_critique_of_political_economy" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner#Views" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li></ul> Post-Machtergreifung <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Anacker" title="Heinrich Anacker">Anacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Baeumler" title="Alfred Baeumler">Baeumler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bergmann_(philosopher)" title="Ernst Bergmann (philosopher)">Bergmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Ingemar_Berndt" title="Alfred-Ingemar Berndt">Berndt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Walther_Darr%C3%A9" title="Richard Walther Darré">Darré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Eggers" title="Kurt Eggers">Eggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Eichrodt" title="Walther Eichrodt">Eichrodt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Feder" title="Gottfried Feder">Feder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford#Antisemitism_and_The_Dearborn_Independent" title="Henry Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Grimm" title="Hans Grimm">Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Günther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Wilhelm_Hauer" title="Jakob Wilhelm Hauer">Hauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Haushofer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger_and_Nazism" title="Martin Heidegger and Nazism">Heidegger</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willibald_Hentschel" title="Willibald Hentschel">Hentschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hoche" title="Alfred Hoche">Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Ties_with_the_Axis_Powers_during_World_War_II" title="Amin al-Husseini">al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jung" title="Rudolf Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krannhals" title="Paul Krannhals">Krannhals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Krieck" title="Ernst Krieck">Kriek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh#Antisemitism_and_views_on_race" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_M%C3%BCller" title="Ludwig Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Plenge" title="Johann Plenge">Plenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Rahn" title="Otto Rahn">Rahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoun_Saadeh" title="Antoun Saadeh">Saadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Ernst Schäfer">Schäfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Schmalenbach" title="Herman Schmalenbach">Schmalenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Sebottendorf" title="Rudolf von Sebottendorf">von Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Schwarz_(philosopher)" title="Hermann Schwarz (philosopher)">Schwarz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Stapel" title="Wilhelm Stapel">Stapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giselher_Wirsing" title="Giselher Wirsing">Wirsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Zimmermann" title="Ferdinand Zimmermann">Zimmermann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_the_Nineteenth_Century" title="The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century">The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preussentum_und_Sozialismus" class="mw-redirect" title="Preussentum und Sozialismus">Preussentum und Sozialismus</a> (1919)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/25-point_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="25-point Program">25-point Program</a>" (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Jew" title="The International Jew">The International Jew</a> (1920s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassenkunde_des_deutschen_Volkes" title="Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes">Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Dritte_Reich" title="Das Dritte Reich">Das Dritte Reich</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_America_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="White America (book)">White America</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitlers_Zweites_Buch" title="Hitlers Zweites Buch">Hitlers Zweites Buch</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(novel)" title="Michael (novel)">Michael</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century">The Myth of the Twentieth Century</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel%C3%B6bnis_treuester_Gefolgschaft" title="Gelöbnis treuester Gefolgschaft">Gelöbnis treuester Gefolgschaft</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ich_K%C3%A4mpfe" title="Ich Kämpfe">I Fight</a> (1942)</li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ariosophy" title="Ariosophy">Ariosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thule_Society" title="Thule Society">Thule Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Christmas in Nazi Germany">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Nazism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric Nazism">Esoteric Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Evangelical_Church" title="German Evangelical Church">German Evangelical Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Christians_(movement)" title="German Christians (movement)">Deutsche Christen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Faith_Movement" title="German Faith Movement">German Faith Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottgl%C3%A4ubig" title="Gottgläubig">Gottgläubig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Kirchenkampf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occultism_in_Nazism" title="Occultism in Nazism">Occultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_Christianity" title="Positive Christianity">Positive Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Religion in Nazi Germany">Religion under Nazism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_aspects_of_Nazism" title="Religious aspects of Nazism">Religious aspects of Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Religious views of Adolf Hitler">Religious views of Adolf Hitler</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_symbolism" title="Nazi symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Outside of Germany</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_the_Americas" title="Nazism in the Americas">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Brazil" title="Nazism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Chile" title="Nazism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Nazism_in_Greece" title="Template:Nazism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Sweden" title="Nazism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nazi_parties" title="Category:Nazi parties">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nazi_Party" title="American Nazi Party">American Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_Cross_Party" title="Arrow Cross Party">Arrow Cross Party (Hungary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_American_Bund" title="German American Bund">German American Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_National_Movement_in_Liechtenstein" title="German National Movement in Liechtenstein">German National Movement in Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotlebists_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party_Our_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia">Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasjonal_Samling" title="Nasjonal Samling">Nasjonal Samling (Norway)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands">National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_of_Chile" title="National Socialist Movement of Chile">National Socialist Movement of Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_(United_States)" title="National Socialist Movement (United States)">National Socialist Movement (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Workers%27_Party_of_Denmark" title="National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark">National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Resistance_Movement" title="Nordic Resistance Movement">Nordic Resistance Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewabrandwag (South Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_Movement" title="Republic Movement">Republic Movement (Slovakia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUMKA" title="SUMKA">SUMKA (Iran)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas (Mongolia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Union_of_National_Socialists" title="World Union of National Socialists">World Union of National Socialists</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Bibliography of Adolf Hitler">Bibliography of Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ideologues" title="List of Nazi ideologues">Nazi ideologues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_Party_leaders_and_officials" title="List of Nazi Party leaders and officials">NSDAP leaders and officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazis" title="List of Nazis">Nazi Party members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_people_suspected_of_participation_in_Nazi_war_crimes" title="List of last surviving people suspected of participation in Nazi war crimes">Last surviving war crime suspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ideologues" title="List of Nazi ideologues">Party ideologues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches_given_by_Adolf_Hitler" title="List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler">Speeches given by Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_SS_personnel" title="List of SS personnel">SS personnel</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #dd0000; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bolshevist_League#Historical_interpretation" title="Anti-Bolshevist League">Anti-Bolshevist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Art in Nazi Germany">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema" title="Nazism and cinema">Cinema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ats%C4%B1zism" title="Atsızism">Atsızism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Beefsteak_Nazi" title="Beefsteak Nazi">Beefsteak Nazi</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Economy of Nazi Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denordification" title="Denordification">Denordification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renordification" title="Renordification">Renordification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Glossary of Nazi Germany">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten" title="Drang nach Osten">Drang nach Osten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_American_Bund" title="German American Bund">German American Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst-Wessel-Lied" title="Horst-Wessel-Lied">Horst-Wessel-Lied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Political views of Adolf Hitler">Political views of Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_propaganda_and_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nazi propaganda and the United Kingdom">Nazi propaganda and the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_theories" title="Nazi racial theories">Racial theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Women in Nazi Germany">Women</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nazism" title="Category:Nazism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 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foreign affairs and the conduct of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008167-76">[76]</a> Hess, whose duties did not require him to be directly engaged in the war, became increasingly sidelined from the affairs of the nation and from Hitler's attention. He was excluded from most important decisions, and many in Hitler's inner circle thought him to be mad due to his eccentricities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2024-77">[77]</a> Bormann had successfully supplanted Hess in many of his duties and had taken Hess' position at Hitler's side.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008167-76">[76]</a> Hess was concerned that Germany would face a war on two fronts as plans progressed for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> scheduled to take place in 1941. Hess decided to attempt to bring Britain to the negotiating table by travelling there himself to seek meetings with the British government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960837-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESereny1996321-79">[79]</a> On 31 August 1940, Hess met with Karl Haushofer, who told Hess that he believed that <a href="/wiki/King_George_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="King George VI">King George VI</a> was opposed to Churchill and would dismiss him and send him to Canada at the first opportunity. Haushofer spoke of his belief that it was possible to make contact with the king via either General <a href="/wiki/Ian_Hamilton_(British_Army_officer)" title="Ian Hamilton (British Army officer)">Ian Hamilton</a> or <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Douglas-Hamilton,_14th_Duke_of_Hamilton" title="Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton">the Duke of Hamilton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwig2016176-80">[80]</a> Hess decided they should contact his fellow aviator the Duke of Hamilton, whom he had never met. Hess chose Hamilton in the mistaken belief that he was one of the leaders of a party opposed to war with Germany, and because Hamilton was a friend of Haushofer. On Hess's instructions, Haushofer wrote to Hamilton in September 1940, but the letter was intercepted by <a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a> and Hamilton did not see it until March 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201129–30-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960836-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197182-83">[83]</a> A letter Hess wrote to his wife dated 4 November 1940 shows that in spite of not receiving a reply from Hamilton, he intended to proceed with his plan. Hess began training on the <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_110" title="Messerschmitt Bf 110">Messerschmitt Bf 110</a>, a two-seater twin-engine aircraft, in October 1940 under instructor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_St%C3%B6r" title="Wilhelm Stör">Wilhelm Stör</a>, the chief test pilot at Messerschmitt. He continued to practice, as well as log his many cross-country flights, and found a specific aircraft which handled well—a Bf 110E-1/N—which was from then on held in reserve for his personal use. He asked for a radio compass, modifications to the oxygen delivery system, and large long-range fuel tanks to be installed on this plane, and these requests were granted by March 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201132–37-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flight_to_Scotland">Flight to Scotland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flight to Scotland">edit</a>]</div> After a final check of the weather reports for Germany and the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, Hess took off at 17:45 on 10 May 1941 from the airfield at <a href="/wiki/Augsburg-Haunstetten" title="Augsburg-Haunstetten">Augsburg-Haunstetten</a> in his specially prepared aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201144-85">[85]</a> It was the last of several attempts to depart on his mission; previous efforts had to be called off due to mechanical problems or poor weather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197192-86">[86]</a> Wearing a leather flying suit bearing the rank of captain, he brought along a supply of money and toiletries, a <a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">torch</a>, a camera, maps and charts, and a collection of 28 different medicines, as well as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">dextrose</a> tablets to help ward off fatigue and an assortment of homoeopathic remedies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008167-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197415-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201139-88">[88]</a> Setting a course towards <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>, Hess used landmarks on the ground to orient himself and make minor course corrections. When he reached the coast near the <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Islands" title="Frisian Islands">Frisian Islands</a>, Hess turned and flew in an easterly direction for twenty minutes to stay out of range of British radar. He then took a heading of 335 degrees for the trip across the North Sea, initially at low altitude but travelling for most of the journey at 5,000 feet (1,500 m). At 20:58, he changed his heading to 245 degrees, intending to approach the coast of <a href="/wiki/North_East_England" title="North East England">North East England</a> near the village of <a href="/wiki/Bamburgh" title="Bamburgh">Bamburgh</a>, Northumberland. As it was not yet sunset when he first approached the coast, Hess backtracked, zigzagging back and forth for 40 minutes until it grew dark. Around this time, his auxiliary fuel tanks were exhausted so he released them into the sea. Also around this time, at 22:08, the British <a href="/wiki/Chain_Home" title="Chain Home">Chain Home</a> station at Ottercops Moss near <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a> detected Hess' presence and informed the <a href="/wiki/Filter_Room" title="Filter Room">Filter Room</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bentley_Priory" title="Bentley Priory">Bentley Priory</a>. He was quickly detected by several other stations, and the aircraft was designated as "Raid 42".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201146–51-89">[89]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg/220px-Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg/330px-Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg/440px-Rudolf_Hess_-_Bf_110D_Werk_Nr_3869_-_Wreckage_-_Bonnyton_Moor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="292" /></a><figcaption>Wreckage of Hess's <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_110" title="Messerschmitt Bf 110">Messerschmitt Bf 110</a> at the site of the crash</figcaption></figure> Two <a href="/wiki/Spitfire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spitfire">Spitfires</a> of <a href="/wiki/No._72_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 72 Squadron RAF">No. 72 Squadron RAF</a>, <a href="/wiki/No._13_Group_RAF" title="No. 13 Group RAF">No. 13 Group RAF</a> that were already in the air were sent to attempt an interception, but failed to find the intruder. A third Spitfire sent from <a href="/wiki/Acklington" title="Acklington">Acklington</a> at 22:20 also failed to spot the aircraft; by then, it was dark and Hess had dropped to an extremely low altitude, so low that the volunteer on duty at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Observer_Corps" title="Royal Observer Corps">Royal Observer Corps</a> (ROC) station at <a href="/wiki/Chatton" title="Chatton">Chatton</a> was able to correctly identify it as a Bf 110, and reported its altitude as 50 feet (15 m). Tracked by additional ROC posts, Hess continued his flight into Scotland at high speed and low altitude, but was unable to spot his destination, <a href="/wiki/Dungavel_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungavel House">Dungavel House</a>, so he headed for the west coast to orient himself and then turned back inland. At 22:35, a <a href="/wiki/Boulton_Paul_Defiant" title="Boulton Paul Defiant">Boulton Paul Defiant</a> sent from <a href="/wiki/No._141_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 141 Squadron RAF">No. 141 Squadron RAF</a> based at <a href="/wiki/Ayr" title="Ayr">Ayr</a> began pursuit. Hess was nearly out of fuel, so he climbed to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) and parachuted out of the plane at 23:06. He injured his foot, either while exiting the aircraft or when he hit the ground. The aircraft crashed at 23:09, about 12 miles (19 km) west of Dungavel House, the Duke of Hamilton's home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201152–58-90">[90]</a> Hess would have been closer to his destination had he not had trouble exiting the aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971101-91">[91]</a> Hess considered this achievement to be the proudest moment of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197197-92">[92]</a> Before his departure from Germany, Hess had given his adjutant, <a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Pintsch" title="Karlheinz Pintsch">Karlheinz Pintsch</a>, a letter addressed to Hitler that detailed his plans to initiate peace negotiations with the UK.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008168-93">[93]</a> Hess intended to approach the Duke of Hamilton at his home in Scotland, hoping that the duke might then be willing to advocate for and assist him in negotiating peace with Germany on terms that would be acceptable to Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandwerk2016-94">[94]</a> Pintsch delivered the letter to Hitler at the Berghof around noon on 11 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008168-93">[93]</a> After reading the letter, Hitler let loose a cry heard throughout the entire Berghof and sent for a number of his inner circle, concerned that a <a href="/wiki/Putsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Putsch">putsch</a> might be underway.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilders2017478-95">[95]</a> Hitler worried that his allies, Italy and Japan, would perceive Hess' act as an attempt by Hitler to secretly open peace negotiations with the British. Hitler contacted Mussolini specifically to reassure him otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilders2017478-95">[95]</a> For this reason, Hitler ordered that the German press should characterise Hess as a madman who made the decision to fly to Scotland entirely on his own, without Hitler's knowledge or authority. Subsequent German newspaper reports described Hess as "deluded, deranged," indicating that his mental health had been affected by injuries sustained during World War I. Some members of the government, including Göring and Propaganda Minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>, believed this only made matters worse, because if Hess truly were mentally ill, he should not have held an important government position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960838-96">[96]</a> Hitler stripped Hess of all of his party and state offices, and secretly ordered him shot on sight if he ever returned to Germany. Hitler abolished the post of Deputy Führer, assigning Hess' former duties to Bormann, with the title of Head of the <a href="/wiki/Party_Chancellery" class="mw-redirect" title="Party Chancellery">Party Chancellery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960838-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008169-97">[97]</a> Bormann used the opportunity afforded by Hess's departure to secure significant power for himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilders2017478–479-98">[98]</a> Meanwhile, Hitler initiated Aktion Hess, a flurry of hundreds of arrests of astrologers, faith healers and occultists that took place around 9 June. The campaign was part of a propaganda effort by Goebbels and others to denigrate Hess and to make scapegoats of occult practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971126–127,_131–132-99">[99]</a> US journalist <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Renfro_Knickerbocker" title="Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker">Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker</a>, who had met both Hitler and Hess, speculated that Hitler had sent Hess to deliver a message informing <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> of the forthcoming invasion of the Soviet Union, and offering a negotiated peace or even an anti-Bolshevik partnership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnickerbocker1941161-100">[100]</a> Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> believed that Hess's flight had been engineered by the British. Stalin persisted in this belief as late as 1944, when he mentioned the matter to Churchill, who insisted that they had no advance knowledge of the flight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011107–108-101">[101]</a> While some sources reported that Hess had been on an official mission, Churchill later stated in his book <a href="/wiki/The_Second_World_War_(book_series)" title="The Second World War (book series)">The Grand Alliance</a> that in his view, the mission had not been authorised. "He came to us of his own free will, and, though without authority, had something of the quality of an envoy", said Churchill, and referred to Hess's plan as one of "lunatic benevolence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill195055-102">[102]</a> After the war, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> discussed the rationale for the flight with Hess, who told him that "the idea had been inspired in him in a dream by supernatural forces. We will guarantee England her empire; in return she will give us a free hand in Europe."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeer1971241-103">[103]</a> While in Spandau prison, Hess told journalist <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Zwar" title="Desmond Zwar">Desmond Zwar</a> that Germany could not win a war on two fronts. "I knew that there was only one way out – and that was certainly not to fight against England. Even though I did not get permission from the Führer to fly, I knew that what I had to say would have had his approval. Hitler had great respect for the English people ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyes2010-104">[104]</a> Hess wrote that his flight to Scotland was intended to initiate "the fastest way to win the war."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZwar2010127-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture">Capture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Capture">edit</a>]</div> Shortly before midnight on 10 May 1941, Hess landed at Floors Farm, by <a href="/wiki/Waterfoot,_East_Renfrewshire" title="Waterfoot, East Renfrewshire">Waterfoot</a>, south of Glasgow, where he was discovered still struggling with his parachute by local ploughman David McLean. Identifying himself as "<a href="/wiki/Hauptmann" title="Hauptmann">Hauptmann</a> Alfred Horn", Hess said he had an important message for the Duke of Hamilton. McLean helped Hess to his nearby cottage and contacted the local <a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(United_Kingdom)" title="Home Guard (United Kingdom)">Home Guard</a> unit, who escorted the captive to their headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Busby,_East_Renfrewshire" title="Busby, East Renfrewshire">Busby, East Renfrewshire</a>. Hess was next taken to the police station at <a href="/wiki/Giffnock" title="Giffnock">Giffnock</a>, arriving after midnight. He was searched and his possessions confiscated. Hess repeatedly requested to meet with the Duke of Hamilton during questioning undertaken with the aid of an interpreter by Major Graham Donald, the area commandant of Royal Observer Corps. After the interview, He was taken under guard to <a href="/wiki/Maryhill_Barracks" title="Maryhill Barracks">Maryhill Barracks</a> in Glasgow, where his injuries were treated. By this time, some of his captors suspected his true identity, though Hess continued to insist his name was Horn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971101–105-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201158–61-107">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg/220px-Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg/330px-Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg/440px-Rudolph_Hess_BF-110.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">fuselage</a> of Hess' Bf 110. <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum" title="Imperial War Museum">Imperial War Museum</a> (2008)</figcaption></figure> Hamilton had been on duty as <a href="/wiki/Wing_commander_(rank)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wing commander (rank)">wing commander</a> at <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Airport" title="Edinburgh Airport">RAF Turnhouse</a> near Edinburgh when Hess had arrived, and his station had been one of those that had tracked the progress of the flight. He arrived at Maryhill Barracks the next morning, and after examining Hess' effects, he met alone with the prisoner. Hess immediately admitted his true identity and outlined the reason for his flight. Hamilton told Hess that he hoped to continue the conversation with the aid of an interpreter; Hess could speak English well, but was having trouble understanding Hamilton.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971105–107-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201161–63-109">[109]</a> He told Hamilton that he was on a "mission of humanity" and that Hitler "wished to stop the fighting" with England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960835-110">[110]</a> After the meeting, Hamilton examined the remains of the Messerschmitt in the company of an intelligence officer, then returned to Turnhouse, where he made arrangements through the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a> to meet Churchill, who was at <a href="/wiki/Ditchley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditchley">Ditchley</a> for the weekend. They had some preliminary talks that night, and Hamilton accompanied Churchill back to London the next day, where they both met with members of the <a href="/wiki/Churchill_war_ministry" title="Churchill war ministry">War Cabinet</a>. Churchill sent Hamilton with foreign affairs expert <a href="/wiki/Ivone_Kirkpatrick" title="Ivone Kirkpatrick">Ivone Kirkpatrick</a>, who had met Hess previously, to positively identify the prisoner, who had been moved to <a href="/wiki/Buchanan_Castle" title="Buchanan Castle">Buchanan Castle</a> overnight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971105–107-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201161–68-111">[111]</a> Hess, who had prepared extensive notes to use during this meeting, spoke to them at length about Hitler's expansionary plans and the need for Britain to let the Nazis have free rein in Europe, in exchange for Britain being allowed to keep its overseas possessions. Kirkpatrick held two more meetings with Hess over the course of the next few days, while Hamilton returned to his duties. In addition to being disappointed at the apparent failure of his mission, Hess began claiming that his medical treatment was inadequate and that there was a plot afoot to poison him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971116–117,_124-112">[112]</a> Hess' flight, but not his destination or fate, was first announced by <a href="/wiki/Munich_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Radio">Munich Radio</a> in Germany on the evening of 12 May. The following day, Hitler sent Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a> to give the news in person to Mussolini, and the British press was permitted to release full information about events that same day. On 14 May, Ilse Hess finally learned that her husband had survived the trip when news of his fate was broadcast on German radio.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971119–120-113">[113]</a> Two sections of the fuselage of the aircraft were initially hidden by David McLean and later retrieved. One part was sold to the former assistant secretary of the Battle of Britain Association, who gave it to a war museum in the US; this 17.5 by 23 inches (44 by 58 cm) part was later sold by <a href="/wiki/Bonhams" title="Bonhams">Bonhams</a> at auction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonhams2014-114">[114]</a> Part of the fuel tank and a strut were offered for sale via Bonhams in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonhams2015-115">[115]</a> Other wreckage was salvaged by 63 Maintenance Unit between 11 and 16 May 1941 and then taken to <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> to be stored. The aeroplane had been armed with four machine guns in the nose, but carried no ammunition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201172–73-116">[116]</a> One of the engines is on display at the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF Museum">RAF Museum</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum" title="Imperial War Museum">Imperial War Museum</a> displays another engine and part of the fuselage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Scotsman''2014-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trial_and_imprisonment">Trial and imprisonment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trial and imprisonment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prisoner_of_war">Prisoner of war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Prisoner of war">edit</a>]</div> From Buchanan Castle, Hess was transferred briefly to the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> and then to <a href="/wiki/Mytchett#Detention_of_Rudolf_Hess" title="Mytchett">Mytchett Place</a> in <a href="/wiki/Surrey" title="Surrey">Surrey</a>, a fortified mansion, designated "Camp Z", where he stayed for the next 13 months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201171-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971128-119">[119]</a> Churchill issued orders that Hess was to be treated well, though he was not allowed to read newspapers or listen to the radio. Three intelligence officers were stationed onsite and 150 soldiers were placed on guard. By early June, Hess was allowed to write to his family. He also prepared a letter to the Duke of Hamilton, but it was never delivered, and his repeated requests for further meetings were turned down.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201182,_88,_95-120">[120]</a> Major <a href="/wiki/Frank_Foley" title="Frank Foley">Frank Foley</a>, the leading German expert in MI6 and former British Passport Control Officer in Berlin, took charge of a year-long abortive debriefing of Hess, according to Foreign Office files released to the National Archives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2004-121">[121]</a> Henry V. Dicks and <a href="/wiki/John_Rawlings_Rees" title="John Rawlings Rees">John Rawlings Rees</a>, psychiatrists who treated Hess during this period, noted that while he was not insane, he was mentally unstable, with tendencies toward hypochondria and paranoia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971136-122">[122]</a> Hess repeated his peace proposal to <a href="/wiki/John_Simon,_1st_Viscount_Simon" title="John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon">John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon</a>, then serving as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, in an interview on 9 June 1942. Lord Simon noted that the prisoner's mental state was not good; Hess claimed he was being poisoned and was being prevented from sleeping.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201189-123">[123]</a> He would insist on swapping his dinner with that of one of his guards, and attempted to get them to send samples of the food out for analysis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971139–140-124">[124]</a> While in Scotland, Hess claimed to have discovered a "secret force" controlling the minds of Churchill and other British leaders, filling them with an irrational hatred of Germany. Hess claimed that the force acted on Hitler's mind as well, causing him to make poor military decisions. He said that the Jews had psychic powers that allowed them to control the minds of others, including Himmler, and that the Holocaust was part of a Jewish plot to defame Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007262–263-125">[125]</a> In the early morning hours of 16 June 1942, Hess rushed his guards and attempted suicide by jumping over the railing of the staircase at Mytchett Place. He fell onto the stone floor below, fracturing the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> of his left leg. The injury required that the leg be kept in <a href="/wiki/Traction_(orthopedics)" title="Traction (orthopedics)">traction</a> for 12 weeks, with a further six weeks bed rest before he was permitted to walk with crutches. Captain Munro Johnson of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps" title="Royal Army Medical Corps">Royal Army Medical Corps</a>, who assessed Hess, noted that another suicide attempt was likely to occur in the near future. Hess began around this time to complain of amnesia. This symptom and some of his increasingly erratic behaviour may have in part been a ruse, because if he were declared mentally ill, he could be repatriated under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201192–95-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971139–140,_149-127">[127]</a> Hess was moved to <a href="/wiki/Maindiff_Court_Hospital" title="Maindiff Court Hospital">Maindiff Court Hospital</a> on 26 June 1942, where he remained for the next three years. The facility was chosen for its added security and the need for fewer guards. Hess was allowed walks on the grounds and car trips into the surrounding countryside. He had access to newspapers and other reading materials; he wrote letters and journals. His mental health remained under the care of Dr. Rees. Hess continued to complain on and off of memory loss and made a second suicide attempt on 4 February 1945, when he stabbed himself with a bread knife. The wound was not serious, requiring two stitches. Despondent that Germany was losing the war, he took no food for the next week, only resuming eating when he was threatened with being force-fed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201195–97-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971142–145-129">[129]</a> Germany surrendered unconditionally on 8 May 1945. Hess, facing charges as a war criminal, was ordered to appear before the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal">International Military Tribunal</a> and was transported to <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> on 10 October 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201197-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuremberg_trials">Nuremberg trials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nuremberg trials">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg/170px-Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg/255px-Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg/340px-Rudolf_Hess_in_Landsberg_Prison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="1002" /></a><figcaption>Hess in his cell at Nuremberg in November 1945</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a> held a series of military tribunals and trials, beginning with a trial of the major war criminals from November 1945 to October 1946. Hess was tried with this first group of 23 defendants, all of whom were charged with several counts from conspiracy to commit crimes, crimes against peace, <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, in violation of international laws governing warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2008741-131">[131]</a> On his arrival in Nuremberg, Hess was reluctant to give up some of his possessions, including samples of food he said had been poisoned by the British; he proposed to use these for his defence during the trial. The commandant of the facility, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Burton_C._Andrus" title="Burton C. Andrus">Burton C. Andrus</a> of the United States Army, advised him that he would be allowed no special treatment; the samples were sealed and confiscated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197434-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971151–152-133">[133]</a> Hess's diaries indicate that he did not acknowledge the validity of the court and felt the outcome was a foregone conclusion. He was thin when he arrived, weighing 65 kilograms (143 lb), and had a poor appetite, but was deemed to be in good health. As one defendant, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ley" title="Robert Ley">Robert Ley</a>, had managed to hang himself in his cell on 24 October, the remaining prisoners were monitored around the clock.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESereny1996573-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197437–38-135">[135]</a> Because of his previous suicide attempts, Hess was handcuffed to a guard whenever he was out of his cell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971153-136">[136]</a> Almost immediately after his arrival, Hess began exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a>, which may have been feigned in the hope of avoiding the death sentence. The chief psychiatrist at Nuremberg, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kelley" title="Douglas Kelley">Douglas Kelley</a> of the US Military, gave the opinion that the defendant suffered from "a true psychoneurosis, primarily of the hysterical type, engrafted on a basic paranoid and schizoid personality, with amnesia, partly genuine and partly feigned", but found him fit to stand trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971154–155-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChesler2014-138">[138]</a> Efforts were made to trigger his memory, including bringing in his former secretaries and showing old newsreels, but he persisted in showing no response to these stimuli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197437–38-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971154–155-137">[137]</a> When he was allowed to make a statement to the tribunal on 30 November, Hess admitted that he had faked memory loss as a tactic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971159-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197443-140">[140]</a> The prosecution's case against Hess was presented by <a href="/wiki/Mervyn_Griffith-Jones" title="Mervyn Griffith-Jones">Mervyn Griffith-Jones</a> beginning on 7 February 1946. By quoting from Hess' speeches, he attempted to demonstrate that Hess had been aware of and agreed with Hitler's plans to conduct a war of aggression in violation of international law. He declared that as Hess had signed important governmental decrees, including the decree requiring mandatory military service, the Nuremberg racial laws, and a decree incorporating the conquered Polish territories into the Reich, he must share responsibility for the acts of the regime. Griffith-Jones pointed out that the timing of Hess's trip to Scotland, only six weeks before the German <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invasion of the Soviet Union</a>, could only be viewed as an attempt by Hess to prevent the British from interfering. Hess resumed showing symptoms of amnesia at the end of February, partway through the prosecution's case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971162–163-141">[141]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolf_hess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rudolf_hess.jpg/170px-Rudolf_hess.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rudolf_hess.jpg/255px-Rudolf_hess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Rudolf_hess.jpg/340px-Rudolf_hess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Hess (left) and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a> in the defendants' box at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a></figcaption></figure> At the opening of the trial in November 1945, Hess responded "nein" (no) when asked to enter a plea. The court recorded this as a "not guilty" plea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPathé1945-142">[142]</a> The case for Hess' defence was presented from 22 to 26 March 1946 by his lawyer, Dr Alfred Seidl. He noted that while Hess accepted responsibility for the many decrees he had signed, he said these matters were part of the internal workings of a sovereign state and thus outside the purview of a war crimes trial. He called to the stand <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Wilhelm_Bohle" title="Ernst Wilhelm Bohle">Ernst Wilhelm Bohle</a>, the man who had been head of the <a href="/wiki/NSDAP/AO" class="mw-redirect" title="NSDAP/AO">NSDAP/AO</a>, to testify on Hess' behalf. When Griffith-Jones presented questions about the organisation's spying in several countries, Bohle testified that any warlike activities such as espionage had been done without his permission or knowledge. Seidl called two other witnesses, former mayor of <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Str%C3%B6lin" title="Karl Strölin">Karl Strölin</a> and Hess' brother Alfred, both of whom repudiated the allegations that the NSDAP/AO had been spying and fomenting war. Seidl presented a summation of the defence's case on 25 July, in which he attempted to refute the charge of conspiracy by pointing out that Hitler alone had made all the important decisions. He noted that Hess could not be held responsible for any events that took place after he left Germany in May 1941. Meanwhile, Hess mentally detached himself from what was happening, declining visits from his family and refusing to read the newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971165–171-143">[143]</a> Hess spoke to the tribunal again on 31 August 1946 during the last day of closing statements, where he made a lengthy statement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197449-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPick2012282-145">[145]</a> The court deliberated for nearly two months before passing judgement on 30 September, with the defendants being individually sentenced the following day. Hess was found guilty on two counts: crimes against peace (planning and preparing a war of aggression), and conspiracy with other German leaders to commit crimes. He was found not guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Hess was given a life sentence, one of seven Nazis to receive prison sentences at the trial. These seven were transported by aircraft to the Allied military prison at <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Prison" title="Spandau Prison">Spandau</a> in Berlin on 18 July 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971173-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201198-147">[147]</a> The Soviet member of the tribunal, Major-General <a href="/wiki/Iona_Nikitchenko" title="Iona Nikitchenko">Iona Nikitchenko</a>, filed a document recording his dissent of Hess's sentence; he felt the death sentence was warranted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971175-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spandau_Prison">Spandau Prison</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spandau Prison">edit</a>]</div> Spandau was placed under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a>, the governing body in charge of the military occupation of Germany, which consisted of representatives from the UK, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Each country supplied prison guards for a month at a time on a rotating basis. After the inmates were given medical examinations—Hess refused his body search, and had to be held down<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESereny1996604-149">[149]</a>—they were provided with prison garb and assigned the numbers by which they were addressed throughout their stay. Hess was Number 7. The prison had a small library and inmates were allowed to file special requests for additional reading material. Writing materials were limited; each inmate was allowed four pieces of paper per month for letters. They were not allowed to speak to one another without permission and were expected to work in the facility, helping with cleaning and gardening chores.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird197468–71-150">[150]</a> The inmates were taken for outdoor walks around the prison grounds for an hour each day, separated by about 10 yards (9 m). Some of the rules became more relaxed as time went on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESereny1996604-149">[149]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG/220px-Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG/330px-Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG/440px-Kriegsverbrechergef%C3%A4ngnis_Spandau_-_Wachabl%C3%B6sung.JPG 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>Changing of the guard at <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Prison" title="Spandau Prison">Spandau Prison</a>, mid-1980s</figcaption></figure> Visitors were allowed to come for half an hour per month, but Hess forbade his family to visit until December 1969, when he was a patient at the British Military Hospital in <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> for a perforated ulcer. By this time, Wolf Rüdiger Hess was 32 years old and Ilse 69; they had not seen Hess since his departure from Germany in 1941. After this illness, he allowed his family to visit regularly. His daughter-in-law, Andrea, who often brought photos and films of his grandchildren, became a particularly welcome visitor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971186,_195-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011100–101-152">[152]</a> Hess' health problems, both mental and physical, were ongoing during his captivity. He cried out in the night, claiming he had stomach pains. He continued to suspect that his food was being poisoned and complained of amnesia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971186–187,_195-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeer1976193,_197,_234,_305-154">[154]</a> A psychiatrist who examined him in 1957 deemed that Hess was not ill enough to be transferred to a mental hospital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeer1976314-155">[155]</a> Hess attempted suicide again in 1977.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011100-156">[156]</a> Other than his stays in hospital, Hess spent the rest of his life in Spandau Prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971195,_200-157">[157]</a> His fellow inmates <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a> were released because of poor health in the 1950s;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeer1976258,_278,_310-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">Baldur von Schirach</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> served their time and were released; Dönitz left in 1956, Schirach and Speer in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpeer1976300,_446-159">[159]</a> The 600-cell prison continued to be maintained for its lone prisoner from 1966 until Hess's death in 1987, at an estimated annual cost of <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a> 800,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971189,_197-160">[160]</a> Conditions were far more pleasant in the 1980s than in the early years; Hess was allowed to move more freely around the cell block, setting his own routine and choosing his own activities, which included television, films, reading, and gardening. A lift was installed so he could easily reach the garden, and he was provided with a medical orderly from 1982 onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011100–101-152">[152]</a> Hess' lawyer Alfred Seidl launched numerous appeals for his release, beginning as early as 1947. These were denied, mainly because the Soviets repeatedly vetoed the proposal. Spandau was located in West Berlin, and its existence gave the Soviets a foothold in that sector of the city. Additionally, Soviet officials believed Hess must have known in 1941 that an attack on their country was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971189–192-161">[161]</a> In 1967, Wolf Rüdiger Hess began a campaign to win his father's release, garnering support from politicians such as <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Oaksey" title="Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey">Geoffrey Lawrence</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[a]</a> in the UK and <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> in West Germany, but to no avail, in spite of the prisoner's advanced age and deteriorating health.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971192–195-164">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess1987325–327-165">[164]</a> In 1967, Wolf Hess founded a society that by September had collected 700 signatures on a petition calling for Hess's release. By 1974, 350,000 people had signed the petition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007237,_243-166">[165]</a> The American historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Goda" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Goda">Norman Goda</a> wrote that those who campaigned to free Hess routinely exaggerated the harshness of his imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007222-167">[166]</a> Goda states that Wolf Hess's efforts to free his father ultimately backfired as he conflated the question of whether his father deserved release on humanitarian grounds with the question of whether his father was guilty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007248–249-168">[167]</a> Wolf argued that his father was unjustly imprisoned to hide the UK's "war guilt", arguing that millions of lives could have been saved if only Churchill had accepted Hess's peace offer in May 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007249-169">[168]</a> In 1973, the Israeli foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Abba_Eban" title="Abba Eban">Abba Eban</a> charged that Hess was not being treated as badly as his champions claimed and that he should serve his full sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007222-167">[166]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg/220px-FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg/330px-FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg/440px-FreiheitF%C3%BCrRudolfHessWolltIhrAuchDenTotalenKrieg1981Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1037" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>Graffiti on a sign outside <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Memorial_Church" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church">Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> in 1981. The comments read "Freedom for Rudolf Hess" and "<a href="/wiki/Do_you_want_Total_War%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Do you want Total War?">Do you also want total war</a>?"</figcaption></figure> In September 1979, medical tests showed that Hess was suffering from potentially fatal prostate cancer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250-170">[169]</a> In a letter dated 8 September 1979, Hess announced that he would refuse treatment unless released, saying he deserved freedom as an "unjustly convicted man" and that if he were to die, his death would be on the consciences of the leaders of the UK, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250-170">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Vance" title="Cyrus Vance">Cyrus Vance</a> wrote: "Far from representing the beginning of irrationality, Hess's well considered attempt is to use his medical condition to 'force' his release".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250-170">[169]</a> The British Foreign Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carington,_6th_Baron_Carrington" title="Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington">Lord Carrington</a>, appealed for Hess's release, but Soviet Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a> refused on the grounds that Hess had never "shown even a shadow of repentance" and was still claiming innocence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007252-171">[170]</a> Gromyko also said that many people would take Hess's release as confirmation of a wrongful conviction. Hess's appeal to neo-Nazi groups in West Germany further increased the Soviet unwillingness to consider his release.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007253–254-172">[171]</a> Hess continued to be an unapologetic Nazi and antisemite; this was usually ignored by those championing his release, who portrayed him as a harmless old man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007260–261-173">[172]</a> Hess further hindered efforts to get himself released by promising to make no statements to the media if he were released, while repeatedly writing drafts of statements that he planned to make. On 25 June 1986, a Soviet guard caught Charles Gabel, the chaplain at Spandau, attempting to smuggle out a statement by Hess, causing Gabel to be fired. Hess had originally written the document as his opening address at the Nuremberg trial in 1946, which he had been unable to deliver in full after the judges cut him short. Hess tried to mail a copy of the statement to Sir <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Mosley" title="Oswald Mosley">Oswald Mosley</a> in October 1946, but the letter was intercepted by his US guards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007263-174">[173]</a> Hess's statement (both the 1946 version and the 1986 version) claimed that Germany's attack on the Soviet Union was preemptive; he claimed there had been overwhelming evidence that <a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">the Soviet Union had planned to attack Germany</a>. He said in the statement that he had decided to make his flight to Scotland without informing Hitler, with the aim of informing the UK of the Soviet danger to "European civilization" and the entire world. He believed his warning would cause the UK to end its war with Germany and join in the fight against the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007261–262-175">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_aftermath">Death and aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death and aftermath">edit</a>]</div> Hess was found dead on 17 August 1987, aged 93, in a summer house that had been set up in the prison garden as a reading room; he had hanged himself using an extension cable strung over a window latch. A short note to his family was found in his pocket, thanking them for all that they had done. The <a href="/wiki/Four-Power_Authorities" title="Four-Power Authorities">Four-Power Authorities</a> released a statement on 17 September ruling the death a suicide. Hess was initially buried at a secret location to avoid media attention or demonstrations by Nazi sympathisers, but his body was re-interred in a family plot at <a href="/wiki/Wunsiedel" title="Wunsiedel">Wunsiedel</a> on 17 March 1988; his wife was buried beside him in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011101–103-176">[175]</a> Hess' lawyer Alfred Seidl felt that he was too old and frail to have managed to kill himself. Wolf Rüdiger Hess repeatedly claimed that his father had been murdered by the British <a href="/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Intelligence Service">Secret Intelligence Service</a> to prevent him from revealing information about British misconduct during the war. According to an investigation by the British government in 1989, the available evidence did not back up the claim that Hess was murdered, and Solicitor General <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Lyell,_Baron_Lyell_of_Markyate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Lyell, Baron Lyell of Markyate">Sir Nicholas Lyell</a> saw no grounds for further investigation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilmo2013-177">[176]</a> The autopsy results supported the conclusion that Hess had killed himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwaldFreeman1987-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011132-179">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Bild''2009-180">[179]</a> A report declassified and published in 2012 led to questions again being asked as to whether Hess had been murdered. Historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Padfield" title="Peter Padfield">Peter Padfield</a> wrote that the suicide note found on the body appeared to have been written when Hess was hospitalised in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERojasWardrop2012-181">[180]</a> Hess' grave in Wunsiedel became a destination for <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> pilgrimage and for demonstrations each August on the anniversary of his death. To prevent further pilgrimages, the parish council did not extend the grave's lease when it expired in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2011-182">[181]</a> With the eventual consent of his family, Hess's grave was re-opened on 20 July 2011. The remains were cremated and the ashes scattered at sea by family members. The gravestone, which bore the epitaph "Ich hab's gewagt" ("I have dared"), was destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2011-183">[182]</a> Spandau Prison was demolished in 1987 to prevent it from becoming a neo-Nazi shrine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwaldFreeman1987-178">[177]</a> A myth that the Spandau prisoner was not actually Hess was disproved in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCall_et_al.2019-184">[183]</a> A study of DNA testing undertaken by Sherman McCall, formerly of the <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Medical_Center" title="Walter Reed Army Medical Center">Walter Reed Army Medical Center</a>, and Jan Cemper-Kiesslich of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salzburg" title="University of Salzburg">University of Salzburg</a> demonstrated a 99.99 per cent match between the prisoner's <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a> DNA markers and those of a living male Hess relative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnapton2019-185">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_Party_leaders_and_officials" title="List of Nazi Party leaders and officials">List of Nazi Party leaders and officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_of_SS-Leaders_in_general%27s_rank#List_SS-Obergruppenführer" class="mw-redirect" title="Register of SS-Leaders in general's rank">List SS-Obergruppenführer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Deutsche_Heilkunde" title="Neue Deutsche Heilkunde">Neue Deutsche Heilkunde</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informational_notes">Informational notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Informational notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Lawrence had been the president of the judicial group at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971195-162">[162]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrlow2010261-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrlow2010261_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrlow2010261_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrlow2010">Orlow 2010</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELang197969-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELang197969_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLang1979">Lang 1979</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201119_3-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollierPedley200068-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollierPedley200068_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollierPedley2000">Collier & Pedley 2000</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroszat1981308–309-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroszat1981308–309_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroszat1981308–309_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBroszat1981">Broszat 1981</a>, pp. 308–309. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946466-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946466_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946466_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946">Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression 1946</a>, p. 466. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497–498-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497–498_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2015">Williams 2015</a>, pp. 497–498. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015497_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2015">Williams 2015</a>, p. 497. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel19712-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel19712_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel19712_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidt199737–38-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidt199737–38_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchmidt1997">Schmidt 1997</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198726–27-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198726–27_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198726–27_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20112–3-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20112–3_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20112–3_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinstein2007140-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubinstein2007140_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubinstein2007140_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRubinstein2007">Rubinstein 2007</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114–6-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20114–6_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 4–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198727-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198727_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20117-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20117_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20118–9-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20118–9_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20119–12-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker20119–12_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 9–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198727–28-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198727–28_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadfield200113-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadfield200113_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPadfield2001">Padfield 2001</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201113–14-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201113–14_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003156–159-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003156–159_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, pp. 156–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201114_24-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003177_25-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther194073-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGunther194073_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGunther1940">Gunther 1940</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird19747-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBird19747_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBird1974">Bird 1974</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2005345-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2005345_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2005">Evans 2005</a>, p. 345. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115,_20-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115,_20_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 15, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197163_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPick201236-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPick201236_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPick2012">Pick 2012</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971146-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel1971146_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201115_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198734-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198734_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198734_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201117-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201117_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186–187-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186–187_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, pp. 186–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003186_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193–194-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003193–194_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, pp. 193–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer196073–74-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShirer196073–74_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShirer1960">Shirer 1960</a>, pp. 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201118–19-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201118–19_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 18–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer196070,_73-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShirer196070,_73_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShirer1960">Shirer 1960</a>, pp. 70, 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003196-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003196_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003197-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003197_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003201,_211-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003201,_211_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, pp. 201, 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003209,_282-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003209,_282_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, pp. 209, 282. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird19748-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBird19748_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBird1974">Bird 1974</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther19406-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGunther19406_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGunther1940">Gunther 1940</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201120–21-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201120–21_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003307-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003307_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 307. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1960226–227-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShirer1960226–227_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShirer1960">Shirer 1960</a>, pp. 226–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELang197979-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELang197979_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLang1979">Lang 1979</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198739-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198739_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198739_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121–22-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201121–22_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 21–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015498-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2015498_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2015">Williams 2015</a>, p. 498. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197147–48-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197147–48_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197137,_60,_62-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197137,_60,_62_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, pp. 37, 60, 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197139-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197139_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197167-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197167_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197151-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManvellFraenkel197151_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971">Manvell & Fraenkel 1971</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199968-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199968_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobsen1999">Jacobsen 1999</a>, pp. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199969-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199969_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobsen1999">Jacobsen 1999</a>, pp. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199970-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobsen199970_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobsen1999">Jacobsen 1999</a>, pp. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201122-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201122_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker201122_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2005543–544-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2005543–544_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2005">Evans 2005</a>, pp. 543–544. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans200347-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans200347_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess198736-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess198736_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHess1987">Hess 1987</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007226-69">^ <a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007237,_243_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, pp. 237, 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007222-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007222_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007222_167-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007248–249-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007248–249_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, pp. 248–249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007249-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007249_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007250_170-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007252-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007252_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007253–254-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007253–254_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, pp. 253–254. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007260–261-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007260–261_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, pp. 260–261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007263-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007263_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoda2007261–262-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoda2007261–262_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoda2007">Goda 2007</a>, pp. 261–262. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011101–103-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011101–103_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, pp. 101–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilmo2013-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilmo2013_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMilmo2013">Milmo 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwaldFreeman1987-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwaldFreeman1987_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwaldFreeman1987_178-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenwaldFreeman1987">Greenwald & Freeman 1987</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011132-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENesbitvan_Acker2011132_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011">Nesbit & van Acker 2011</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Bild''2009-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Bild''2009_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBild2009">Bild 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERojasWardrop2012-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERojasWardrop2012_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRojasWardrop2012">Rojas & Wardrop 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2011-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2011_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowling2011">Dowling 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2011-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2011_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBBC_News2011">BBC News 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCall_et_al.2019-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCall_et_al.2019_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCall_et_al.2019">McCall et al. 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnapton2019-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnapton2019_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKnapton2019">Knapton 2019</a>. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBild2009" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090123071358/http://bild.de/BILD/berlin/aktuell/2008/07/24/bezirk-feuert-krankenpfleger-von/rudolf-hess.html">"Bezirk feuert Krankenpfleger von Heß"</a> [District nurse fired over Hess]. <a href="/wiki/Bild" title="Bild">Bild</a> (in German). Axel Springer AG. 24 July 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bild.de/BILD/berlin/aktuell/2008/07/24/bezirk-feuert-krankenpfleger-von/rudolf-hess.html">the original</a> on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bild&rft.atitle=Bezirk+feuert+Krankenpfleger+von+He%C3%9F&rft.date=2008-07-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bild.de%2FBILD%2Fberlin%2Faktuell%2F2008%2F07%2F24%2Fbezirk-feuert-krankenpfleger-von%2Frudolf-hess.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_K._Bird" title="Eugene K. Bird">Bird, Eugene</a> (1974). The Loneliest Man in the World. London: Martin Secker & Warburg. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1094312">1094312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Loneliest+Man+in+the+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Martin+Secker+%26+Warburg&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1094312&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyes2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Boyes" title="Roger Boyes">Boyes, Roger</a> (7 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/how-i-got-hess-talking-australian-journalist-desmond-zwar-explains/news-story/ea05621ae5d63486745370c4880b9258">"How I got Hess talking: Australian journalist Desmond Zwar explains"</a>. The Australian. News Corp Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021063816/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/how-i-got-hess-talking-australian-journalist-desmond-zwar-explains/news-story/ea05621ae5d63486745370c4880b9258">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=How+I+got+Hess+talking%3A+Australian+journalist+Desmond+Zwar+explains&rft.date=2010-06-07&rft.aulast=Boyes&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fhow-i-got-hess-talking-australian-journalist-desmond-zwar-explains%2Fnews-story%2Fea05621ae5d63486745370c4880b9258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroszat1981" class="citation book cs1">Broszat, Martin (1981). The Hitler State: The Foundation and Development of the Internal Structure of the Third Reich. New York: Longman Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-49200-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-49200-9"><bdi>0-582-49200-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hitler+State%3A+The+Foundation+and+Development+of+the+Internal+Structure+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longman+Inc.&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-582-49200-9&rft.aulast=Broszat&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesler2014" class="citation web cs1">Chesler, Caren (1 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/rudolf-hess-tale-poison-paranoia-and-tragedy-180952783/#HmDHAfuU0IjBwh5e.99">"Rudolf Hess' Tale of Poison, Paranoia and Tragedy"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. Retrieved 4 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Hess%27+Tale+of+Poison%2C+Paranoia+and+Tragedy&rft.date=2014-10-01&rft.aulast=Chesler&rft.aufirst=Caren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Frudolf-hess-tale-poison-paranoia-and-tragedy-180952783%2F%23HmDHAfuU0IjBwh5e.99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilders2017" class="citation book cs1">Childers, Thomas (2017). The Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-45165-113-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-45165-113-3"><bdi>978-1-45165-113-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich%3A+A+History+of+Nazi+Germany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-45165-113-3&rft.aulast=Childers&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston</a> (1950). <a href="/wiki/The_Second_World_War_(book_series)" title="The Second World War (book series)">The Grand Alliance: The Second World War</a>. 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Heinemann Educational Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-435-32721-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-435-32721-6"><bdi>0-435-32721-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+1919%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Heinemann+Educational+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-435-32721-6&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Pedley%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonhams2015" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/22965/lot/237/">"Deputy Fuhrer Rudolf Walter Richard Hess: Sections of his Crashed Plane, Recovered From Floors Farm, Eagleston, Scotland, 11 May 1941"</a>. Bonhams. 21 October 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bonhams&rft.atitle=Deputy+Fuhrer+Rudolf+Walter+Richard+Hess%3A+Sections+of+his+Crashed+Plane%2C+Recovered+From+Floors+Farm%2C+Eagleston%2C+Scotland%2C+11+May+1941&rft.date=2015-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bonhams.com%2Fauctions%2F22965%2Flot%2F237%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2011" class="citation news cs1">Dowling, Siobhan (21 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/21/rudolf-hess-body-removed-nazi">"Rudolf Hess's body removed from cemetery to deter Nazi pilgrims"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Retrieved 26 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Hess%27s+body+removed+from+cemetery+to+deter+Nazi+pilgrims&rft.date=2011-07-21&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Siobhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2011%2Fjul%2F21%2Frudolf-hess-body-removed-nazi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Evans, Richard J.</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Coming_of_the_Third_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="The Coming of the Third Reich">The Coming of the Third Reich</a>. Penguin Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303469-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303469-8"><bdi>978-0-14-303469-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-14-303469-8&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2005" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303790-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303790-3"><bdi>978-0-14-303790-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich+in+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-14-303790-3&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2008" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. New York: Penguin Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311671-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311671-4"><bdi>978-0-14-311671-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich+at+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311671-4&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoda2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_J._W._Goda" title="Norman J. W. Goda">Goda, Norman</a> (2007). Tales from Spandau: Nazi Criminals and the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86720-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86720-7"><bdi>978-0-521-86720-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tales+from+Spandau%3A+Nazi+Criminals+and+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86720-7&rft.aulast=Goda&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunther1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gunther" title="John Gunther">Gunther, John</a> (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/836676034">836676034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F836676034&rft.aulast=Gunther&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandwerk2016" class="citation web cs1">Handwerk, Brian (10 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/will-we-ever-know-why-nazi-leader-rudolf-hess-flew-scotland-middle-world-war-ii-180959040/">"Will We Ever Know Why Nazi Leader Rudolf Hess Flew to Scotland in the Middle of World War II?"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 28 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Will+We+Ever+Know+Why+Nazi+Leader+Rudolf+Hess+Flew+to+Scotland+in+the+Middle+of+World+War+II%3F&rft.date=2016-05-10&rft.aulast=Handwerk&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fwill-we-ever-know-why-nazi-leader-rudolf-hess-flew-scotland-middle-world-war-ii-180959040%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHess1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_R%C3%BCdiger_Hess" title="Wolf Rüdiger Hess">Hess, Wolf Rüdiger</a> (1987) [1984]. My Father Rudolf Hess. London: W.H. Allen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-352-32214-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-352-32214-4"><bdi>0-352-32214-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Father+Rudolf+Hess&rft.place=London&rft.pub=W.H.+Allen&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-352-32214-4&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=Wolf+R%C3%BCdiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerwig2016" class="citation book cs1">Herwig, Holger (2016). The Demon of Geopolitics: How Karl Haushofer "Educated" Hitler and Hess. Latham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-6114-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-6114-3"><bdi>978-1-4422-6114-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demon+of+Geopolitics%3A+How+Karl+Haushofer+%22Educated%22+Hitler+and+Hess&rft.place=Latham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-6114-3&rft.aulast=Herwig&rft.aufirst=Holger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwaldFreeman1987" class="citation news cs1">Greenwald, John; Freeman, Clive (31 August 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206131406/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,965331-1,00.html">"Germany: The Inmate of Spandau's Last Wish"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,965331,00.html">the original</a> on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Germany%3A+The+Inmate+of+Spandau%27s+Last+Wish&rft.date=1987-08-31&rft.aulast=Greenwald&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Freeman%2C+Clive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C965331%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen1999" class="citation book cs1">Jacobsen, Hans-Adolf (1999). "The Structure of Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933–1945". In Leitz, Christian (ed.). The Third Reich: The Essential Readings. London: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20700-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20700-7"><bdi>0-631-20700-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Structure+of+Nazi+Foreign+Policy%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich%3A+The+Essential+Readings&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-631-20700-7&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=Hans-Adolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnapton2019" class="citation news cs1">Knapton, Sarah (22 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2019/01/22/conspiracy-theory-rudolf-hess-switched-doppelganger-spandau/">"Conspiracy theory that Rudolf Hess was switched for doppelganger in Spandau prison, debunked by DNA"</a>. The Telegraph. Retrieved 28 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Conspiracy+theory+that+Rudolf+Hess+was+switched+for+doppelganger+in+Spandau+prison%2C+debunked+by+DNA&rft.date=2019-01-22&rft.aulast=Knapton&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fscience%2F2019%2F01%2F22%2Fconspiracy-theory-rudolf-hess-switched-doppelganger-spandau%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnickerbocker1941" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Renfro_Knickerbocker" title="Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker">Knickerbocker, H. R.</a> (1941). Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Is+Tomorrow+Hitler%27s%3F+200+Questions+on+the+Battle+of+Mankind&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Reynal+%26+Hitchcock&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Knickerbocker&rft.aufirst=H.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang1979" class="citation book cs1">Lang, Jochen von (1979). The Secretary. Martin Bormann: The Man Who Manipulated Hitler. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50321-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50321-9"><bdi>978-0-394-50321-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secretary.+Martin+Bormann%3A+The+Man+Who+Manipulated+Hitler&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-394-50321-9&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Jochen+von&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManvellFraenkel1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Manvell" title="Roger Manvell">Manvell, Roger</a>; <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Fraenkel" title="Heinrich Fraenkel">Fraenkel, Heinrich</a> (1971). Hess: A Biography. London: Granada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-261-63246-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-261-63246-9"><bdi>0-261-63246-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hess%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Granada&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-261-63246-9&rft.aulast=Manvell&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Fraenkel%2C+Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCall_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">McCall, Sherman; Kreindl, Gabriele; Kastinger, Tamara; Müller, Eva; Zahrer, Waltraud; Grießner, Ines; Dunkelmann, Bettina; Tutsch-Bauer, Edith; Neuhuber, Franz; Pittman, Phillip R.; Wahl, Rick; Lowry, Mark; Cemper-Kiesslich, Jan (May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30685710/">"Rudolf Hess – The Doppelgänger conspiracy theory disproved"</a>. Forensic Science International. Genetics. 40: 18–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fsigen.2019.01.004">10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.01.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1878-0326">1878-0326</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30685710">30685710</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59306479">59306479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forensic+Science+International.+Genetics&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Hess+%E2%80%93+The+Doppelg%C3%A4nger+conspiracy+theory+disproved&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2019-05&rft.issn=1878-0326&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59306479%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30685710&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fsigen.2019.01.004&rft.aulast=McCall&rft.aufirst=Sherman&rft.au=Kreindl%2C+Gabriele&rft.au=Kastinger%2C+Tamara&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Eva&rft.au=Zahrer%2C+Waltraud&rft.au=Grie%C3%9Fner%2C+Ines&rft.au=Dunkelmann%2C+Bettina&rft.au=Tutsch-Bauer%2C+Edith&rft.au=Neuhuber%2C+Franz&rft.au=Pittman%2C+Phillip+R.&rft.au=Wahl%2C+Rick&rft.au=Lowry%2C+Mark&rft.au=Cemper-Kiesslich%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F30685710%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilmo2013" class="citation web cs1">Milmo, Cahal (10 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/adolf-hitlers-nazi-deputy-rudolf-hess-murdered-by-british-agents-to-stop-him-spilling-wartime-secrets-8802603.html">"Adolf Hitler's Nazi deputy Rudolf Hess 'murdered by British agents' to stop him spilling wartime secrets"</a>. The Independent. Retrieved 10 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Adolf+Hitler%27s+Nazi+deputy+Rudolf+Hess+%27murdered+by+British+agents%27+to+stop+him+spilling+wartime+secrets&rft.date=2013-09-10&rft.aulast=Milmo&rft.aufirst=Cahal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fcrime%2Fadolf-hitlers-nazi-deputy-rudolf-hess-murdered-by-british-agents-to-stop-him-spilling-wartime-secrets-8802603.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNazi_Conspiracy_and_Aggression1946" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_Nazi_Vol-II.pdf">"Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume 2, Chapter XV, Part 3: The Reich Cabinet"</a> (PDF). Office of United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality. 1946. Retrieved 20 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nazi+Conspiracy+and+Aggression%2C+Volume+2%2C+Chapter+XV%2C+Part+3%3A+The+Reich+Cabinet&rft.pub=Office+of+United+States+Chief+of+Counsel+For+Prosecution+of+Axis+Criminality&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Frr%2Ffrd%2FMilitary_Law%2Fpdf%2FNT_Nazi_Vol-II.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesbitvan_Acker2011" class="citation book cs1">Nesbit, Roy Conyers; van Acker, Georges (2011) [1999]. The Flight of Rudolf Hess: Myths and Reality. Stroud: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-4757-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-4757-2"><bdi>978-0-7509-4757-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Flight+of+Rudolf+Hess%3A+Myths+and+Reality&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7509-4757-2&rft.aulast=Nesbit&rft.aufirst=Roy+Conyers&rft.au=van+Acker%2C+Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPathé1945" class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szhpgDz5iC8">The Nuremberg Trials</a> (Newsreel). British Pathé. 1945. Event occurs at 2:20. Retrieved 14 December 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+Trials&rft.pub=British+Path%C3%A9&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DszhpgDz5iC8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrlow2010" class="citation book cs1">Orlow, Dietrich (2010). The Nazi Party 1919–1945: A Complete History. Enigma Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-57-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-57-5"><bdi>978-1-929631-57-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+Party+1919%E2%80%931945%3A+A+Complete+History&rft.pub=Enigma+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-929631-57-5&rft.aulast=Orlow&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadfield2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Padfield" title="Peter Padfield">Padfield, Peter</a> (2001). Hess: The Fuhrer's Disciple. London: Cassell & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-35843-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-35843-6"><bdi>0-304-35843-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hess%3A+The+Fuhrer%27s+Disciple&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell+%26+Co&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-304-35843-6&rft.aulast=Padfield&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPick2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pick" title="Daniel Pick">Pick, Daniel</a> (2012). The Pursuit of the Nazi Mind: Hitler, Hess, and the Analysts. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954168-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954168-3"><bdi>978-0-19-954168-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pursuit+of+the+Nazi+Mind%3A+Hitler%2C+Hess%2C+and+the+Analysts&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954168-3&rft.aulast=Pick&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRojasWardrop2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rojas, John-Paul Ford; Wardrop, Murray (17 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/9149066/Report-into-Rudolf-Hess-death-fails-to-answer-unexplained-questions-about-Nazi-prisoners-suicide.html">"Report into Rudolf Hess death fails to answer unexplained questions about Nazi prisoner's 'suicide'"</a>. The Telegraph. Retrieved 21 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Report+into+Rudolf+Hess+death+fails+to+answer+unexplained+questions+about+Nazi+prisoner%27s+%27suicide%27&rft.date=2012-03-17&rft.aulast=Rojas&rft.aufirst=John-Paul+Ford&rft.au=Wardrop%2C+Murray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuknews%2Fdefence%2F9149066%2FReport-into-Rudolf-Hess-death-fails-to-answer-unexplained-questions-about-Nazi-prisoners-suicide.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubinstein, William (2007). Unsolved Historical Mysteries: Answers to Outstanding Historical Puzzles. Brighton: Edward Everett Root. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911454-45-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-911454-45-8"><bdi>978-1-911454-45-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsolved+Historical+Mysteries%3A+Answers+to+Outstanding+Historical+Puzzles&rft.place=Brighton&rft.pub=Edward+Everett+Root&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-911454-45-8&rft.aulast=Rubinstein&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonhams2014" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/21651/lot/51/">"Rudolf Walter Richard Hess: a fuselage section from the Messerschmitt that Hess piloted to Scotland, 10 May 1941"</a>. Bonhams. 5 June 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bonhams&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Walter+Richard+Hess%3A+a+fuselage+section+from+the+Messerschmitt+that+Hess+piloted+to+Scotland%2C+10+May+1941&rft.date=2014-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bonhams.com%2Fauctions%2F21651%2Flot%2F51%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSereny1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gitta_Sereny" title="Gitta Sereny">Sereny, Gitta</a> (1996) [1995]. Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth. New York: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76812-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76812-8"><bdi>978-0-679-76812-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Albert+Speer%3A+His+Battle+With+Truth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76812-8&rft.aulast=Sereny&rft.aufirst=Gitta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirer1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">Shirer, William L.</a> (1960). <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Third_Reich" title="The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62420-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-62420-0"><bdi>978-0-671-62420-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-671-62420-0&rft.aulast=Shirer&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schmidt, Rainer F. (1997). Rudolf Heß: Botengang eines Toren?: Der Flug nach Großbritannien vom 10. Mai 1941 (in German). Econ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-430-18016-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-430-18016-0"><bdi>978-3-430-18016-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rudolf+He%C3%9F%3A+Botengang+eines+Toren%3F%3A+Der+Flug+nach+Gro%C3%9Fbritannien+vom+10.+Mai+1941.&rft.pub=Econ&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-3-430-18016-0&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Rainer+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Scotsman2014" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/scottish-field-wreckage-of-hess-plane-to-be-sold-1-3427935">"Scottish field wreckage of Hess plane to be sold"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Scotsman" title="The Scotsman">The Scotsman</a>. Edinburgh. 31 May 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scotsman&rft.atitle=Scottish+field+wreckage+of+Hess+plane+to+be+sold&rft.date=2014-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotsman.com%2Flifestyle%2Fscottish-field-wreckage-of-hess-plane-to-be-sold-1-3427935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Michael (27 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1479844/Mrs-Foleys-diary-solves-the-mystery-of-Hess.html">"Mrs Foley's diary solves the mystery of Hess"</a>. The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Mrs+Foley%27s+diary+solves+the+mystery+of+Hess&rft.date=2004-12-27&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgermany%2F1479844%2FMrs-Foleys-diary-solves-the-mystery-of-Hess.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeer1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Speer, Albert</a> (1971) [1969]. <a href="/wiki/Inside_the_Third_Reich" title="Inside the Third Reich">Inside the Third Reich</a>. New York: Avon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-380-00071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-380-00071-5"><bdi>978-0-380-00071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Avon&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-380-00071-5&rft.aulast=Speer&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeer1976" class="citation book cs1">Speer, Albert (1976). Spandau: The Secret Diaries. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-612810-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-612810-1"><bdi>0-02-612810-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spandau%3A+The+Secret+Diaries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-02-612810-1&rft.aulast=Speer&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_News2011" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14232768">"Top Nazi Rudolf Hess exhumed from 'pilgrimage' grave"</a>. BBC News. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Top+Nazi+Rudolf+Hess+exhumed+from+%27pilgrimage%27+grave&rft.date=2011-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-14232768&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2015" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Max (2015). SS Elite: The Senior Leaders of Hitler's Praetorian Guard, Vol. 1 (A-J). Fonthill Media LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78155-433-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78155-433-3"><bdi>978-1-78155-433-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SS+Elite%3A+The+Senior+Leaders+of+Hitler%27s+Praetorian+Guard%2C+Vol.+1+%28A-J%29&rft.pub=Fonthill+Media+LLC&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78155-433-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2024" class="citation web cs1">Wright, Ashley (5 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecollector.com/hitler-circle-powerful-figures-third-reich/">"Hitler's Inner Circle: The 7 Most Powerful Figures in the Third Reich"</a>. TheCollector. Retrieved 21 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheCollector&rft.atitle=Hitler%E2%80%99s+Inner+Circle%3A+The+7+Most+Powerful+Figures+in+the+Third+Reich&rft.date=2024-06-05&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Ashley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecollector.com%2Fhitler-circle-powerful-figures-third-reich%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwar2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Zwar" title="Desmond Zwar">Zwar, Desmond</a> (16 June 2010). Talking to Rudolf Hess. Stroud: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5522-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5522-8"><bdi>978-0-7524-5522-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talking+to+Rudolf+Hess&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2010-06-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-5522-8&rft.aulast=Zwar&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Allen_(publicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Allen (publicist)">Allen, Martin</a> (2004). The Hitler/Hess Deception : British Intelligence's Best-Kept Secret of the Second World War. London: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-714119-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-714119-7"><bdi>978-0-00-714119-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hitler%2FHess+Deception+%3A+British+Intelligence%27s+Best-Kept+Secret+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-00-714119-7&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1983" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Peter (1983). The Crown and the Swastika: Hitler, Hess, and the Duke of Windsor. London: R. Hale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7090-1294-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7090-1294-8"><bdi>978-0-7090-1294-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crown+and+the+Swastika%3A+Hitler%2C+Hess%2C+and+the+Duke+of+Windsor&rft.place=London&rft.pub=R.+Hale&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7090-1294-8&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCostello1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">Costello, John</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tendaysthatsaved0000cost">Ten Days that Saved the West</a>. London: Bantam. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-01919-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-01919-1"><bdi>978-0-593-01919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ten+Days+that+Saved+the+West&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bantam&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-593-01919-1&rft.aulast=Costello&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftendaysthatsaved0000cost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas-Hamilton1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas-Hamilton,_Baron_Selkirk_of_Douglas" title="James Douglas-Hamilton, Baron Selkirk of Douglas">Douglas-Hamilton, James</a> (1979). Motive for a Mission: The Story Behind Rudolf Hess's Flight to Britain. Edinburgh: Mainstream. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906391-05-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906391-05-1"><bdi>978-0-906391-05-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motive+for+a+Mission%3A+The+Story+Behind+Rudolf+Hess%27s+Flight+to+Britain&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Mainstream&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-906391-05-1&rft.aulast=Douglas-Hamilton&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaiger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Haiger, Ernst (2006). "Fiction, Facts, and Forgeries: The 'Revelations' of Peter and Martin Allen about the History of the Second World War". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Intelligence_History" title="Journal of Intelligence History">Journal of Intelligence History</a>. 6 (1): 105–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F16161262.2006.10555127">10.1080/16161262.2006.10555127</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161410964">161410964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intelligence+History&rft.atitle=Fiction%2C+Facts%2C+and+Forgeries%3A+The+%27Revelations%27+of+Peter+and+Martin+Allen+about+the+History+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F16161262.2006.10555127&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161410964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haiger&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHessHess1954" class="citation book cs1">Hess, Rudolf; Hess, Ilse (1954). Prisoner of Peace. London: Britons. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1302579">1302579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prisoner+of+Peace&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Britons&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1302579&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft.au=Hess%2C+Ilse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton1971" class="citation book cs1">Hutton, Joseph Bernard (1971). Hess: The Man and His Mission. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/126879">126879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hess%3A+The+Man+and+His+Mission&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F126879&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Tissier1994" class="citation book cs1">Le Tissier, Tony (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/farewelltospanda0000leti">Farewell to Spandau</a>. Leatherhead: Ashford, Buchan & Enright. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85253-314-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85253-314-4"><bdi>978-1-85253-314-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Farewell+to+Spandau&rft.place=Leatherhead&rft.pub=Ashford%2C+Buchan+%26+Enright&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85253-314-4&rft.aulast=Le+Tissier&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffarewelltospanda0000leti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeasor1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Leasor" title="James Leasor">Leasor, James</a> (1962). Rudolf Hess: The Uninvited Envoy. London: Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1373664">1373664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rudolf+Hess%3A+The+Uninvited+Envoy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1373664&rft.aulast=Leasor&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadfield1991" class="citation book cs1">Padfield, Peter (1991). Hess: Flight for the Führer. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-81181-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-81181-7"><bdi>978-0-297-81181-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hess%3A+Flight+for+the+F%C3%BChrer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-297-81181-7&rft.aulast=Padfield&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReesDicks1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Rees" class="mw-redirect" title="John R. Rees">Rees, John R</a>; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Victor_Dicks" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Victor Dicks">Dicks, Henry Victor</a> (1948). The Case of Rudolf Hess: A Problem in Diagnosis and Forensic Psychiatry. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1038757">1038757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Case+of+Rudolf+Hess%3A+A+Problem+in+Diagnosis+and+Forensic+Psychiatry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1038757&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=John+R&rft.au=Dicks%2C+Henry+Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1979" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, W. Hugh (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/murderofrudolfhe00thom">The Murder of Rudolf Hess</a>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014251-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014251-3"><bdi>978-0-06-014251-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Murder+of+Rudolf+Hess&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-06-014251-3&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=W.+Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmurderofrudolfhe00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarzwäller1988" class="citation book cs1">Schwarzwäller, Wulf (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rudolphhesslastn00schw">Rudolf Hess: the Last Nazi</a>. Bethesda, Md: National Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-915765-52-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-915765-52-2"><bdi>978-0-915765-52-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rudolf+Hess%3A+the+Last+Nazi&rft.place=Bethesda%2C+Md&rft.pub=National+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-915765-52-2&rft.aulast=Schwarzw%C3%A4ller&rft.aufirst=Wulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frudolphhesslastn00schw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" class="extiw" title="commons:Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rudolf_Hess" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210512014904/http://www.thule-italia.net/dossier/hess2.htm">Rudolf Hess autopsy results</a> (Italian and English)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/reported-statement-by-hess-2508875">"Reported statement by Hess"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Scotsman" title="The Scotsman">The Scotsman</a>. <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Press" title="Johnston Press">Johnston Press</a>. 14 February 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scotsman&rft.atitle=Reported+statement+by+Hess&rft.date=2005-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotsman.com%2Fwhats-on%2Farts-and-entertainment%2Freported-statement-by-hess-2508875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arcre.com/archives/74-hess">'The Facts about Rudolf Hess'</a>, a transcript of a British Foreign Office report on Rudolf Hess's capture and subsequent interrogations. National Archives file # FO 371/34484.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2011" class="citation journal cs1">Fox, Jo (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/9794/1/9794.pdf">"Propaganda and the Flight of Rudolf Hess, 1941–45"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>. 83 (1): 78–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F658050">10.1086/658050</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/658050">658050</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154294679">154294679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Propaganda+and+the+Flight+of+Rudolf+Hess%2C+1941%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E78-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154294679%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F658050%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F658050&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F9794%2F1%2F9794.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Hess" class="Z3988"> (subscription required)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/007739">Newspaper clippings about Rudolf Hess</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nazi_Party124" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NSDAP" title="Template:NSDAP"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NSDAP" title="Template talk:NSDAP"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:NSDAP" title="Special:EditPage/Template:NSDAP"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nazi_Party124" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrer" title="Führer">Leader</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Drexler" title="Anton Drexler">Anton Drexler</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1921–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Adolf Hitler's rise to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_House,_Munich" title="Brown House, Munich">Brown House, Munich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Workers%27_Party" title="German Workers' Party">German Workers' Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Program" title="National Socialist Program">National Socialist Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">Night of the Long Knives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_rallies" title="Nuremberg rallies">Nuremberg rallies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6hm_scandal" title="Röhm scandal">Röhm scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">SA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_Society" title="Thule Society">Thule Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Party offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amt_Rosenberg" title="Amt Rosenberg">Amt Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_Chancellery" title="Hitler's Chancellery">Hitler's Chancellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party_Chancellery" title="Nazi Party Chancellery">Nazi Party Chancellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSDAP_Office_of_Colonial_Policy" title="NSDAP Office of Colonial Policy">Office of Colonial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSDAP_Office_of_Military_Policy" title="NSDAP Office of Military Policy">Office of Military Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party_Office_of_Racial_Policy" title="Nazi Party Office of Racial Policy">Office of Racial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSDAP_Office_of_Foreign_Affairs" title="NSDAP Office of Foreign Affairs">Office of Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party/Foreign_Organization" title="Nazi Party/Foreign Organization">NSDAP/AO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Education_Office" title="SS Education Office">SS Education Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter" title="Völkischer Beobachter">Völkischer Beobachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Schwarze_Korps" title="Das Schwarze Korps">Das Schwarze Korps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Reich_(newspaper)" title="Das Reich (newspaper)">Das Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innviertler_Heimatblatt" title="Innviertler Heimatblatt">Innviertler Heimatblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitertum" title="Arbeitertum">Arbeitertum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Der_Angriff" title="Der Angriff">Der Angriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panzerb%C3%A4r" title="Panzerbär">Panzerbär</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Der_St%C3%BCrmer" title="Der Stürmer">Der Stürmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampfverlag" title="Kampfverlag">Kampfverlag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazis" title="List of Nazis">Notable members</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Axmann" title="Artur Axmann">Artur Axmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Daluege" title="Kurt Daluege">Kurt Daluege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Walther_Darr%C3%A9" title="Richard Walther Darré">Richard Walther Darré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Diels" title="Rudolf Diels">Rudolf Diels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Eckart" title="Dietrich Eckart">Dietrich Eckart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Freisler" title="Roland Freisler">Roland Freisler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Hanfstaengl" title="Ernst Hanfstaengl">Ernst Hanfstaengl</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rudolf Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_H%C3%B6ss" title="Rudolf Höss">Rudolf Höss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ley" title="Robert Ley">Robert Ley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Mengele" title="Josef Mengele">Josef Mengele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Ernst Röhm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Rust" title="Bernhard Rust">Bernhard Rust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Todt" title="Fritz Todt">Fritz Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">Baldur von Schirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Strasser" title="Gregor Strasser">Gregor Strasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Strasser" title="Otto Strasser">Otto Strasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Front" title="Black Front">Black Front</a> (<a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a>) / <a href="/wiki/German_Social_Union_(West_Germany)" title="German Social Union (West Germany)">German Social Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Reichspartei" title="Deutsche Reichspartei">Deutsche Reichspartei</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Homeland_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Homeland (Germany)">The Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Reich_Party" title="Socialist Reich Party">Socialist Reich Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler_Schools" title="Adolf Hitler Schools">Adolf Hitler Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Documentation_Centre_for_the_History_of_National_Socialism" title="Munich Documentation Centre for the History of National Socialism">Munich Documentation Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Political_Institutes_of_Education" title="National Political Institutes of Education">National Political Institutes of Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_songs" title="Nazi songs">Nazi songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horst-Wessel-Lied" title="Horst-Wessel-Lied">Horst-Wessel-Lied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranks_and_insignia_of_the_Nazi_Party" title="Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party">Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_branch_of_the_Nazi_Party" title="Samoan branch of the Nazi Party">Samoan branch of the Nazi Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nazism434" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nazism" title="Template:Nazism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nazism" title="Template talk:Nazism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nazism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nazism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nazism434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahnenerbe" title="Ahnenerbe">Ahnenerbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaman_League" title="Artaman League">Artaman League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Geheime Staatspolizei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Fichte-Bund" title="Deutscher Fichte-Bund">Deutscher Fichte-Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Jungvolk" title="Deutsches Jungvolk">Deutsches Jungvolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Eher_Nachfolger" title="Franz Eher Nachfolger">Franz Eher Nachfolger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_German_Girls" title="League of German Girls">League of German Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_Todt" title="Organisation Todt">Organisation Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Doctors%27_League" title="National Socialist German Doctors' League">NSDÄB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Students%27_League" title="National Socialist German Students' League">NSDStB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_League_of_the_Reich_for_Physical_Exercise" title="National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise">NSRL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Flyers_Corps" title="National Socialist Flyers Corps">NSFK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Motor_Corps" title="National Socialist Motor Corps">NSKK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Women%27s_League" title="National Socialist Women's League">NSF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Nazi media organizations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalsozialistische_Monatshefte" title="Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte">Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Volk" title="Neues Volk">Neues Volk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS-Frauen-Warte" title="NS-Frauen-Warte">NS-Frauen-Warte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Reich_(newspaper)" title="Das Reich (newspaper)">Das Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Schwarze_Korps" title="Das Schwarze Korps">Das Schwarze Korps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">Sturmabteilung</a> (SA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> (SS) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Gefolge_(Women%27s_SS_Division)" title="SS-Gefolge (Women's SS Division)">SS Gefolge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany#History" title="Nazi Germany">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_timeline_of_Nazism" title="Early timeline of Nazism">Early timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Program" title="National Socialist Program">National Socialist Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Hitler's rise to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power#Seizure_of_control_(1931–1933)" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Machtergreifung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_rearmament" title="German rearmament">German rearmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Kirchenkampf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Adolf Hitler's cult of personality">Adolf Hitler's cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">Night of the Long Knives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_rallies" title="Nuremberg rallies">Nuremberg rallies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938%E2%80%931939_German_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet">1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <a href="/wiki/Final_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Final solution">Final solution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">Deportations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_Trial" title="Doctors' Trial">Doctors' Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Labour camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Germany" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazism#Ideology_and_programme" title="Nazism">Ideology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology#Socialism_and_communism" title="Fascism and ideology">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism#Fascism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology#Liberalism" title="Fascism and ideology">Anti-liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism#Criticism" title="Pacifism">Anti-pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_and_soil" title="Blood and soil">Blood and soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolchsto%C3%9Flegende" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolchstoßlegende">Dolchstoßlegende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Judeo-Bolshevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">Führerprinzip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik">Geopolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimat" title="Heimat">Heimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="German imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Germanic_Reich" title="Greater Germanic Reich">Greater Germanic Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich" title="Heim ins Reich">Heim ins Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_militarism" title="German militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palingenetic_ultranationalism" title="Palingenetic ultranationalism">Palingenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_nationalism" title="Revolutionary nationalism">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Man_(utopian_concept)#Fascist" title="New Man (utopian concept)">New Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Nazism)" title="New Order (Nazism)">New Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">One-party state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussianism" title="Prussianism">Prussianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Anti-Slavic sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race#Nazism_and_Neo-Nazism" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Master race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Indo-Germanic_People#The_Third_Reich,_successor_of_the_Indogermans" title="Nordic Indo-Germanic People">Nordic Indo-Germanic people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renordification" title="Renordification">Renordification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassenschande" title="Rassenschande">Rassenschande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermenschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Untermenschen">Untermenschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_equality" title="Völkisch equality">Völkisch equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism#Nazism,_eugenics,_fascism,_imperialism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_interventionism" title="Social interventionism">Social interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgemeinschaft" title="Volksgemeinschaft">Volksgemeinschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volk_ohne_Raum" title="Volk ohne Raum">Volk ohne Raum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksk%C3%B6rper" title="Volkskörper">Volkskörper</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_Party_leaders_and_officials" title="List of Nazi Party leaders and officials">Politicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A4the_Bierbaumer" title="Käthe Bierbaumer">Bierbaumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Julius_Bloem" title="Walter Julius Bloem">Bloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Bormann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Daluege" title="Kurt Daluege">Daluege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Dönitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Drexler" title="Anton Drexler">Drexler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Eichmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Esser" title="Hermann Esser">Esser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fischer" title="Eugen Fischer">Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Frick</a></li> <li>Hess</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Heydrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Goebbels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Göring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Keller" title="Carlos Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Lammers" title="Hans Lammers">Lammers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Lutze" title="Viktor Lutze">Lutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Mitford" title="Unity Mitford">Mitford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">von Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidkun_Quisling#Head_of_the_government" title="Vidkun Quisling">Quisling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">von Ribbentrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Röhm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht#Involvement_with_the_NSDAP_(Nazi_Party)_and_government" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Schacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">von Schirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrud_Scholtz-Klink" title="Gertrud Scholtz-Klink">Scholtz-Klink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Seldte" title="Franz Seldte">Seldte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Seyss-Inquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Speer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Strasser" title="Gregor Strasser">Strasser (Gregor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Strasser" title="Otto Strasser">Strasser (Otto)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Streicher</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nazis" title="Category:Nazis">Ideologues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> Pre-Machtergreifung <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Moritz_Arndt" title="Ernst Moritz Arndt">Arndt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile-Louis_Burnouf" title="Émile-Louis Burnouf">Burnouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Drumont" title="Édouard Drumont">Drumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Eckart" title="Dietrich Eckart">Eckart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Fritsch" title="Theodor Fritsch">Fritsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">de Gobineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Lanz_von_Liebenfels" title="Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels">von Liebenfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_von_List" title="Guido von List">von List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_L%C3%B6ns#Reception_in_National_Socialist_Germany" title="Hermann Löns">Löns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Lueger" title="Karl Lueger">Lueger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marr" title="Wilhelm Marr">Marr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche#Nietzsche_and_fascism" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ratzel#Writings" title="Friedrich Ratzel">Ratzel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Riehl" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl">Riehl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin#Politics_and_critique_of_political_economy" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner#Views" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li></ul> Post-Machtergreifung <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Anacker" title="Heinrich Anacker">Anacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Baeumler" title="Alfred Baeumler">Baeumler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bergmann_(philosopher)" title="Ernst Bergmann (philosopher)">Bergmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Ingemar_Berndt" title="Alfred-Ingemar Berndt">Berndt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Walther_Darr%C3%A9" title="Richard Walther Darré">Darré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Eggers" title="Kurt Eggers">Eggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Eichrodt" title="Walther Eichrodt">Eichrodt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Feder" title="Gottfried Feder">Feder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford#Antisemitism_and_The_Dearborn_Independent" title="Henry Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Grimm" title="Hans Grimm">Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Günther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Wilhelm_Hauer" title="Jakob Wilhelm Hauer">Hauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Haushofer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger_and_Nazism" title="Martin Heidegger and Nazism">Heidegger</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willibald_Hentschel" title="Willibald Hentschel">Hentschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hoche" title="Alfred Hoche">Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Ties_with_the_Axis_Powers_during_World_War_II" title="Amin al-Husseini">al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jung" title="Rudolf Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krannhals" title="Paul Krannhals">Krannhals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Krieck" title="Ernst Krieck">Kriek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh#Antisemitism_and_views_on_race" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_M%C3%BCller" title="Ludwig Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Plenge" title="Johann Plenge">Plenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Rahn" title="Otto Rahn">Rahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoun_Saadeh" title="Antoun Saadeh">Saadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Ernst Schäfer">Schäfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Schmalenbach" title="Herman Schmalenbach">Schmalenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a> (contentious)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Sebottendorf" title="Rudolf von Sebottendorf">von Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Schwarz_(philosopher)" title="Hermann Schwarz (philosopher)">Schwarz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Stapel" title="Wilhelm Stapel">Stapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giselher_Wirsing" title="Giselher Wirsing">Wirsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Zimmermann" title="Ferdinand Zimmermann">Zimmermann</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nazi_war_crimes" title="Category:Nazi war crimes">Atrocities and war crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Action T4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani genocide</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outside Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_the_Americas" title="Nazism in the Americas">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Brazil" title="Nazism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Chile" title="Nazism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Nazism_in_Greece" title="Template:Nazism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_in_Sweden" title="Nazism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nazi_parties" title="Category:Nazi parties">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nazi_Party" title="American Nazi Party">American Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_Cross_Party" title="Arrow Cross Party">Arrow Cross Party (Hungary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_American_Bund" title="German American Bund">German American Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_National_Movement_in_Liechtenstein" title="German National Movement in Liechtenstein">German National Movement in Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotlebists_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party_Our_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia">Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasjonal_Samling" title="Nasjonal Samling">Nasjonal Samling (Norway)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands">National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_of_Chile" title="National Socialist Movement of Chile">National Socialist Movement of Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Movement_(United_States)" title="National Socialist Movement (United States)">National Socialist Movement (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Workers%27_Party_of_Denmark" title="National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark">National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Resistance_Movement" title="Nordic Resistance Movement">Nordic Resistance Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewabrandwag (South Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_Movement" title="Republic Movement">Republic Movement (Slovakia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUMKA" title="SUMKA">SUMKA (Iran)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas (Mongolia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Union_of_National_Socialists" title="World Union of National Socialists">World Union of National Socialists</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Bibliography of Adolf Hitler">Bibliography of Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ideologues" title="List of Nazi ideologues">Nazi ideologues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_Party_leaders_and_officials" title="List of Nazi Party leaders and officials">NSDAP leaders and officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazis" title="List of Nazis">Nazi Party members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_people_suspected_of_participation_in_Nazi_war_crimes" title="List of last surviving people suspected of participation in Nazi war crimes">Last surviving war crime suspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ideologues" title="List of Nazi ideologues">Party ideologues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches_given_by_Adolf_Hitler" title="List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler">Speeches given by Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_SS_personnel" title="List of SS personnel">SS personnel</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Role and impact in German society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_the_Wehrmacht" title="Nazism and the Wehrmacht">The Wehrmacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Economy of Nazi Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_German_nobility_in_the_Nazi_Party" title="Former German nobility in the Nazi Party">Nobility</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bolshevist_League#Historical_interpretation" title="Anti-Bolshevist League">Anti-Bolshevist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Art in Nazi Germany">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema" title="Nazism and cinema">Cinema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ats%C4%B1zism" title="Atsızism">Atsızism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Beefsteak_Nazi" title="Beefsteak Nazi">Beefsteak Nazi</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Economy of Nazi Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denordification" title="Denordification">Denordification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renordification" title="Renordification">Renordification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Glossary of Nazi Germany">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten" title="Drang nach Osten">Drang nach Osten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_American_Bund" title="German American Bund">German American Bund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst-Wessel-Lied" title="Horst-Wessel-Lied">Horst-Wessel-Lied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Political views of Adolf Hitler">Political views of Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_propaganda_and_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nazi propaganda and the United Kingdom">Nazi propaganda and the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_theories" title="Nazi racial theories">Racial theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Women in Nazi Germany">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nazism" title="Category:Nazism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Members_of_the_Hitler_Cabinet378" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hitler%27s_Cabinet" title="Template:Hitler's Cabinet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hitler%27s_Cabinet" title="Template talk:Hitler's Cabinet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hitler%27s_Cabinet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hitler's Cabinet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Members_of_the_Hitler_Cabinet378" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hitler_cabinet" title="Hitler cabinet">Members of the Hitler Cabinet</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Vice-Chancellor of Germany">Vice-Chancellor</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a></li> <li>Deputy Führer: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rudolf Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Reichstag" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Reichstag">President of the Reichstag</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:60em;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Armaments_and_War_Production" title="Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production">Armaments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Todt" title="Fritz Todt">Fritz Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Aviation_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany)">Aviation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Church Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanns_Kerrl" title="Hanns Kerrl">Hanns Kerrl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Muhs" title="Hermann Muhs">Hermann Muhs</a> (acting)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_for_the_Occupied_Eastern_Territories" title="Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories">Eastern Territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg" title="Alfred Hugenberg">Alfred Hugenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Schmitt" title="Kurt Schmitt">Kurt Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Hjalmar Schacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Ministry of Education">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Rust" title="Bernhard Rust">Bernhard Rust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lutz_Graf_Schwerin_von_Krosigk" title="Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk">Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Food_and_Agriculture" title="Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture">Food and Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg" title="Alfred Hugenberg">Alfred Hugenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Walther_Darr%C3%A9" title="Richard Walther Darré">Richard Walther Darré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Backe" title="Herbert Backe">Herbert Backe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Foreign Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Interior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Justice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franz_G%C3%BCrtner" title="Franz Gürtner">Franz Gürtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schlegelberger" title="Franz Schlegelberger">Franz Schlegelberger</a> (acting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Georg_Thierack" title="Otto Georg Thierack">Otto Georg Thierack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:60em;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Labour</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Seldte" title="Franz Seldte">Franz Seldte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Postal Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Freiherr_von_Eltz-R%C3%BCbenach" title="Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach">Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ohnesorge" title="Wilhelm Ohnesorge">Wilhelm Ohnesorge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda">Propaganda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Reichswehr" title="Ministry of the Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Blomberg" title="Werner von Blomberg">Werner von Blomberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Transport" title="Reich Ministry of Transport">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Freiherr_von_Eltz-R%C3%BCbenach" title="Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach">Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Dorpm%C3%BCller" title="Julius Dorpmüller">Julius Dorpmüller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio" title="Minister without portfolio">Reichsministers without portfolio</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rudolf Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Hierl" title="Konstantin Hierl">Konstantin Hierl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanns_Kerrl" title="Hanns Kerrl">Hanns Kerrl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Lammers" title="Hans Lammers">Hans Lammers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Ernst Röhm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Hjalmar Schacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Members granted rank & authority equivalent to a Reichsminister</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.15em 0;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_von_Brauchitsch" title="Walther von Brauchitsch">Walther von Brauchitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Hermann_Frank" title="Karl Hermann Frank">Karl Hermann Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Fritsch" title="Werner von Fritsch">Werner von Fritsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Meissner" title="Otto Meissner">Otto Meissner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reichsf%C3%BChrer_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichsführer SS">Reichsführer SS</a>: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabschef_SA" class="mw-redirect" title="Stabschef SA">Stabschef SA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Ernst Röhm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_defendants_at_the_Nuremberg_trials1748" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Major_defendants_at_the_Nuremberg_trials" title="Template:Major defendants at the Nuremberg trials"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Major_defendants_at_the_Nuremberg_trials" title="Template talk:Major defendants at the Nuremberg trials"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Major_defendants_at_the_Nuremberg_trials" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Major defendants at the Nuremberg trials"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_defendants_at_the_Nuremberg_trials1748" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major defendants at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_executions" title="Nuremberg executions">Sentenced to death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jodl" title="Alfred Jodl">Alfred Jodl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Sauckel" title="Fritz Sauckel">Fritz Sauckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Imprisoned (terms)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a> (10 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a> (life)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rudolf Hess</a> (life)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a> (15 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a> (life)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">Baldur von Schirach</a> (20 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> (20 years)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Acquitted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Fritzsche" title="Hans Fritzsche">Hans Fritzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Hjalmar Schacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">No decision</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Krupp_von_Bohlen_und_Halbach" title="Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach">Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ley" title="Robert Ley">Robert Ley</a>4</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><div style="font-size: 92%"> <ul><li>1 <a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">In absentia</a>. Remains discovered in Berlin in 1972 and conclusively identified in 1998; confirmed to have committed suicide on 2 May 1945</li> <li>2 Committed suicide on 15 October 1946 before sentence could be carried out</li> <li>3 Found unfit to stand trial</li> <li>4 Committed suicide on 25 October 1945</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/21px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/42px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/21px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/42px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75866#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3127" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75866#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3127" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75866#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/000000010858159X">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/64799191">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/39177/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJhGTthgj9hFyHT7DgRqcP">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11855039X">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79078096">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119391587">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119391587">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620822">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000700704&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1022869">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068842406">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90166938">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000316698&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=104650">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/wt7bjsjf3tc807l">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810564104005606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007262777005171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14314573">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03916711?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_11855039X">FID</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1289519">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/11855039X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11855039X">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027324826">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10580987">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w66m34vw">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&oldid=1277536009">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Hess&oldid=1277536009</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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